GRICE ITALO A-Z C CH

 

Luigi Speranza -- Grice e Cherchi: la ragione conversazionale e implicatura sarda – filosofia sarda – scuola di Oschiri – filosofia sarda -filosofia italiana – Luigi Speranza, pel Gruppo di Gioco di H. P. Grice, The Swimming-Pool Library (Oschiri). Filosofo italiano. Filosofo sardo. Oschiri, Sassari, Sardegna. Grice: “Cherchi demonstrates that Jersey exists – if a philosopher is from Jersey we wouldn’t call him English – neither would he! Cherchi is from ‘Sardinia,’ and he philosophises mainly about that – which is very fun! My favourite of his tracts is one on the circle and the ellipse as it relates to Vinci’s ‘homo vitruviano.’ Anda a scuola al liceo Siotto Pintor a Cagliari. Placido Cherchi studiò a Cagliari con Ernesto De Martino e Corrado Maltese, interessandosi contemporaneamente di studi e problemi etno-antropologici e storico artistici. Come autore di importanti lavori sul pensiero di Ernesto De Martino e sui problemi dell'identità e della cultura sarda, fu un membro attivo della Scuola antropologica di Cagliari, dovuta alla presenza all'Cagliari di maestri come Ernesto de Martino e Alberto Mario Cirese, come pure di loro allievi quali Clara Gallini, Giulio Angioni e lo stesso Cherchi.  Morì nel  all'età di 74 anni a causa di un'emorragia cerebrale. Altre opere: “Paul Klee teorico, De Donato, Bari); Sciola, percorsi materici, Stef, Cagliari); “Pittura e mito in Giovanni Nonnis, Alfa, Quartu S.E.); Nivola, Ilisso, Nuoro); C.  Martino: dalla crisi della presenza alla comunità umana, Liguori, Napoli); “Il signore del limite: tre variazioni critiche su Martino, Liguori, Napoli); “Il peso dell'ombra: l'etnocentrismo critico di Ernesto De Martino e il problema dell'autocoscienza culturale, Liguori, Napoli); “Etnos e apocalisse: mutamento e crisi nella cultura sarda e in altre culture periferiche, Zonza, Sestu); “Manifesto della gioventù eretica del comunitarismo e della Confederazione politica dei circoli, organizzazione non-partitica dei sardi, coautori Francesco Masala ed Eliseo Spiga, Zonza, Sestu); “Il recupero del significato: dall'utopia all'identità nella cultura figurativa sarda, Zonza, Sestu); “Crais: su alcune pieghe profonde dell'identità, Zonza, Sestu); “Il cerchio e l’ellisse. Etnopsichiatria e antropologia religiosa in Ernesto De Martino: le dialettiche risolventi dell’autocritica, Aìsara); “La riscrittura oltrepassante, Calimera, Curumuny); “Per un’identità critica. Alcune incursioni auto-analitiche nel mondo identitario dei sardi” (Arkadia. Silvano Tagliagambe:   Giulio Angioni, Una scuola sarda di antropologia?, in  (Luciano Marrocu, Francesco Bachis, Valeria Deplano), La Sardegna contemporanea. Idee, luoghi, processi culturali, Roma, Donzelli,, 649-663  Addio a C., il ricordo di Angioni: "Fu ideologo del neo sardismo" Archiviato in. Notizie. tiscali  È morto Placido Cherchi, vicepresidente della Fondazione Sardinia Fondazione sardinia.eu  Scuola antropologica di Cagliari Ernesto de Martino  Angioni, In morte di C., sito "il manifesto sardo". Carta, Che cosa è C.? Due o tre cose, per decidere di essere sardi Po arregordai a C. Enrico Lobina, su enricolobina.org. Silvano Tagliagambe, L'eredità preziosa di C.  La colonizzazione e la penetrazione romana nell'isola furono oltremodo intense e  furono facilitate da affinità di razza, per cui si  può dire che lo spirito latino g-iunse nell'intimo  dell'anima del popolo sardo.  Pinza, IMonuineiiti prUìiHivi della Sardegna in Monumenti Antichi, pubblicati per cura  della Reale Accademia dei Lincei. Taramelli, nel recente lavoro sulla questione nu-  ragica (Arch. Stor. Sardo), ritiene che il carattere prevalentemente guerresco  della schiatta sarda, l'accanimento delle lotte interne dapprima, poi con lo straniero invasore,  abbiano nuociuto allo sviluppo artistico, che in germe aveva la stessa disposizione che presso  altre genti del Mediterraneo. Quando le legioni romane, in seguito alle  fiere lotte sostenute contro i montanari Olaesi  o Iliesi ebbero assoluta padronanza dell'intera  isola, l'arte sarda scomparì con questa che può  definirsi l'ultima ribellione dell'antica civiltà  nuragica, e di essa non rimasero che vaghe reminiscenze presso gli artefici più umili, le quali  perdurarono attraverso il medio evo fino ai nostri  giorni.   Nel periodo glorioso dell'impero romano la  fusione fra l'elemento latino ed indigeno fu così  intima da potersi asserire che le nostre sono  manifestazioni della civiltà derivante da Roma;  le grandi opere pubbliche mostrano una regione  che assurse ad alto grado di fiorimento civile ed  economico; non v'è paese, né plaga nell'isola  che non abbiano traccia dell'opera meravigliosa  svolta dai Romani. Nelle regioni più inaccessibili,  in quella stessa Barbagia che raccolse gli ultimi  difensori della civiltà indigena, e che mostrossi. Statuetta preistorica  1 Museo di Casa;! i a  sempre indomita e ribelle  ad ogni forma di potere,  sono strade, ponti, ed altri  segni palesanti ima florida  colonizzazione romana,  tanto intensa da perdiu-are  in molte manifestazioni e  iiello stesso linguaggio,  attraverso secoli di bar-  barie e di dominazione. Oreficeria punica nel Museo di Cagliari. gran parte Nello sfasciarsi della romana potenza lo spirito conservatore delle  genti sarde custodì gelosamente la bella tradizione latina. Mentre nel  tempo che segnò il passaggio dall'evo antico all'evo medio,  d'Italia, come scrive Solmi, soggiacque a una  lunga, trasformativa dominazione germanica, la  Sardegna fu invece fra le scarse regioni italiane  che ne restarono quasi pienamente immuni, dando  così un nuovo, singolare atteggiamento alla sua  storia, che fu lenta e spontanea elaborazione degli  elementi indigeni e latini. La furia distruggitrice della conquista vanda-  lica, assai breve e poco estesa, non lasciò traccia  alcuna d'arte e di vita e paralizzò quell'ascensione  alle più nobili conquiste, che la Sardegna avea  iniziato con la signoria di Roma. Una completa oscurità avvolge in questo fu-  nesto periodo ogni azione isolana, che non siano  le fasi di quelle guerre che dilaniarono l'isola. Tur-  bini di barbarie la dovettero ridurre in un vasto  campo funebre e quando cessarono le irruenze  degli invasori, l'opera degli architetti e degli ar-  tisti si svolse come se nel naufragio delle romanità  questi avessero perduto la memoria d'ogni bella  forma.  La conquista di Belisario ed il riordinamento  amministrativo di GIUSTINIANO, assicurando la Sardegna al dominio degli imperatori d'Oriente, consentirono lo spontaneo sviluppo degli elementi  latini.   Artehci che trassero la loro arte da Bisanzio  svolsero nell'isola quell'architettura, che derivò da  armonica fusione di forme orientali e di bellezze   classiche, sparse quest'ultime con profusione nella terra che vide erigere  l'Acropoli e scolpire la X'enere di Milo. Furono greci gli artisti che scol-  Statuetta ienicia  nel Museo di Cagliari.  fase. Arrigo Solmi, La Sardegna e gli studi storici wnW Arcìiivio Storico Sarda, Cagliari, Dessi. pirone bassorilievi, iscrizioni ed altre forme ornamentali, che recenti  indagini hanno messo in evidenza e che sistematiche ricerche renderanno  indubbiamente tanto copiose da darci modo di determinare entro limiti  detiniti l'influenza artistica che Bisanzio svolse nell'isola dandole carattere  e forme stilisticamente rilevanti.   ampacla cristiana rinv  Chic a di S. Giovanili tli Siiiis in territorio di Cabras nell'antica Tarros. L'arte romana per opera di greci artefici divenne arte bizantina, la  (jLiale rappresenta non un nuovo stile, ma ima trasformazione dello spirito  latino a contatto delle forme orientali. F.d in Ravenna, in Grado, in Sicilia,  nelle Puglie sorsero quelli edifici, rudi e disadorni all'esterno, che inter-  namente brillano di ricchi mosaici, in cui l'oro e le gemme preziose  sfaccettano in mille raggi la tenue luce diffondentesi dalle arcuate finestre. Anche nella nostra isola dovettero svolgersi queste forme architettoniche giacché dal primo trentennio del secolo VI e per non breve corso  di tempo la Sardegna fu una provincia dell'impero di Bisanzio.   Xè questa signoria fu solo nominale, ma tanto si compenetrò nella  vita e nelle istituzioni che l'infiuenza greca nel linguaggio, nella diplomatica, nel dritto apparisce evidente anche nel secolo XI, quando la  Sardegna erasi già sottratta di nome e di fatto al dominio degli imperatori di Oriente e ne reggevano le sorti da più che un secolo i regoli o giudici nazionali. La nostra cattedrale conserva in una sua cappella una Madonna, splendente d'oro e di bellezza. Intorno ad essa fiorisce una fine e pia  leggenda, comune del resto a molti altri antichi simulacri d'Italia. Vuoisi che la vaga madonnina sia stata scolpita da S. Luca e da  Costantinopoli trasportata a cura del Cagliaritano Eusebio, vescovo di  Vercelli, alla città di Cagliari, con nave guidata da una corte di angeli  e di cherubini. Il simulacro è indubbiamente opera del XIV secolo, ma  la tenue leggenda può interpretarsi come un poetico simbolo del tra- [Stele puniclie nel Museo di Cagliari.] piantarsi dell'ellenismo nell'isola, perpetuato dal nostro popolo attraverso  gli oggetti suoi pili cari.   Ed infatti molti frammenti decorativi ed epigrafici nonché parecchi  edifici attestano dell'inlluenza dei costruttori bizantini neh' architettura  dell'alto medio evo in Sardegna. Tale è la Chiesa di S. Giovanni di Sinis, nell'agro di Cabras in  vicinanza ad Oristano e presso le rovine dell'antica e fiorente città di artp: preromanica Tarros. Le origini e le vicende di questa  chiesa ci sono ignote; si volle veder in  essa la cattedrale di Tarros cristiana, ma  ciò non è che una congettura, giacché  nessun documento veramente ineccepibile ci dice quando la città venne  abbandonata e se essa perdurò fino all'epoca che gli elementi costruttivi e  stilistici permettono d'assegnare all'antico tempio. L'aver i presuli d'Oristano  assunto il titolo di abate di S. Giovanni  di Sinis fa presumere che a questa  chiesa originariamente fosse annesso  un monastero. Essa presentemente è a tre navate  Testa di irrito rin\enuta in Cagliari Punica. coperta da volta a botte e comunicante per mezzo di arcate poggianti  su massicci pilastri. Anche i due muri  |jerimetrali e laterali hanno la struttura a pilastri ed archi, chiusi questi  ultimi posteriormente. Il prospetto, sormontato da im  frontone che segue l'andamento della  volta a botte, non ha ornamentazione  alcuna e la porta che in esso è aperta  è rettangolare, semplicemente contornata da una fascia di marmo. La navata centrale è terminata  da un'abside circolare e sopra le ul- JNIaschera rinvenuta in Tarros Punica. D. SCANO   storia dell' Ai le in Sardegna. time quattro pilastrate si svolge il tamburo, sostenente la piccola volta  a bacino, costituente la cupola.   La forma di questa chiesa è basilicale e non differenzia da quelle  di tante altre chiese medioevali sarde, del XI o XII secolo, se non  che alcune forme costruttive come la cupola e la volta a botte inducono a ritenere che originariamente dovea avere tutt' altra struttura.   Mancando ogni qualsiasi elemento decorativo, giacché la chiesa ha  le pareti nude senza frammenti di pittura, di scultura o di semplice ornamentazione, che di solito guidano lo  studioso nei riscontri stilistici, procedetti per identificare le forme  primitive ad un esame tecnico delle  parti architettoniche. I risultati confermarono la  prima impressione, giacché potei riscontrare: La volta che copre la  navata centrale è relativamente moderna;   I muri della navata centrale e delle navatelle furono eretti  posteriormente al nucleo centrale,  su cui poggia il cupolino. Della struttura originaria  della Chiesa non resta che detto  nucleo centrale e le braccia trasversali.   Ridotte in tal modo le parti  originarie ed eliminate le aggiunte posteriori è facile completare l'iconografia primitiva, partita in quattro braccia a modo di croce, che s'intersecano secondo quattro piloni sostenenti il tamburo su cui poggia  la cupola per mezzo di quattro pennacchi. Di più i piloni hanno gli  angoli rientranti in modo da permettere il collocamento in dette pilastrate  di quattro colonne, che ora più non esistono. Questa particolarità costruttiva è degna di nota, giacche la ritroveremo in altra chiesa, colla  quale S. Giovanni di Sinis presenta molte affinità.   Nei muri terminali delle braccia trasversali della croce sono aperte  i nnvc-mita 111 Cai^l  influenza greca).  iri l'ui due finestre bifore, in cui la colonnina è sostituita da un semplice pilastrino in pietra da taglio senza capitello e senza base. Abbiamo la forma  iniziale di quelle bifore, che posteriormente vennero rese più eleganti e più svelte dalle colonnine col pulvino, permettente agli archi un'imposta  corrispondente allo spessore della muraglia. Questa forma arcaica conferma l'origine pre-romanica di S. Giovanni di Sinis. Alle forme costruttive  di questa chiesa dovettero  infiuire le catacombe di  S. Salvatore, le quali ne  distano circa quattro chilometri. Queste catacombe  poste presso ad alcune rovine romane, malgrado non  siano state ancora ne studiate, né menzionate, sono  interessantissime e costituiscono il più pregevole ed  interessante monumento  isolano dei primi tempi del  cristianesimo. La chiesetta soprasuolo è relativamente moderna e non presenta niente  d' interessante . Ai sotterranei s'accede mediante  una gradinata svolgentesi  in uno stretto passaggio  coperto da un voltino a   botte. In quell'andito sono aperte due porte, una di fronte all'altra, per le  quali si perviene a due camere rettangolari di m. 4,30 X 3,26 ciascuna,  coperte ancor esse con volte a botte. Lo stretto passaggio fa capo ad un  vano circolare, coperto da volta a bacino ed illuminato dall'alto, che  costituisce il nucleo centrale delle catacombe, comunicando esso con altre  due camere laterali terminate da absidi e con altra circolare, che è l'ultima [Busto di  a rinveiiutu in Tarros Punica  influenza jj;reca). dell'edificio sotterraneo. Si ha una disposizione planimetrica, che ricorda  i più antichi edifici cristiani: la struttura è prettamente romana con muratura di laterizi opportunamente collegata con altra di pietrame informe. Ceramica punica nel Museo di Caigliari. Le pareti delle diverse camere sono intonacate a stucco lucido, const'ivante tutt'ora traccia di antiche pitture. Più che pitture sono schi/zi, Sarcofago romano nel Museo di Cagliari.figure eseguite a caso, alcune abilmente, altre con tecnica ed arte infantili. In ima parete di una camera absidale sono traccie di un gruppo  interessantissimo rappresentante una lotta fra un leone ed un uomo dalle  forme erculee. Nelle altre i)areti e; nell'abside della stessa camera sono schizzate alcune nax'i, due leoni, un Eros e diverse figure di donne delineate con maestria dal tipo classicamente pagano. Esse vennero eseguite  al di là di (iualun<[ue preoccu[)azione mistica e sono di gentile arte, piene  di grazia voluttuosa e di vita. L'na di esse dalle linee formose, che rievoca  la Venus (ìcnitri.w solleva con ima mano i veli che le coprono i turgidi  seni e le belle forme. l'"ra ([uesti schizzi e queste figure di donne ricorre sjx'sso il mouogramiua RI e sono intercalate frasi scritte in greco  corsivo, la di cui esatta interpretazione potrà portare non lieve luce sulle  origini di (|ueste forme pittoriche. Non un simbolo cristiano, non il  monogramma di Cristo che attestino la fede di chi rese nelle pareti, con [Sarcofajj:o romano nel Museo di Ca.sjliari. decise linee, figure voluttuose di belle donne. D'altra parte l'iconografia  dei sotterranei segue la disposizione delle prime chiesette cristiane specialmente nelle forme absidali delle due cappelle laterali e della camera terminale. E vero che nelle costruzioni cimiteriali più antiche le tetre muraglie  coprivansi di scene tratte dalla vita reale e molto spesso dalla mitologia  pagana tanto che nelle catacombe di Pri.scilla e di Domitilla, nelle quali meglio che altrove si possono studiare le origini della pittura primitiva  cristiana, cjuesta è stranamente impregnata di paganesimo; ma se la tradizione è pagana, nell'antica forma l'arte si penetra di spirito cristiano.  Qui no, forma e spirito sono schiettamente inspirate al paganesimo più  libero e più licenzioso.  Statua di Bacco rinvenuta In Cagliari. Queste contradizioni non permettono ora di poter dare un sicuro  o^iudizio su questo interessantissimo monumento: forse l'ipotesi che più  concilia ((ueste forme cozzanti tra loro è quella dell'orij^i'ine pagana dei  sotterranei, costrutti ed usati come carceri e poscia serviti come rifugio  nei primi tempi del cristianesimo. Con ciò si spiegherebbero la disposizione a celle, poste sotto il livello del suolo e gli schizzi delineati da  (jualche artista, che nel tedio della prigionia volle rievocare senza una  direttiva pittorica immagini impure e dar forma d'arte a sogni libertini.   Oualun([ue sia l'origine di queste, che vengono chiamate catacombe. è certo che esse furono nei primi secoli, forse nel IV^ secolo, adibite al culto cristiano. Non ritengo la costruzione cimiteriale, mancando qualsiasi indizio  di loculo o di pittura funeraria. Nel nucleo centrale è un pozzo, poco profondo, in cui è perenne  una fresca lama d'acqua. Questo può spiegare la destinazione che dai  primi cristiani venne data a questi sotterranei, qualunque sia la loro  origine. A mio parere essi dovettero servire di battistero in tempi di persecuzione. Infatti non è spiegabile con l'ordinario uso degli edifici di  culto la presenza del pozzo nella parte centrale della chiesa sotterranea.  Inoltre la poca profondità del fondo, la presenza ininterrotta di una  fresca lama d'acqua e le traccie di alcuni fori, per cui mediante tavole  potevano i convertiti scender s^nù nell'acqua, rendono attendibile questa destinazione, la quale ha molti riscontri e molte analogie colle prime  forme battisteriali.   Ai primi tempi del cristianesimo non aveasi altri battisteri che le  rive dei fiumi e le fontane. Ancor oggi nella prigione Mamertina a Roma ARTE PREROMANICA  esiste il [)ozzo miracoloso, in cui, secondo un'antica tradizione, S. Pietro  e S. I^iolo battezzarono i loro (guardiani. In alcuni battisteri ])riniiti\'i  rac(iua era fornita da pozzi come nelle catacomlje di S. balena o da sorbenti naturali come in ([uelle di Priscilla e di Callista. I*\i solo colla cessa/ione delle persecuzioni al tempo di COSTANTINO che si commcia a costrurre battisteri snò dio, editici s[)eciali, che non  differivano dalle chiese propriamente dette se non per la loro destinazione. La cripta di S. .Sahatore forse in oriu-ine ebbe altra inxocazione,  oiacchè era fre([uente dedicare i battisteri al precursore di Cristo. Ad  Avanzi di \ille romane in Cagliari.   ot^ni modo ciò che non |)U() essere messo in dul)bio si è che i sotterranei di S. Salvatore, per le forme costruttive, i)er le pitture e per le  iscrizioni costituiscono un monumento d'arte cristiana di rrancle interesse  e merita uno studio ampio e speciale più di (pianto io abbia fatto in questi  cenni brevi e riassuntivi.  L'oratorio di S. Giovanni d'Assemini fu ancor esso elevato con   forme costruttive bizantine, come può desumersi da un'attenta disamina. La più antica memoria riflettente questa chiesetta si conserva in un diploma dell'archivio Capitolare della Chiesa di S. Lorenzo di Genova,  con cui Trogotorio di Gunale, giudice di Cagliari, e suo figlio Costantino concedono nel 1108 alla Cattedrale di Genova la Chiesa di S. Giovanni e rinnovano la promessa annua di una libra d'oro: Ego Indice  Trogotori de Giinali cinti, filio meo doninu Costantini fazo dista carta  prò S. Ioaiinc de Arseiuin, qui dabo ad sancto Lanreìizio de lamia prò Deus et prò anima mca ecc. ecc. La facciata non ha niente di notevole ed è posteriore alla fondazione della Chiesa. Nell'interno due navate larghe m. 2,00 disimpegnano Idinha di Atilia Pnmptilla in Cagliari. per mezzo d'arcate quattro cappelle. All'incrocio delle due strette navate  formanti una croce greca a braccia eguali s'imposta sopra un tamburo  a sezione quadrata una piccola volta a bacino. Anche in questa chiesa dobbiamo distinguere il nucleo originario  dalle posteriori costruzioni; queste sono costituite dalle quattro cappelle,  che, coperte da un rozzo tetto a vista, sono appiccicature evidenti e per  la diversa struttura muraria e per non essere collegate organicamente ai  muri antichi. ToLA, Cod. Dipi.]  Eliminando queste aggiunte risultano in modestissime proporzioni le  stesse forme bizantine della chiesa di S. Giovanni di Sinis e di S. Saturnino in Cagliari. Nell'altare è murata un'iscrizione in caratteri greci, che porta imo  sprazzo di luce sulla chiesetta. E contornata da una doppia fascia di  perline in rilievo, che attesta come facesse parte di qualche monumento,  probabilmente sepolcrale, dedicato alle persone in essa ricordate. Trascrivo l'interpretazione fattane dal Prof. Taramelli:  Anlìteatro romano in Ca.uliari. O Signore, abbi pietà del tuo servo Torcotorio, arconte di Sardegna  e della serva Gè ti '.''Lo Spano ed il Martini ritennero  erroneamente come vedremo  in appresso  trattarsi del Torcotorio, che governò il giudicato di Cagliari e che donò la chiesa di S. Giovanni d'Assemini  al Duomo di Genova. A pochi metri dell'oratorio di S. Giovanni sorge la Chiesa Parrocchiale di S. Pietro, che contiene fra le sue mura alcuni frammenti decorativi bizantini e sulla soglia ha incisa la seguente inscrizione in carat- [Taramelli, Iscrizioni Bizantine della Chiesa di S. Giovanni e della Chiesa Parrocchiale d' Assemini in Notizie degli Scavi, fase. 3. teri greci, la quale ricorda probabilmente  l'erezione e la dedicazione di detta chiesa,  che è ancora oggi sotto l'invocazione di  S. Pietro:  In nome del Padre, del figlio e dello  Spirito Santo, io Nispella Ochote (costrusse il tempio) in onore dei Santi corifei  gli apostoli Pietro e Paolo e S. Giovanni  Battista e della l^ergine martire Barbara,  affinchè per le loro preghiere dia a me il  Signore la, liberazione dei peccati. Anche quest' iscrizione venne dallo  Spano attribuita al Torcotorio del XI se- [Erma bacchica di fronte.   In un mio studio sulla chiesa di  S. Saturnino di Cagliari trattando accidentalmente di queste epigrafi, le ritenni anteriori al mille. Infatti le lettere,  elegantemente incise, ed i pochi motivi  ornamentali sono sufficienti a determinare  forme stilistiche molto più antiche delle  romaniche del mille e dei secoli susseguenti. Inoltre la carica di protospathariìis, che si riscontra in un'altra iscrizione  coeva di Villasor, indica ancora una soggezione alla corte di Bisanzio non concepibile nel Torcotorio, che nei suoi atti ed in  ispecial modo nella donazione fatta ai  Testa di Sileno.(i| 1). SCANO, Im Cliicsa di S. Satuvìiiuo in Ihillrltiìio /ìiò/ioorajìco Sardo, \-o\. Ili, Cagliari, Unione Sarda. monaci di Monte Cassino esercita la sua podestà come CJiudice e Re  libero da ogni ingerenza anche nominale dell'impero. Un'altra considerazione distrugge l'attribuzione dello Spano e cioè il Torcotorio menzionato nell'iscrizione d'Assemini avea per moglie Nispella, mentre quello  del mille avea per consorte Vera, la pia donna, che indusse prima il  marito e poscia il figlio suo Costantino a larghe e ricche concessioni  verso gli ordini monastici ed in isj)ecial modo verso i monaci di S. Vittore di Marsiglia: Eoo iìidigi Trocodori de Ugnnali C(im imiliei'i mia  Doìnia \ 'era et cnui filin uieiL  noìiìiii Costaiitìjm '.Queste conclusioni vennero  confermate di recente dagli studi  dei Professori Solmi e Tarameli i,  che pervennero a risultati interessantissimi per la storia medioevale  della Sardegna. Negli scavi eseguiti venti anni  or sono dal Vivanet presso l'antica  chiesa di S. Nicolò di Donori  insieme ad interessanti resti di materiale epigrafico d'età romana,  vennero fuori frammenti decorativi  ed iscrizioni greche, che furono  oggetto di un recente ed interessante studio del Taramelli, che attribuì queste ultime ad iscrizioni  funerarie assai eleganti, di persone  elevate, probabilmente del IX o  X secolo. In una casa privata di Mara sono due bassorilievi marmorei, recanti  croci greche incluse in cerchi, di fattura l)izantina, e nel fianco della  chiesa parrocchiale è murata una piccola scultura marmorea molto corrosa, rappresentante una figura d'uomo vestite; di lunga tunica manicata,  figura che per quanto rovinata accenna ad epoche ed a forme bizantine.   Le iscrizioni della distrutta Chiesa di S. Sofia fra Decimoputzu e [Erma di Bacco \i.sta di fianco. [ToLA, Cud. Dipi. Sardo. Villasor presentano grande analogia coi frammenti di S. Giovanni di  Assemini e per la forma delle lettere e per la decorazione a perline. Faccio mie senz'altro le considerazioni esposte dal Taramelli nello  studio sovradetto: « Due delle iscrizioni sono sopra una coppia di mensole  « decorate da un ramoscello di fiori a voluta, alla loro estremità; l'altra  « più lunga è incisa sopra due robusti listelli di marmo, decorati da una  « doppia fascia di perline e nodetti, i quali come quello della iscrizione di S. Giovanni d'Assemini potevano far parte o della decorazione della porta o di un ambone  o d'altro monumento eretto in quella chiesa  « dalle persone ricordate  « dall'iscrizione e per il  « motivo decorativo come per lo stile ricordano il fregio dell'am« bone del Duomo di Torcello, riferito al secolo X circa, alla quale età può convenire la  '< grafia dell'epigrafe, elegante ma alquanto incerta. Trascrivo, tradotte,  queste iscrizioni:   O Signore, abbi pietà  dei servi di Dio, Torcotorio, reale protospatario, e di Satusio, uobilissi)}ii arconti nostri, così sia.  Ricordati anche o Signore del tuo servo Ozzoccorre. Signore abbi pietà del tico servo Unnspete e della consorte di Ini Soreca.  È d'aggiungersi infine a questo bel nucleo di documenti epigrafici  e decorativi di carattere bizantino la seguente iscrizione, conservantesi  nell'altare della chiesa parrocchiale di S. Antioco: O Signore abbi pietà  del tuo servo Torcotorio, protospatario e di Salusio arconte e della moglie [Ni spella. Sarcufago romano nel Museo di Cajj;liari. [Taramelli, Iscrizioni Bizantine ecc. ecc. In una parete esterna della chiesa è murato un bassorilievo, che  reca una porzione di figura umana, vista di fronte, con lunsj^a tunica a  maniche, con colletto ornato e con larga fascia al petto (i). Da (|uest() non indifferente materiale epigrafico rinvenuto in una  ristretta porzione dell'isola il Prof. Solmi pervenne col suo fine discernimento di storico e di critico a  congetture, che sono sprazzi di  luce nel buio che avvolge l'origine dei giudicati '^l, Fiondandosi nell'avvicendamento del nome di Torcotorio  a quello di Salusio. il Solmi  distingue il nome personale del  giudice dal lìome pubblico o di  governo. Mentre ([uesto è sempre identico, Torcotorio o Salusio, invece, il nome personale,  che talora si identifica col nome  di governo, può essere qualche  volta da cjuesto essenzialmente  diverso.   E questo avvicendamento  dei due nomi, (qualunque sia  quello privato che abbia il giudice, permette insieme al contenuto delle iscrizioni bizantine  d'integrare la serie dei giudici,  iniziandola col Torcotorio, imperiale protospatario e arconte di Sardegna, ricordato nell'iscrizione di  S. Giovanni d'Assemini. A questi, che ebbe per moglie Geti e che regnò  probabilmente intorno alla metà del X secolo succedette il figlio Salusio,  già aggregato, come risulta dalle iscrizioni di S. Sofia al trono del padre, ed  [Testa di Bacco. |i) A. Taramelli, Iscrizioni nizantìne ecc. ecc.Solmi, Le carte volgari dell' Arcliivio Arcivescovile di Canliari, I-'irenze, Tip. Ga  lileiana, pag. 69. erede poi dei suoi titoli e del suo potere. Sulla fine del X secolo e nei  primi decenni del seguente governò il giudicato di Cagliari il Torcotorio  della lapide di S. Antioco, marito a Sinispella e contemporaneo di  S. Giorgio di Snelli, Con Mariano Salusio, menzionato in una carta greca di S. Vittore di Marsiglia, s'inizia  la serie dei giudici precedentemente ac-  certati dagli storici sardi. Questi risultati confermano il lento  ed amichevole distacco dalla Sardegna  dalla dominazione di Oriente.   L'ultimo ricordo di un'effettiva dipendenza da Bisanzio appartiene all'anno  687 e mostra l'esarca residente in Ceuta,  ancora a capo di un « Africauìis excr-  citìts » e di im exercitiis de Sardinia,  costituito come corpo distinto entro l'esarcato africano. Caduta Cartagine e Ceuta, scrive Solmi, agli ultimi del VII secolo e   mancati così gli ultimi centri dell'antico esarcato d'Africa, l'impero Greco  « lasciò in pieno abbandono anche l'isola, che n'era parte, separata ormai  « da un ampio mare, che divenne il  « campo pericoloso delle imprese saracene; ne più la flotta greca varcò oltre  « le coste della Sicilia, dove si accentrò  « l'estrema punta occidentale del dominio bizantino. Il duca di Cagliari  « restò a capo deWe.rerciins Sardiniae  « sotto la signoria nominale dell'impero  f. greco; si vestì forse dei pomposi titoli  « delle alte magistrature bizantine, ma in realtà divenuta la soggezione vuota apparenza, resa ereditaria la carica, ogni rapporto coll'impero  « bizantino venne ad essere illanguidito e sui primi anni del secolo VIII la Sardegna sembra restare esclusa dall'organizzazione tematica Orien-  « tale e interamente libera da o^ni dominazione di Bisanzio ». Madonna detta di  nel Duomo di C;  Onesto per i ris^r.ardi storici; dal punto di vista dell'arte i numerosi  tVainnieiui l)i/antini. ai ([uali fino ad ora non si dette importanza alcuna,  le Chiese di S. Ciio\anni di Sinis, di S. Giovanni d'Assemini. di S. Sofia Chiesa di S. Ciiovaimi di Sinis (tìanci)!. di \'iilas()r, di S. Stefano di Maracala^-onis, di S. Antioco di Sulcis, di  S. Saturnino di Cagliari, sfui^i^ite alle indai:rini de-^ii studiosi, attestano un Chiesa di S. (Giovanni di Sinis i abside).   periodo architettonico bizantino, che <^ià si presenta intenso e che lo sarà  ma}j^_t(iormente, quando con indai^ini sistematiche si procederà allo studio  di tante strutture ora nascoste sotto gl'intonaci e gli stucchi seicentisti I Altri franinienti bizantini rinvenni nel paramento della chiesa inedioevale di .S. Gemi-  nano in Saniassi. D. ScANo  storia dell'Arte in Sardegna.  Né poteva esser altrimenti e le conclusioni storiche che traggonsi  dalle iscrizioni bizantine e le congetture che su di esse e su altre prove  poterono formarsi, rendono attendibile quest'influsso e questo fiorimento  d'arte bizantina nell'isola, che non poteva sottrarsi alle manifestazioni di  vita dell'impero che la congiungeva al mondo latino.   Queste forme greche perdurarono anche (juando venne a mancare  la effettiva, se non nominale, dipendenza agli imperatori d'Oriente.   Discendenti dagli arconti o patrizi della corte di Bisanzio, i giudici  conservarono negli atti ufficiali colle cariche bizantine le forme diploma-  tiche e la lingua greca; e come queste forme si mantennero fino al XI  secolo, così anche gli allievi ed i discendenti degli artefici greci conservarono le norme costruttive bizantine, fino a quando si dischiuse per la  Sardegna una nuova fase col rinnovamento, che prorompe nel XI secolo  al contatto delle fresche energie delle civiltà di Pisa e di Genova. Nome compiuto: Placido Cherchi. Keywords: implicature sarda, filosofia sarda, etnos, etnicicita italiana, sardegna non e parte d’Italia. Refs.: Luigi Speranza, “Grice e Cerchi” – The Swimming-Pool Library

 

Luigi Speranza -- Grice e Cheremone: l’implicatura conversazionale -- Roma – filosofia italiana – Luigi Speranza. Filosofio italiano.  Cheremone di Alessandria. Cheremone di Alessandria è un filosofo Italiano. Cheremone, figlio di Leonida, e sovrintendente della porzione della biblioteca di Alessandria che si trova nel Serapeo e, in quanto custode e commentatore dei libri sacri, appartene ai più alti ranghi del sacerdozio. E convocato a Roma, con Alessandro di Aegae, per diventare tutore di Nerone.  Può essere identificato con il Cheremone che accompagna Elio Gallo, prefetto d'Egitto, in un viaggio nell'entroterra. E autore di una Storia dell'Egitto, di opere sulle comete, sull'astrologia egizia e sui geroglifici, oltre ad un trattato grammaticale. Tuttavia, di queste opere, non restano che frammenti. Notevoli, dall'opera sui geroglifici, 14 frammenti, riportati soprattutto da Porfirio, che se ne serve ampiamente nel De abstinentia e nella sua Lettera ad Anebo.  Cheremone descrive la religione come una mera ALLEGORIA del culto della natura. In tale direzione, il suo principale obbiettivo e quello di descrivere i segreti simbolici e religiosi. Si veda la lettera dell'imperatore Claudio, in Corpus Papyrorum Iudaicarum, ICambridge, Suda, s.v. "Alessandro Egeo". ^ Strabone, XVII, . ^ Flavio Giuseppe, Contro Apione, Tradotti e commentati in I. Ramelli, Allegoristi dell'età classica. Opere e frammenti, Milano, Bompiani, Horst, Chaeremon, Egyptian Priest and Stoic Philosopher. The fragments collected and translated, Leiden, Brill, Ramelli, Giulio Lucchetta, Allegoria. L'età classica, Milano, Vita e Pensiero, Ramelli, Allegoristi dell'età classica. Opere e frammenti, Milano, Bompiani, Treccani.it – Enciclopedie on line, Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana; Cheremone, in Dizionario di filosofia, Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana, V · D · M Grammatici greci antichi Portale Antico Egitto   Portale Biografie   Portale Ellenismo Categorie: Filosofi egiz iStorici iFilosofi Storici Capo-bibliotecari della biblioteca di Alessandria Grammatici egiziani Grammatici greci antichiStoici. Cheremone. Refs.: Luigi Speranza, pel Gruppo di Gioco di H. P. Grice, “Grice e Cheremone,” The Swimming-Pool Library, Villa Speranza, Liguria, Italia.

 

Luigi Speranza -- Grice e Chiappelli: la ragione conversazionale e l’implicatura conversazionale dell’academici – Cicerone e il segno di Marte – scuola di Pistoia – filosofia toscana -- filosofia italiana – Luigi Speranza, pel Gruppo di Gioco di H. P. Grice, The Swimming-Pool Library (Pistoia). Filosofo toscano. Filosofo italiano. Pistoia, Toscana. Grice: “One of my most recent reflections is on the distinction and striking parallelisms I draw between the Athenian dialectic – best represented in Raffaello’s “La scuola di Atene” at Rome – and the Oxonian dialectic – but represented in those reeky meeting at the Philosophy Room at Merton – or better, my Saturday mornings at St. John’s with Austin! Chiappelli provides us with a most brilliant hermeneutic of the iconography in Raffaello’s painting – Strawson tried to emulate him with some caricatures of Austin, Grice, and the rest of the Play Group – but his doodlings ccouldn’t compare!” Figlio del fisiologo Francesco C., zio del pittore omonimo, si laurea in lettere e filosofia all'istituto superiore di Firenze ed inizia la carriera universitaria a Napoli, dove è stato titolare della cattedra di storia della filosofia e incaricato dell'insegnamento di pedagogia e direttore dell'annesso museo. Ha inoltre insegnato storia delle chiese a Pisa, Bologna e Firenze. È stato membro della Società reale di Napoli, delle accademie dei Lincei di Roma, delle scienze di Torino, pontaniana di Napoli e della Crusca di Firenze. Consigliere comunale a Firenze è stato incaricato di una missione di ricerche e studi negli archivi e biblioteche di Firenze sull'arte fiorentina del Rinascimento e membro della commissione provinciale di Firenze per la conservazione dei monumenti e delle opere d'arte. Altre opere: “Della interpretazione panteistica di Platone, Firenze: Succ. Le Monnier); La dottrina della realtà del mondo esterno nella filosofia moderna prima di Kant” (Firenze, Tip. dell'arte della stampa); “Studi di antica letteratura cristiana, Torino, Loescher); “Darwinismo e socialismo, Roma, Forzani e C. Tipografi del Senato); Saggi e note critiche, Bologna, Ditta Nicola Zanichelli); “Il socialismo e il pensiero moderno, Firenze, Succ. Le Monnier); “Leopardi e la poesia della natura” (Roma, Alighieri); “Leggendo e meditando. Pagine critiche di arte, letteratura e scienza sociale, Roma, Società editrice Dante Alighieri); “Nuove pagine sul cristianesimo antico, Firenze: succ. Le Monnier); “Pagine d'antica arte fiorentina, Firenze, Lumachi); “Dalla critica al nuovo idealismo, Torino, Bocca); “Pagine di critica letteraria, Firenze, Le Monnier); “Idee e figure moderne, Ancona, Puccini). Dizionario biografico degli italiani. Crusca. Cicerone affronta e sviluppa la problematica semiotica in due importanti ambiti della sua produzione teorica: le opere di argomento retorico; le opere che parlano dei se¬ gni divinatori. Se prendiamo in considerazione il primo di questo ambi¬ to, possiamo osservare che l'interesse per i segni non è ugualmente centrale in tutti i testi. Infatti, da una parte, ci sono il De oratore, I'Orator, il Brutus, il De optimo genere oratorum che affrontano una problematica a carattere so¬ cio-politico, volta a definire la figura deli'oratore perfetto, il suo ruolo nella società romana, la sua posizione rispetto alla scuola attica e a quella di Pergamo; in queste opere tut¬ to ciò che costituisce l'apparato tecnico tradizionale della retorica (e con esso anche la problematica sui segni e sulle prove indiziarie) appare non tanto trascurato, quanto dato per scontato: esso si confi:ura come un vasto campo di competenza che rimane implicito sullo sfondo e affiora solo nei termini di un uso personalissimo che ne fa l'autore, in prima persona o attraverso i personaggi del dialogo. Dall'altra parte ci sono, poi, il De inventione, le Partitio¬ nes oratoriae e i Topica, opere molto diverse tra loro, ma accomunate dalla caratteristica di prendere in considerazio¬ ne e di sistematizzare la gran massa delle nozioni che com¬ pongono l'apparato tecnico della retorica. Un limite di que¬ ste opere, in generale, è rintracciabile nella minuziosità del procedimento classificatorio, che raggiunge talvolta il pa¬ rossismo, come nel De inventione, e che spesso non trova un'adeguta giustificazione teoretica. Tuttavia è proprio ali'interno di queste opere che è dato rintracciare gli spunti e i documenti per la ricostruzione di una teoria ciceroniana del segno. Il "De inventione" Il De inventione di Cicerone con¬densa l'ampia tradizione retorica che da Aristotele giunge fino a Ermagora: è quindi naturale che al suo interno si tro¬ vino riprodotti alcuni aspetti della concezione del segno che in quell'ambito si è sedimentata. In particolare è presente la concezione del segno in forma proposizionale, come an¬tecedente che permette di scoprire un conseguente. Viene poi confermata l'attenzione verso i segni involontari (l'im¬ pallidire, l'arrossire, il balbettare dell'imputato) come indi¬ zi di colpevolezza. Infine compare la classica divisione degli indizi secondo la loro relazione temporale con il fatto crimi¬ noso (anteriorità, contemporaneità, posteriorità). Questi i punti di contatto con la tradizione. Ma bisogna anche dire che la classificazione dei segni proposta da Cice¬rone è in larga misura diversa da quelle precedenti. Essa ap¬ pare infatti all'interno della teoria della argumentatio (ar¬ gomentazione), cioè del procedimento attraverso il quale vengono addotte delle prove per confermare una certa tesi: "L'argomentazione sembra essere qualche cosa che si esco¬ gita da qualche genere e che rivela un'altra cosa in maniera probabile (probabiliter ostendens), o la dimostra in un mo¬do necessario (necessarie demonstrans)" (De inv.). Anche se non viene usato il normale lessico semiotico, ciò che è in gioco in questa definizione è proprio il meccanismo del segno: infatti, qualcosa che è stato trovato (un indizio che viene depositato nel dossier deli'avvocato) rinvia a qualcos'altro. Compare, a questo punto, la distinzione (già aristotelica) tra una forza argomentativa debole (probabili¬ ter ostendens) e un'inferenza necessaria (necessarie demon¬ strans). Rinvio necessario e non necessario I segni necessari sono così definiti: "Viene dimostrato in modo necessario ciò che non può verificarsi né essere pro¬ vato diversamente da come viene detto. Ne sono esempi: "Se ha partorito, è stata con un uomo" (ibidem); "Se respira, è vivo", "Se è giorno, c'è luce" (De inv.). Come Cicerone spiega in un altro passo, in casi di questo genere l'antecedente e il conseguente sono legati da una re¬ lazione inscindibile (cum priore necessario posterius cohae¬ rere videtur, De inv.). Il rapporto di rinvio non necessario viene poi cosi defini¬ to: "Probabile è poi ciò che suole generalmente accadere, o che è basato sulla comune opinione, o che ha in sé qualche somiglianza con questa qualità, sia esso vero o sia falso" (De inv.). Con questa definizione Cicerone mette in evidenza due caratteri: (i) quello probabilistico e (ii) quello doxastico; il primo di questi era da Aristotele attribuito peculiarmente all'eikos (verisimile). E infatti i primi due esempi sono di un tipo che Aristotele avrebbe classificato come eikos: "Se è madre, ama suo figlio", "Se è avido, non fa gran caso del giuramento" (De inv.). In essi compare anche il tipico rapporto di generalizzazio¬ ne che per Aristotele definisce il verosimile (Arist., Rhet.). C'è però un terzo esempio, "Se c'era molta polvere nei calzari, era sicuramente reduce da un viaggio" (De inv.), che non sembra dello stesso tipo, ma è più vicino al smeion aristotelico. La categoria di signum, poi, compare come una sottopar¬tizione dei segni non necessari, accanto al credibile (credibi¬ le), ali'iudicatum (giudicato) e al comparabile (paragonabi¬le). Se le ultime tre nozioni appaiono distinte in base a crite¬ ri estrinseci (e scompariranno nelle trattazioni successive), il signum corrisponde a una categoria di fenomeni abbastan¬za particolare: "Segno è ciò che cade sotto qualcuno dei no¬ stri sensi e indica (significar) un qualcosa che sembra deri¬ vato dal fatto stesso, e che può essere verificato prima del fatto, durante il fatto, o può averlo seguito, e tuttavia ha bisogno di una prova e di una conferma più sicura" (De inv. ). Ne sono esempi: "il sangue", "il pallore", "la fuga", "la poivere". Si tratta, come si vede, degli indizi, intesi come fenomeni percepibili, scarsamente codificati e generalmente non vo¬ lontari. Qui sono presentati in una forma non proposizio¬ nale; ma niente vieta che vengano sviluppati in proposizio¬ ni, come dimostra il caso deli'indizio "polvere": "Se c'era molta polvere nei calzari, era sicuramente reduce da un viaggio". Gli indizi, infine, vengono suddivisi secondo la nota relazione temporale con il fatto criminoso. Possiamo quindi schematizzare la classificazione propo¬ sta nel De inventione. Le Partitiones oratoriae sono un'opera di Cicerone nella quale la classificazione della materia semiotica presenta alcune differenze e peculiarità rispetto al De Inventione. Innanzitutto la terminologia si sgancia completamente da quella dei modelli greci e viene completa¬ mente latinizzata. In secondo luogo gli indizi (qui chiamati RETORICA LATINA argumentatio necessaria probsbilis (quod fero solet fiori élut quod in opi¬ nione positum est") es.: .. "pallore'", ..polvere" vestigiafactl) non compaiono più come sottopartizione di un'altra categoria, ma assumono un ruolo autonomo. (·ea quae alitar ac discuntur nec fieri nec probari pos¬ sunt"l es . : ·se ha partorito, è stata con un uomo'" (.,quod sub sensum aliquem cadit, et quiddam sig nificat, quod ex ipso profectum est'") es.: ·sangue", ·ruga"', Se è madre, ama suo figlio -- signum erodibile indicBtLm comparabile. Infine, viene accettata la distinzione aristotelica tra luo¬ghi estrinseci, corrispondenti alle prove extra-tecniche, titechnol, e luoghi intrinseci. corrispondenti alle prove tecniche, éntechno, che vienne criticata nel De inventione e che invece è sviluppata nei Topica. È curioso notare come tra i luoghi estrinseci (sine arte) trovino posto, accanto alle testimonianze umane, anche quelle divine: gl’oracoli, gl’auspici, i vaticini, i responsi sacri, di sacerdoti, aruspici, interpreti onirici, Part. or. Tutto ciò è sicuramente un residuo di una concezione orda¬lica e antichissima dell'amministrazione della giustizia. Tut¬tavia è anche un indizio di un continuo riaffiorare del para¬digma divinatorio all'interno dei fatti semiotici, anche quando ormai i segni si sono completamente LAICIZZATI. CICERONE Né questo è un caso isolato in ambito giuridico. Per quel che riguarda la cultura greca, si ricorda l’orazione per /,uccisione d’Erode, in cui Antifonte così si esprime. Tutto quel che è provabile con indizi e testimonianze umane l'avete udito, ma in questo caso dovete votare dopo aver trattato indizi anche dai segni che vengono dagli dei (V, 81; Lanza. Il verisimile e il segno caratteristico. I segni umani sono invece trattati tra gl’argomenti intrin¬seci, in particolare tra quelli che riguardano lo stato di cau¬sa congetturale. Infatti, la congettura può essere tratta da due tipi di segni: i verisimilia e le notae propriae rerum. Il verisimile, come dice CICERONE (si veda), è ciò che accade per lo più, Part. or., come a esempio, la gioventù è incline al piacere in modo particolare. Questo tipo di segno corri¬sponde all’eik6s del LIZIO, di cui ha il carattere probabili¬stico e generalizzante. La nnta propria rei viene definita come una prova che non si verifica mai direttamente e indica una cosa certa, co¬me IL FUMO INDICA IL FUOCO, Part. or. Si tratta, evi¬dentemente, del segno necessario, come è dimostrato anche dall'esempio e dall'uso dell'aggettivo PROPRIO, che riman¬da alla nozione di fdion semeion, segno proprio. Per il LIZIO, il segno proprio èla caratteristica specifica di un certo genere, come, ad esempio, il fatto che i leoni avessero grandi estremità, segno del coraggio (An. Pr.). Per le scuole postaristoteliche il segno proprio aveva carat¬ tere di necessità e si definiva come quel segno che non può esistere se non esiste la cosa a cui rimanda (Philod., De si¬gnis). Ci sono, poi, i vestigia facti, dei quali vengono dati questi esempi: "un'arma, macchie di sangue, grida, lamenti, imbarazzo, alterazione del colorito, discor¬ so contraddittorio, tremore, gli indizi materiali della premeditazione, le confidenze sulle intenzioni delittuose, le risultanze visive, uditive, rivelate" (Pari. or.). Cicerone non definisce QUf)tO tipo di segni, se non dicendo che si tratta di ''fenomeni avvertibili con i sensi", caratte¬ristica condivisa anche dai signa del De inventione, in cui ricorrono esempi analoghi, e dagli argumenta di Cor¬nificio (Rhet. adHer.). I commentatori si sono chiesti se i vestigiafacti siano più in relazione con le “notae propriae rerum” o con il “verisimile” (Crapis). In realtà questa sembra una categoria abbastanza autonoma non avendo la necessità dei primi, ma nemmeno le caratteristi¬ che degli ultimi. È plausibile che essa corrisponda alla cate¬ goria dei semefa aristotelici, diversi tanto dai tekmoria quanto dagli eik6ta. Da un altro passo delle Partitiones oratoria, dove ricorrono esempi analoghi, i vestigiafacti (chiamati lì anche signa) vengono definiti come consequentia, cioè inferenze che si traggono dal conseguente, caratteristica che definiva appunto, per Aristotele, i segni non necessari. Ma mentre Aristotele condannava i semefa da un punto di vista episte¬ mologico per la loro insicurezza, Cicerone è pronto a rico¬ noscerne l'efficacia qualora si presentino in gran numero (coacervata proficiunt, 40). Possiamo quindi schematizzare la classificazione cicero¬ niana nelle Partitiones oratoriae. Le opere sulla divinazione Molte cose collegano la retorica giudiziaria alla divina¬ zione. Innanzitutto il fatto che entrambe si avvalgano dei segni per arrivare alla conoscenza di fatti non direttamente accessibili alla percezione. In secondo luogo, in entrambe viene operata una distinzione tra aspetti che sono eminente¬ mente congetturali e altri aspetti che sono invece naturali o trt•) (sensu percipi potest) es .sangue - uccisione· es.: adolescenza¬ inclinazione alla libidine coniecturs verisimilie (quod plerumque rta notse proprise rerum (quod numquam alrter frt certumque declarat) es.: '"fumo-fuoco· vestigia fecti o signa dati: alla dicotomia retorica tra prove tecniche (o congettu¬ rali) e prove extratecniche corrisponde la distinzione tra di¬ vinazione artificiale (basata sull'interpretazione e sulla con¬ gettura) e divinazione naturale. Infine, come Cicerone pole¬ micamente rileva (De div), i segni della divinazione sono talvolta interpretati in maniera diametralmente oppo¬ sta, proprio come avviene nel processo, in cui l'accusa e la difesa propongono dello stesso fatto due interpretazioni di¬ verse ed entrambe plausibili. Ma Cicerone apprezza i metodi deli'indagine giudiziaria, mentre nutre una diffidenza enorme nei confronti della di¬ vinazione. In linea, infatti, con un vasto gruppo di intellet¬ tuali della sua epoca, educati ai metodi di indagine della fi¬ losofia greca, a fondamento razionalistico, e contempora¬ neamente impegnato in politica, sente l'esigenza di operare una distinzione netta tra religione e superstizione, di cui la divinazione fa, per lui, parte. La religione appartiene alla più antica tradizione romana e, posta come è ai fondamenti dello stato, deve essere conservata, pena la disgregazione dello stato stessso; la superstizione, invece, costituita dal coacervo degli elementi spuri che inquinano e rendono poco credibile la religione stessa, dev'essere respinta, anche per¬ ché non venga limitata la libertà del cittadino romano nel suo impegno di gestione della repubblica. Cicerone affronta questi argomenti nel De natura deo¬ rum, nel De fato e, soprattutto, nel De divinatione. Que¬ st'ultima opera è scritta in forma di dialogo tra l'autore e il fratello Quinto, il quale difende l'arte divinatoria basandosi sulle teorie storiche che legavano la divinazione all'esistenza degli dei. Le osservazioni di Cicerone contro la teoria soste¬ nuta da Quinto sono particolarmente interessanti perché costituiscono una vera e propria critica a un meccanismo semiotico settoriale e contribuiscono, in negativo, a una concezione generale del segno. Secondo la teoria di Quinto, gli dei si pongono come fon¬ te dell'informazione e come emittenti nei processi di comu¬ nicazione divinatoria, dei quali gli uomini sono i destinata¬ ri. Ma, a seconda dei due specifici tipi di divinazione, il pro¬ cesso comunicativo si struttura in modo differente. Il primo tipo è costituito dalla divinatio artificialis, in cui l'interpretazione dei segni è legata a un'ars, ovvero a una tecnica professionale di decriptazione, demandata a specia¬ listi, ciascuno esperto in un settore: extispices (esaminatori delle viscere), interpretes monstrorum et fu/gurum (inter¬ preti dei fatti prodigiosi e dei fulmini), augures (interpreti del volo degli uccelli), astrologi (interpreti delle stelle), in¬ terpretes sortium (interpreti delle combinazioni di tavolette mescolate in un'urna ed estratte a caso). In tale divinazione l'informazione proveniente dalla divinità si materializza prima di tutto in una sostanza espressiva percepibile, a cui l'ars permetterà di abbinare un contenuto semantico. I presupposti su cui si basano le interpretazioni di questo tipo sono dati dalla teoria, di origine stoica, secondo cui tutti i fenomeni sono legati tra di loro in una catena di cau¬ se ed effetti, senza soluzione di continuità. Questa catena che ha come fondamento primo il /6gos divino e costituisce il fato (heimarméne), non è conoscibile per intero da parte degli uomini, dato che l'onniscienza è prerogativa della sola divinità (De div.). Tuttavia viene prevista l'esistenza di un tempo ciclico che "può essere paragonato con lo srotolarsi di una gomena, in quanto non dà mai luogo a fatti nuovi, ma ripete sempre quanto prima è accaduto" (Dediv.,l, 127).Questofasìche gli uomini, attraverso l'osservazione attenta, colgano il mo¬ do in cui gli eventi si ripetono e, pur non potendo conoscere direttamente le cause, possono però arrivare a coglierne gli indizi caratteristici (signa tamc.z causarum et notas cernunt) (ibidem). Dato poi che è possibile tramandare memoria dalle con¬ nessioni passate, si crea un vero e proprio codice basato sul¬ la iteratività. Si può schematizzare così il processo: emittente divino-segni di cause-eventi futuri codice basato sulla iterattività La divinazione "naturale" Il secondo tipo di divinazione è quello definito naturalis, in quanto indipendente da qualunque tecnica professionale, ma derivante piuttosto da una diretta ispirazione divina, senza passare attraverso la mediazione di un segno esterno. Fanno parte di questo tipo le forme di preveggenza derivan¬ ti da invasamento profetico, cioè le vaticinationes e quelle derivanti dai sogni. Il palinsesto filosofico ·a cui è legato questo secondo tipo di divinazione è quello delle teorie peri¬ patetiche (Dicearco e Cratippo vengono esplicitamente no¬ minati, De div., II, 100), secondo le quali l'anima, per il suo legame naturale con la divinità, una volta che sia spinta da una divina follia o sciolta, nel sonno, dai vincoli che la legano al corpo, partecipa direttamente della conoscenza del dio. Il ruolo del codice è in questo caso ridotto, se non addirittura sostituito da una parziale identificazione tra emittente e ricevente, secondo lo schema: RETORICA LATINA emittente divino - segno interno - evento futuro .... ricevente umano 9.2.3 .3 Critiche "semiologiche" contro i segni divinatori Le obiezioni che Cicerone muove ai sostenitori della divi¬ nazione si basano su argomenti specificamente semiotici. La tesi generale, mediante la quale Cicerone nega valore alla divinazione, è che essa non abbia veramente carattere semiotico, e cioè che i fenomeni che essa interpreta come se¬ gni non siano veramente tali, ovvero che non si comportino veramente come degli antecedenti rispetto a dei conse¬ guenti. Per distinguere i segni veri rispetto a quelli presunti della divinazione, Cicerone istituisce un paragone tra le tecniche scientifiche (come la medicina, la meteorologia, la nautica, la tecnica previsionale del contadino e deli'astronomo) e la divinazione. In entrambi i casi è in gioco la predizione del futuro a partire da certi indizi; ma, mentre le pratiche pro¬ fessionali adottano una vera e propria metodologia che comporta "scienza (ars), ragionamento (ratio), esperienza (usus) e congettura (coniectura)" (De div., II, 14), le prati¬ che divinatorie si basano sul "capriccio della sorte, tanto che nemmeno la divinità sembra che possa avere, fra le sue prerogative, quella di sapere quali fatti il caso farà accade¬ re" (De div., II, 18). Questa opposizione tra ciò che, in definitiva, è il codice (anche se 1si tratta di legami naturali basati sulla frequenza statistica) e il caso è del resto la stessa con cui i medici ip¬ pocratici tendevano a distinguere la propria scienza profes¬ sionale dalla divinazione e dalla medicina magica (Antica medicina, cap. XII). Cicerone poi si sbarazza in termini razionalistici della teoria secondo cui anche nel caso della divinazione tecnica si farebbe appello ali'osservazione iterata delle coincidenze, ritenendola ridicola e insostenibile (De div., II, 28). Ma ci sono altri gravi difetti che la divinazione presenta dal punto di vista semiotico: (i) le interpretazioni di uno stesso segno sono spesso diametralmente opposte (De div., Il, 83); (ii) si verificano frequentemente fenomeni di falsa identificazione dell'antecedente, per cui un certo evento non è connesso a quello individuato come segno prodigio¬ so, ma a ben diverse cause naturali (De div., II, 62); (iii) l'interpretazione avviene a posteriori e così toglie ogni ne¬ cessità di rapporto tra antecedente e conseguente (De div.); (iv) in certi casi l'interpretazione è motivata da ragioni di faziosità politica e quindi è priva di oggettività (De div.). Cicero composed this treatise immediately after that on the Nature of the Gods; the two subjects being indeed very closely connected. In the first book all kinds of divination are represented as maintained by his brother Quintus, on the principles of the Porch. It is an old opinion, derived as far back asfrom the heroic times, and confirmed by the unanimous agreement of the rather superstitious Roman people, and indeed of other nations, too, that there is a species of divination in existence among men, which the Greeks call “xarrt/c^,” that is to say, a presentiment, and foreknowledge of future events. A truly splendid and serviceable gift, if it only exists in reality; and one by which our mortal nature makes its nearest approach to the power of the gods. Therefore, as we have done many other things better than the Greeks, so, most especially have we excelled them in giving a name to this most admirable endowment, since our nation derives the name which it gives to it, “divination,” from the gods (“divis”), while the Greeks derive the title which they give it, namely, “juavn/cr/,” from madness (juai'ia). For that is Plato's interpretatin of the word. Now, as far as I know, there is no nation whatever, however polished and learned, or however barbarous and uncivilized, which does not believe it possible that future events may be indicated, and understood, and predicted by certain persons. In the first place the Assyrians, that I may trace back the authority for this belief to the most remote ages and countries, as a natural consequence of the champaign country in which they lived, and of the vast extent of their territories, which led them to observe the heavens which lay open to their view in every direction, began to take notice also of the paths and motions of the stars; and having taken these observations for some time, they handed down to their posterity informa tion as to what was indicated by their various positions and revolutions. And among the Assyrians, the Chaldaeans, a tribe who had this name not from any art which they professe, but from the district which they inhabited, by a very long course of observation of the stars are considered to have established a complete science, so that it became possible to predict what would happen to each individual, and with what destiny each separate person was born. The Egyptians also are believed tohave acquired the knowledge of the same art by a continued practice of it extending through countless ages. But the nature of the Cilicians and Pisidians, and the Pamphylians, who border on them, nations which we ourselves have had under our government,1 think that future events are pointed out by the flight and voices of birds as the surest of all indications. And when was there ever an instance of Greece sending any colony into yEolia, Ionia, Asia, Sicily or Italy, without consulting the Pythian or Dodonrean oracle, or that of Jupiter Hammon? or when did that nation ever undertake a war without first asking counsel of the Gods 1 Nor is there only one kind of divination celebrated both in public and private. For, (to say nothing of the practice of other nations.) how many different kinds have been adopted by our own people. In the first place, the founder of this city, Romulus, is said not only to have founded the city in obedience to the auspices; but also to have been himself an augur of the highest reputation. After him the other kings also had recourse to soothsayers; and after the kings were driven out, no public business was ever transacted, either at home or in war, without reference to the auspices. And as there appeared to be great power and usefulness in the system of the soothsayers (haruspices),2 in reference to the people's succeeding in their objects, and consulting the Gods, and arriving at an understanding of the meaning of prodigies and averting evil omens, they introduced the whole of their science from Etruria, to prevent the appearance [Cicero had been proconsul of Cilicia, and had gained a very high reputation by the integrity andenergy which he displayed in that government. Aruspex is derived from the Greek word Ifptiv, and specio, to behold, because the Aruspex prophesied from the omens which he drew from an inspection of the entrails of the victims. Augur, from avis, and garrio, to chatter; because the omens were drawn from the noise made by the birds in their flight of allowing any kind of divination to be neglected. And as men's minds were often seen to be excited in two manners, without any rules of reason or science, by their own mere uncontrolled and free motion, being sometimes under the influence of frenzy, and at others under that of dreams, our ancestors, thinking that the divination which proceeded from frenzy was contained chiefly in verses of the Sibyl, ordained that there should be ten citizens chosen as interpreters of these compositions. And in the same spirit they have also, at times, thought the frantic predictions of conjurors and prophets worth, attending to; as they did in the Octavianl war in the case of Cornelius Culleolus. Nor indeed have men of the greatest wisdom thought it beneath them to attend to the warnings of important dreams, if at any time any such appeared to have reference to the interests of the republic. Moreover, even in our own time, Lucius Junius, who was consul, as colleague of Publius Rutilius, was ordered by a vote of the senate to erect a temple to Juno Sospita, in compliance with a dream seen by Csecilia, the daughter of Balearicus.2 III. And, as I apprehend, our ancestors were induced to establish this custom more because they had been warned, by the events which they saw, to do so, than from any previous conclusion of reason. But some exquisite arguments of philo sophers have been collected to prove why divination may well be a true science. Now of these philosophers, to go back to the most ancient ones, Xenophanes the Colophonian appears to have been the only one who admitted the existence of Gods, and yet utterly denied the efficacy of divination. But every other philosopher except Epicurus, who talks so childishly about the nature of the Gods, has sanctioned a belief in divination; though they have not all spoken in the same manner. For, though Socrates, and all his followers, and Zeno, and all those of his school, adhered to the opinion of the ancient philosophers, and the Old Academy and the 1 This was the civil war in the consulship of Cinna and Octavius, which ended in Octavius being put to death by the orders of Cinna and Mariu?. 2 This was Quintus Caecilius Metellua (the eldest son of Metellus Macedonians), who was consul with T. Quinctius Flamininus: in which consulship he cleared the Balearic Isles of pirates, and founded several cities in the islands. Peripatetics agreed with them; and though Pythagoras, who lived some time before these men; had added a great weight of authority to this belief and indeed he himself wished to acquire the skill of an augur, and though that most im portant authority, Democritus, had in very many passages of his writings sanctioned a belief in the foreknowledge of future events; yet Dicsearchus the Peripatetic, on the other hand, denied all other kinds of divination, and left none except those which proceed from frenzy or from dreams. And my own friend Cratippus, whom I consider equal to the most ancient among the Peripatetics, confined his belief to the same matters, and denied the correctness of any other kind of divination. But as the Stoics defended nearly every kind, because Zeno in his Commentaries had scattered some seeds of such a belief, and Cleanthes had amplified and extended his predecessor's observations; Chrysippus succeeded them, a man of the most acute and vivid genius; who discussed the whole belief in, and question about divination in two books on that subject, and a third on oracles, and a fourth on dreams. And he was followed by Diogenes the Babylonian, a pupil of his OATH, who published one treatise on the same subject; by Antipater, who wrote two books, and our friend Posidonius, who wrote five. But Pantetius, the tutor of Posidonius and pupil of Antipater, has degenerated in some degree from the Stoics, or at least from the most eminent men of that school; and yet he did not dare absolutelyto deny that there was a power of divina tion, but said that he had doubts on the subject. Now if he, aStoic, was allowed to express a doubt on a matter very much against the inclination of the rest of that school, shall we not obtain leave from the Stoics to behave in a similar manner with respect to other subjects'? especially when that very question which is a matter of doubt to Paneetius, is generally considered a thing as clear as day to the other philosophers of that sect. However, this praise of the Academy has been confirmed by the testimony and deliberate judgment of a most admirable philosopher. Indeed, since we are ourselves inquiring what we are to think of divination, because Carneades maintained a very long argument against the Stoics with great acuteness and variety of resource, and as we wish to be on our guard against admitting rashly any assertion which is incorrect, or the truth of which is riot sufficiently ascertained, it appears neces sary for us to compare over and over again the arguments on one side with those on the other, as we have done in the three books which we have written on the Nature of the Gods. For, as in every discussion, rashness in assenting to propositions of others, and error in asserting such ourselves, is very discreditable, so above all is it in a discussion where the question for our decision is how much weight we are to attribute to auspices, and to divine ceremonies, and to religion. For there is danger lest, if we neglect these things, we may become involved in the guilt of blasphemous impiety, or if we embrace them, we may become liable to the reproach of old women's superstition. Now these topics I have often discussed, and I did so lately with more than usual minuteness, when I was with my brother Quintus, in my villa at Tusculum. For when, for the purpose of taking walking exercise, we had come into the Lyceum, (for that is the name of the upper Gymnasium) I read, said he, a little while ago your third book on the Nature of the Gods; in which, although the arguments of Cotta have not wholly changed my previous opinions, they have undoubtedly a good deal shaken them. You are very right to say so, I replied; for, indeed, Cotta himself ai'gues rather with a view to confute the arguments of the Stoics, than to eradicate religion from men's minds. Then, said Quintus, that is what Cotta himself says, and indeed he repeats it very often; I imagine, because he does not wish to seem to depart from the ordinary opinions; but still the zeal with which he argues against the Stoics seems to cany him on to the extent of wholly denying the existence of the Gods. I do not indeed think it necessary to reply to all he says, for religion has been sufficiently defended in your second book by Lucilius; whose arguments, as you say at the end of the third book, appear to you yourself to be much nearer to the truth. But with reference to the point which has been passed over in those books, because, I presume, you con sidered that the inquiry into it could be carried on, and an argument held upon it with more convenience if it were taken separately, I mean Divination which is a foreknowledge and A foretelling of those events which arc usually considered fortuitous, I should like very much at this moment, if you please, to examine what power that science really has, and what its character is. For my own opinion is this; that if those kinds of divination which we have been in the habit of hearing of and respecting, are real, then there are Gods; and on the other hand that, if there really are Gods, then there certainly are men who are possessed of the art of divination. You are defending, I reply, the very citadel of the Stoics, O Quintus, by asserting the reciprocal dependence of these two conditions on one another; so that if there be such an art as divination, then there are Gods, and if there be such beings as Gods, then there is such an art as divination. But neither of these points is admitted as easily as you imagine. For future events may possibly be indicated by nature without the intervention of any God; and, even although there may be such beings as Gods, still it is pos sible that no such art as divination may be given by them to the human race. He replied, But to me it is quite proof enough, both that there are Gods and that they have a regard for the welfare of mankind, that I perceive that there are manifest and undeni able kinds of divination. With respect to which, I will, if you please, recount to you my own sentiments, provided at least that you have leisure and inclination to hear me, and have nothing which you would like in preference to this discussion. But I, said I, my dear Quintus, have always leisure for philosophical discussion; but at this moment, when I have actually nothing whatever which I wish to do, I shall be all the more glad to hear your sentiments on divination. You will hear, said he, nothing new from me, nor do I entertain any ideas on the subject different from the rest of the world. For the opinion which I follow is not only the most ancient, but that which has been sanctioned by the unanimous consent of all nations and countries. For there are two methods of divining; one dependent on art, the other on nature. Be.!; what nation is there, or what state, which is not influenced by the omens derived from the entrails of victims, or by the predictions of those who interpret pro digies, or strange lights, or of augurs, or astrologers, or by those who expound lots (for these are about what come under the head of art); or, again, by the prophecies derived from dreams, or soothsayers (for these two are considered natural kinds of divination) ? And I think it more desirable to examine into the results of these things than into the causes. For there is a certain power and nature, which, by means of indications which have been observed a long time, and also by some instinct and divine inspiration, pronounces a judg ment on future events. So that Carneades may well give up pressing what Pansetius used also to insist upon, when he asked whether it was Jupiter who had ordained the crow to croak on the right- hand, or the raven on the left. For these occurrences have been observed for an immense series of time, and have been remarked and noted from the signification given to them by subsequent events. But there is nothing which a great length of time may not effect and establish by the use of memory retaining the different events, and handing them down in durable monuments. We may wonder at the way in which the different kinds of herbs and roots have been observed by physicians as good for the bites of beasts, for complaints of the eyes, and for wounds, the power and nature of which reason has never explained, but yet both the art and inventor of these medicines have gained iiniversal approval from their utility. Let us also look at those things which, though of another kind, still have a resemblance to divination. And often, too, the agitated sea Gives certain tokens of impending storms, When through the deep with sudden rage it swells, And the fierce rocks, white with the briny foam, Vie with hoarse Neptune in their sullen roar, While the sad whistlins o'er the mountain's brow Adds horror to the crash of the iron coast. And all your prognostics are full of presentiments derived from occurrences of this sort. Who, then, can trace back the causes of these presentiments 1 Though, indeed, I am aware that Boethus the Stoic has endeavoured to do so. And indeed he has done some good to this extent, that he has explained the principle of those occurrences which take place iu the sea, or in the heaven. But still, who has ever explained, with any appearance of probability, why they take place at all 1 And the white gull, uprising from the waves, With horrid scream foretells th' impending storm, Straining its trembling throat in ceaseless cry. Oft, too, the woodlark from his chest pours forth Notes of unusual sadness, wnking up The morn with grievous fear and endless plaint. When first Aurora routs the nightly dew, Sometimes the dusky crow runs o'er the shore, Dipping its head beneath the rising surf. And we see that these signs of the weather scarcely ever deceive us, though we certainly do not understand why they are so correct. You too perceive the signs of future times, Children of sweetest waters; and prepare To utter warnings loud and salutary, Rousing the springs and marshes with your cries. Yet who could ever have suspected frogs of having such perception 1 However, there is in rivulets, and in frogs too, a certain nature indicating something which is clear enough by itself, but more obscure to the knowledge of men. And cloven-footed oxen gazing up To heaven's expense, have often inhaled the air Laden with moisture I do not inquire why all this takes place, since I am acquainted with the fact that it does take place The mastic, ever green and ever laden With its rich fruit, which thrice in every year Doth swell to ripeness, by its triple crop Points out three times when men should till the earth. Here too, again, I do not ask why this one tree should bloom three times a year, or why it should adapt the proper season for ploughing the land to the token given by its bloom. I am content with this, that, even if I do not know how everything is done, I nevertheless do know what is done. And so in respect of every kind of divination I will answer as I have done in the cases which I have already mentioned. Now I know what effect the root of the scamniony has as a purgative, and what the efficacy of the aristolochia is in the case of bites of serpents, (and this herb has derived its name from its discoverer, who discovered it in consequence o a dream.) and that knowledge is quite emnigh. I do not know why these herbs are so efficacious; and in the same way I do not know on what principle the omens which we draw from the signs furnished to us by the winds and storms proceed; but I do know, and arn certain of, and thankful for their power, and the results which flow from it. Again, in 1 All these predictions are translated by CICERONE (vedasi) from Aratus. the same way I know what is indicated by a fissure in the entrails of a victim, or by the appearance of the fibres; but what the cause is that these appearances have this meaning I know not. And life is full of such things; for nearly every one has recourse to the entrails of animals. Need I say more 1 Is it possible for any one to doubt about the power of thunder-storms ? Is not this too one of the most marvel lous of marvellous things? When Summanus,1 which was a figure made of clay, standing on the top of the temple of the all-powerful and all-good Jupiter, was struck by lightning, and the head of the statue could not be found anywhere, the soothsayers said that it had been thrown down into the Tiber, and it was found in that very place which had been pointed out by the soothsayer.But who is there to whom I may more fitly appeal as an authority and as a witness than you yourself? For I have learnt the verses, and that with great pleasure, which the muse Urania pronounces in the second book of your Con sulship See how almighty Jnve, inflamed and bright, With heavenly fire fills the spacious world, And lights up heaven and earth with wondrous rays Of his divine intelligence and mind ; Which pierces all the inmost sense of men, And vivifies their souls, hold fast within The boundless caverns of eternal air. And would you know the high sublimest paths And ever revolving orbits of the stars, And in what constellations they abide, Stars which the Greeks erratic falsely call, For certain order and fixed laws direct Their onward course ; then shall you learn that all Is by divinest wisdom fitly ruled. For when you ruled the state, a consul wise, You noted, and with victims due approach'd, Propitiating the rapid stars, and strange Concurrence of the fiery constellations. Then, when you purified the Alban mount, And celebrated the great Latin feast, Bringing pure milk, meet offering for the gods, You saw fierce comets bright and quivering With light unheard of. In the sky you saw 1 This is usually understood to have been a statue of Pluto. The new consuls used to celebrate the Ferioe Latinaj on the Albanus Mons. Fierce wars and dread nocturnal massacre That Latin feast on mournful days did fall, When the pale moon with di m and muffled light Conceal'd her head, and fled, and in the midst Of starry night became invisible. Why should I say how Phoebus' fiery beam, Sure herald of sad war, in mid-day set, Hastening at undue season to its rest, Or how a citizen struck with th' awful bolt, Hurl'd by high Jove from out a cloudless sky, Left the glad light of life; or how the earth Quaked with affright and shook in every part? Then dreadful forms, strange visions stalk d abroad, Scarce shrouded by the darkness of the night,And wam'd the nations and the land of war. Then many an oracle and augury, Pregnant with evil fate, the soothsayers Pour'd from their agitated breasts. And e'en The Father of the Gods fill'd heaven and earth With signs, and tokens, and presages sure Of all the things which have befallen us since. XII. So now the year when you are at the helm, Collects upon itself each omen dire, Which when Torquatus, with his colleague Gotta, Sat in the curule chairs, the Lydian seer Of Tuscan blood breathed to affrighted Borne. For the great Father of the Gods, whose home Is on Olympus' height, with glowing hand Himself attack'd his sacred shrines and temples, And hurl'd his darts against the Capitol. Then fell the brazen statue, honour'd long, Of noble Natta; then fell down the laws Graved on the sacred tablets; while the bolts Spared not the images of the immortal gods. Here was that noble nurse o' the Roman name, The Wolf of Mars, who from her kindly breast Fed the immortal children of her god With the life-giving dew of sweetest milk. E'en her the lightning spared not; down she fell. Bearing the royal babes in her descent, Leaving her footmarks on the pedestal.1 Great interest is attached to this passage by antiquaries, from the fact of there being a bronze statue still at Home of a wolf suckling two children, with manifest marks of lightning on it, which is believed to be the very statue here mentioned by Cicero, and also in his third Oration asrainst Catiline, c. viii.; it is described by Virgil too: Fecerat et viridi foetam Mavorf is in antro Procubuisse lupam; geminos huic ubcra circum [Ludere And who, unfolding records of old time, Has found no words of sad prediction In the dark pages of Etruscan books ] All men, all writings, all events combined, To warn the citizens of freeborn race Ludere pendentes pueros, et lambere matrem Impavidos; ilhun tereti cervice reflexam Mulcere alternos et corpora fingere linguiL jEn. The cave of Mars was dress'd with mossy greens ; There by the wolf were laid the martial twins; Intrepid, on her swelling dugs they hung, The foster-dam loll'd out her fawning tongue; They suck'd secure, while bending back her head, She lick'd their tender limbs, and form'd them as they fed. Dryden, ^En. The statue in its present state is beautifully described by Byron:And thou the thunder-stricken nurse of Rome, She-wolf! whose brazen imaged dugs impart The milk of conquest yet within the dome, Where, as a monument of antique art, Thou standest, mother of the mighty heart, Which the great founder suck'd from thy wild teat, Scorch'd by the Roman Jove's ethereal dart, And thy limbs black with lightning, dost thou yet Guard thy immortal cubs, nor thy fond charge forget] Thou dost but all thy foster-babes are dead, The men of iron ; and the world hath rear'd Cities from out their sepulchres. Childe Harold, book iv. It may not be out of place here, to set before the reader the beautiful description, in the first Georgic, of the prodigies which happened at Rome on the death of Cresar : Denique quid vesper serus vehat. unde serenas Ventus agat nubes, quid cogitet humidus Auster, Sol tibi signa dabit : Solem quis dicere falsum Audeat? ille etiam csecos instare tumultus Saspe monet, fraudemque, et aperta tumescere bella; Ille etiam extincto miseratus Caesare Romam Cum caput obscurS, nitidum ferrugine texit Impiaque rcternam timuerunt sajcula noctem, Tempore quanquam illo tellus quoque et aequora ponti, Obsccenique canes, importunaeque volucres Signa dabant : quoties Cyclopum effervere in auras Vidimus undantem rnptis fornacibus Etnam, Flammarumque globos liquef'actaque volvere saxa. Armorum sonitus toto Germania coe'.o Audiit; insolitis tremuerunt motibus Alpes. [Vox To dread impending wars of civil strife, And wicked bloodshed ; when the laws should fall In one dark rain, trampled and o'erthrown: Then men were warn'd to save their holy shrines, The statues of the irods, their city and lands, Vox quoque per lucos vulgo exaudita recentes Ingens, ei simulacra rnodis pallentia miris Visa sub obscurum noctis; pecudesque locutae, Infandum! sistunt amnes terrseque dehiscunt Et moestum illacryinat templis ebur, oeraque sudant: Proluit insano contorquens vertice sylvas Pluviorum Rex Eridanus ; camposque per omnes Cum stabulis armenta trahit; nee tempore eodcm Tristibus aut extis fibrae apparere minaces Aut puteis manare cruor cessavit, et alte Per noctcm resonare lupis ululautibus urbe? ; Non alias coilo cecidcruut plura sereno Fulgura, nee diri toties arsere cometae ; Ergo, etc. Virgil, Georg. i. 488. Which is translated by Dryden: The Sun reveals the secrets of the sky, And who dares give the source of light the lie? The change of empires he oft declares, Fierce tumults, hidden treasons, open wars; He first the fate of Caesar did foretell, And pitied Rome when Rome in Caesar fell : In iron clouds conceal'd the public light, And impious mortals fear'd eternal night. Nor was the fact foretold by him alone, Nature her-elf stood forth and seconded the Sun. Earth, air, and seas with prodigies were sign'd, And birds obscene and howlin g dogs divin'd. What rocks did ^Etna's bellowing mouth expire From her torn entrails, and what floods of fire! What clanks were heard in German skies afar, Of arms and armies rushing to the war! Dire earthquakes rent the solid Alps below, And from their summits shook th' eternal snow; Pale spectres in the close of night were seen, And voices heard of more than mortal men. In silent groves dumb sheep and oxen spoke ; And streams ran backward, and their beds forsook; The yawning earth disclosed th' abyss of hell, The weeping statues did the wars foretell, And holy sweat from brazen idols fell. Then rising in his might the king of floods Uush'd through the forests, tore the lofty woods; And rolling onward with a sweepy sway, Bore houses, herds, and labouring hinds away. Blood From slaughter and destruction, and preserve Their ancient customs unimpair'd and free. And this kind hint of safety was subjoin'd, That when a splendid statue of great Jove,1 In godlike beauty, on its base was raised, With eyes directed to Sol's eastern gate; Then both the senate and the people's bands, Duly forewarn'd, should see the secret plots Of wicked men, and disappoint their spite. This statue, slowly form'd and long delay 'd, At length by you, when consul, has been placed Upon its holy pedestal ; 'tis now That the great sceptred Jupiter has graced His column, on a well-appointed hour: And at the self-same moment faction's crimes Blood sprang from wells; wolves howl'd in towns by night; And boding victims did the priests affright. Such peals of thunder never pour'd from high, Nor forky lightnings flash'd from such a sullen sky: Red meteors ran across the ethereal space; Stars disappear'd, and comets took their place. Which Shakspeare has imitated with reference to the same event : Cal. Caesar, I never stood on ceremonies, Yet now they fright me: there is one within, Besides the things that we have heard and seen, Recounts most horrid sights seen by the watch: A lioness hath whelped in the streets, And graves have yawn'd and yielded up their dead. Fierce, fiery warriors fight upon the clouds, In ranks and squadrons and right form of war, Which drizzled blood upon the Capitol: The noise of battle hurtled in the air; Horses did neigh, and dying men did groan; And ghosts did shriek and squeak t the streets. O Caesar, these things are beyond all use, And I do fear them When beggars die there are no comets seen; The heavens themselves blaze forth the death of princes. Cats. What say the augurers? Serv. They would not have you to stir forth to-day. Plucking the entrails of an offering forth, They could not find a heart within the beast. 1 This refers to the column meant to serve as a pedestal for the statue of Jupiter, mentioned in the second book of this treatise, and also in the second oration against Catiline, as having been ordered in the consulship of Torquatus and Cotta, but not completed till the year of Cicero's consulship. Were by the loyal Gauls reveal'd and shown To the astonish'd multitude and senate. Well then did ancient men, whose monuments You keep among you,they who will maintain Virtue and moderation ; by these arts Ruling the lands an<l people subject to them: Well, too, your holy sires, whose spotless faith, And piety, and deep sagacity Have far surpass'd the men of other lands, Worshipp'd in every age the mighty Gods. They with sagacious care these things foresaw, Spending in virtuous studies all their leisure, And in the shady Academic groves, And fair Lyceum : where they well pour'd forth The treasures of their pure and learned hearts. And, like them, you have been by virtue placed, To save your country, in the imminent, breach ; Still with philosophy you soothe your cares, With prudent care dividing all your hours Between the Muses and your country's claims. Will you then be able to persuade your mind to speak against the arguments which I adduce on the subject of divination, you being a man who have performed such exploits as you have done, and who have so admirably com posed those verses which I have just recited 1 What do you ask me, Carneades, why these things take place in this manner, or by what art it is possible for them to be brought about? I confess that I do not know ; but that they do happen, I assert that you yourself are a witness. Yes, they happen by chance, you say. Is it so 1 Can anything be done by chance which has in itself all the features of reality? Four dice when thrown may by chance come up sixes. Do you think that if you were to throw four hundred dice it would be possible for them all to come up sixes by any chance in the world 1 Paints scattered at random on a canvass may by chance represent the features of a human face ; but do you think that you could by any chance scat tering of colours represent the beauty of the Coan Venus'?1 Suppose a pig by burrowing in the ground with his snout were to make the letter A, would you on that account think it possible that the animal should by chance write out the Andromache of Ennius 1 Carneades used to tell a story that 1 This refers to the celebrated picture of Venus Anadyomene, painted by Apelles, who was a native of Cos. in cutting stones in the stone- quarries at Chios, there was once discovered a natural head of a Pan. I dare say there may have been a figure not wholly unlike such a head, but still certainly it was not such that you could fancy it wrought by Scopns.1 For this is the nature of things, that chance can never imitate reality to perfection. But, you will say, things which have been predicted sometimes fail to happen. What act is not liable to this observation 1 I mean of those acts which proceed on con jecture, and are founded on opinion. Is not medicine to be considered a real art? And yet how often is it deceived! Need I say more 1 Are not pilots of ships often deceived? Did not the army of the Greeks, and the captains of all that numerous fleet, depart from Troy, as Pacuvius says So glad at their departure, that they gazed In idle mirth upon the wanton fish, And never ceased from laughing at their gambols; Meanwhile at sunset the vast sea grows rough, The darkness lowers, black night and clouds surround them. Did, however, the shipwreck of so many illustrious generals and sovereigns prove that there was no such art as naviga tion? Or is the science of generals good for nothing because a most illustrious general was lately put to flight, after the total loss of his army 1 Or are we to say that there is no room for the display of sound principles of politics, or wis dom in the administration of affairs of state, because Cnseus Ponipeius was often .deceived, and even Cato and you your self have been deceived in more instances than one? The same rule applies to the answers of soothsayers, and to all divination which rests on opinion: for it depends wholly on conjecture, and has no means of advancing further. And that perhaps sometimes deceives us, but still it more fre quently directs us to the truth. For it is traced back to all eternity. And as in the infinite duration of time, things have happened in an almost countless number of ways with the self-same indications preceding each occurrence, an art has Scopas was a Parian, nourishing. He was one of the greatest architects and sculptors of antiquity, and is mentioned as such by Horace, who says: Divite me scilicet artium Quas aut Parrhasius protulit aut Scopas, Hie saxo, liquidis ille colorilius Solera nunc hominem nonere mmr. TV « been concocted and reduced to rules from a frequent obser vation and notice of the same circumstances. But your auspices, how clear how sure they are ! which at this time are known nothing of by the Roman augurs, (excuse me for saying this so plainly,) though they are main tained by the Cilicians, Pamphylians, Pisidians, and Lycians. For why should I mention that man connected with us in ties of hospitality, that most illustrious and excellent ^man, king Deiotarus 1 He never does anything whatever without taking the auspices. And it happened once that he had started on a journey which he had arranged and determined some time before; but, being warned by the flight of an eagle, he returned back again, and the very next night the house in which he would have been lodging if he had per sisted in his journey, fell to the ground. And he was so moved by this occurrence, that, as he himself used to tell me, he often turned back in the same way in a journey, even when he had advanced many days on it. And what is most remarkable in his conduct is, that after he had been deprived by GIULIO (si veda) CESARE of his tetrarchy, his kingdom, and his property, he still asserted that he did not repent of obeying those auspices which had promised success to him when he was setting out to join Pompey: for he considered that the authority of the senate, and the liberty of the Roman people, and the dignity of the empire had been upheld by his arms; and that those birds had taken good care of his honour and real interests, inasmuch as they had been his counsellors in adhering to the claims of good faith and duty ; for that character was a thing dearer to him than his possessions. . And in saying this he seems to me to form a very just estimate. For our magis trates at times use compulsion. For it is quite impossible, if a cake is thrown down before a chicken, but what some crumbs must fall out of his mouth when he feeds. And as you have it set down in your books that a tripudium takes place if any of the food falls on the ground, so you also call this compulsory augury which I have spoken of tripudium solistimum.1 And so, as that wise Cato complains, owing to i Tripudium, from terripavium (Cic Div.), a stamping on the ground In divination, tripudium, or tripudium solistimum, when- the birds (pulli) ate so greedily that the food fell from their mouths, and so rebounded on the ground, which was regarded as a good omen. Riddle and Arnold, Lat. Diet. the negligence of the college, many auguries and many auspices have been wholly lost and abandoned. Formerly there was, I may almost say, no ariair of importance, not even if it only related to private business, which was transacted \vithout taking the auspices. And this is proved even now by the Auspices Nuptiarum, who, though the custom has fallen into disuse, still preserve the name. For just as we now consult the entrails of victims, though even that very practice is observed less now than it used to be, so in ancient times, before all transactions of importance, men used to consult birds; and, therefore, from want of paying proper regard to ill omens, we often run into alarming and destructive dangers: as Publius Claudius, the son of Appius Csecus, and his colleague Lucius Junius, lost a fine fleet, because they had put to sea in defiance of the omens. And, indeed, something of the same kind befel Agamemnon; for he, when the Grecians had begun To murmur loudly, and with open scorn T' asperse the skill of th' holy soothsayers, Bade the crew bend the sails and put to sea, Choosing the people's voice before the omens. But why need we look for old examples of this 1 We have ourselves seen what happened to Marcus Crassus, because he neglected the notice which was given to him that the omens were unfavourable. On which occasion, Appius, your col league, a good augur, as I have often heard you say, branded, when he was censor, an excellent man and a most illustrious citizen, Caius Ateius, without sufficient consideration, because he had cooperated in falsifying the auspices. However, let that pass. It may have been the duty of the censor to do so, if he thought that the auspices were falsified. But it certainly was not the duty of an augur to set down in the books that this was the cause of a fearful calamity befalling the Roman people. For even if that was the cause of the calamity, still the fault was not in the man who announced the state of the auspices, but in him who disregarded the announcement. For that the announcement wTas a correct one, as the same augur and censor bears witness, was proved by the event; for if the announcement had been false, it could not possibly have caused any calamity at all. In truth, prognostics of calamity, like other auspices, and omens, and tokens, do not produce causes why anything should happen, but merely give notice of what will happen unless you pro vide against it. It was not, therefore, the announcement of unfavourable omens, made by Ateius, which was the cause of calamity; all that he did was, by declaring to him what signs had been seen, to warn him what would happen if he did not take precautions against it. Accordingly, either that announcement had no effect at all, or else if, as Appius thinks, it had an effect, the effect was this, that guilt was attached, not to the man who gave the warning, but to him who did not attend to it. What shall I say more 1 From whence have you received that staff (lituus) of yours, which is the most cele brated ensign of your augurship? That is the staff with which Komulus parted out the several districts, when he founded the city. And that staff of Romulus, (that is to say, a stick curved and slightly bent forward at the top, which has derived its name from its resemblance to the trumpet (lituus) used in sounding signals,) having been laid up in the meeting-house of the Salii, which was in the Pala tine-hill, when that house was burnt to the ground, was found unhurt. What more need I say 1 Who of the ancient authors is there who does not relate what an arrangement of the districts of the city was made, many years after the time of Romulus, in the reign of Tarqninius Priscus, by Attius Xavius, who employed his staff in this manner? And it is said that he, when a boy, was forced through poverty to act as a swineherd; and one day, having lost one of his pigs, he made a vow that if he recovered it, he would give the god the finest grape which there was in the whole vineyard. Accordingly, when he had found the pig, he placed himself in the middle of the vineyard, with his eyes directed towards the south; and after he had divided the vineyard into four divisions, and had been directed by the birds to disregard three of the portions, in the fourth division, which remained, he found a grape of most wonderful size, as we find recorded in our books. And when this fact became known, all the neighbours used to consult him on all their affairs, until he. gained a great name and reputation ; in consequence of which kin<r Priscus sent for him. And when he had come to the king, he, wishing to make proof of his skill in augury, told him that he was thinking of something, and asked him whether it could possibly be done. He, having taken an auguiy, answered that it could. But Tarquin said that he had been thinking that it was possible that a whetstone might be cut through by a razor. On this Attius bade him try ; and accordingly a whetstone was brought into the assembly, and, in the sight of king and people, cut through with a razor. And in consequence of this, it happened that Tarquinius always consulted Attius Navius as an augur, and that the people also were used to refer their private affairs to him. And we are told that that whetstone and that razor were buried in the comitium, and that the puteal was built over it. Let us deny everything; let us burn our annals; let us say that all these statements are false ; let us, in short, confess everything rather than that the Gods regard the affairs of mankind. What 1 do not even your writings about Tiberius Gracchus sanction the theories df augurs ami haruspices 1 For when he had unintentionally erected a tent to take the auspices informally, because he had crossed the pomcerium without taking the auspices, he held there the comitia for the election of the consuls. (The matter is one of notoriety, and committed to writing by you yourself.) However, Tiberius Gracchus, who was himself an augur, ratified the authority of the auspices by a confession of his error, and added great authority to the sj'steui of the harus pices; who, having at the recent comitia been introduced into the senate, asserted that the person who proposed the candi dates to the comitia had no right to do so. I therefore agree with those authors who have asserted that there are two kinds of divination; one par taking of art, and the other wholly devoid of it. For art is visible in those persons who pursue anything new by conjec ture, and have learnt to judge of what is old by observation. But those men, on the other hand, are devoid of art, who give way to presentiments of future events, not proceeding by reason or conjecture, nor on the observation and considera tion of particular signs, but yielding to some excitement of mind, or to some unknown influence subject to no precise rules or restraint, (as is often the case with men who dream, and sometimes with those who deliver predictions in n frenzied manner,) as Bacis' of Boeotia, Epimenides2 the Cretan, and the Erythrean Sib}'!. And under this head we ought also to rank oracles; not those which are drawn by lot, but those which are uttered under the influence of some divine instinct and inspiration. Although even lots are not to be despised where they are sanctioned by the authority of antiquity, like those which we are told used to rise out of the earth; which, however, are drawn in such a manner as to be apposite to the subject under consideration, which, indeed, is a thing that I conceive to be very possible by divine management. The interpreters of all of which appear to me to come very near to the divining power of those whose interpreters they are (just as those grammarians do who are the interpreters of poets). What proof of sagacity is it, then, to wish to disparage things sanctioned by antiquity, by vile calumnies? I admit that I cannot discover the cause. Perhaps it lies hid, involved in the obscurity of nature. For God has not int nded me to understand these matters, but only to use them. I will use them, then ; nor will I be persuaded to think, either that all Etruria is mad on the subject of the entrails of victims, or that the same nation is all wrong about lightnings, or that it interprets prodigies fallaciously, when it has often happened that sub terranean noises and crashes, often that earthquakes, have predicted, with terrible truth, many of the evils which have befallen our own republic and other states. Why should I say more? The fact of a mule having brought forth is much ridiculed by some people; but because this parturition did take place in the case of an animal of natural barrenness, was there not an incredible crop of evils predicted by the soothsayers 1 Need I go further 1 Did not Tiberius Gracchus, the. son of Publius Gracchus, who had been twice consul and censor, and who was also an augur of the 1 Bacis was believed to have lived and prophesied at Heleon, in Bceotia, being inspired by the nymphs of the Corycian cave. Some of hjs prophecies are given us by Herodotus (See also Aristophanes, Eq.; Pax) Epimenides was a poet and prophet of Crete. He was sent for by the Athenians to purify Athens when it was visited by a plague, in consequence of the sacrilege of Cylon. He is said to have lived to a great age.highest skill and reputation, and a wise man, and a most virtuous citizen, did not he (as Caius Gracchus, his son, has left recorded in his writings), when two snakes were caught in his house, convoke the soothsayers? And the answer which they gave him was, that if he let the male escape, his wife would die in a short time ; but if he let the female escape, he would die himself: on which he thought it more becoming to encounter an early death himself, than to expose the youthful daughter of Publius Africanus to it. Accordingly, he released the female snake, and died himself a few days afterwards. Let us, after this, laugh at the soothsayers; let us call them useless and triflers, and despise those men whose principles the wisest men, and subsequent events and occur rences, have often proved. Let us despise also the Baby lonians, and those who on mount Caucasus observe the stars of heaven, and follow all their revolutions in regular number and motion. Let us, say I, condemn all those people for folly, or vanity, or impudence, who, as they themselves assert, have exact records for four hundred and seventy thousand years carefully noted down, and let us decide that they are telling lies, and have no regard as to what the judgment of future ages concerning them will be. Come, then, you vain and deceitful barbarians, has the history of the Greeks likewise spoken falsely? Who is ignorant of the answer (that I may speak at present of natural divination) which the Pythian Apollo gave to Croesus, to the Athenians, the Lacedaemonians, the Tegeans, the Argives, and the Corinthians? Chrysippus has collected a countless list of oracles not one without a witness and authority of sufficient weight; but as they are known to you, I will pass them over. This one I will mention and defend. Would that oracle at Delphi have ever been so celebrated and illustrious, and so loaded with such splendid gifts from all nations and kings, if all ages had not had experience of the truth of its predic tions 1 At present, you will say, it has no such reputation. Granted, then, that it has a lower reputation now, because the truth of oracles is less notorious; still I affirm that it would not have had such a reputation then, if it had not been distinguished for extraordinary accuracy. But it is possible that that power in the earth, which excited the mind of the Pythian priestess by divine inspiration, may have disappeared through old age, just as we know that some rivers have dried up, or become changed and diverted into another channel. However, let it be owing to whatever you please; for it is a great question: only let this fact remain which cannot be denied, unless we will overthrow all his torythat that oracle told the truth for many ages. However, let us pass over the oracles; let us come to dreams. And Chrysippus discussing them, after collecting many minute instances, does the same that Antipater does when he investigates this subject, and those dreams which were explained according to the interpretation of Antipho, which indeed prove the acuteness of the interpreter, but still are not examples of such importance as to have been worthy of being brought forward. The mother of Dionysius of that Dionysius, I mean, who was the tyrant of Syracuse, as it is recorded by Philistus, a man of learning and diligence, and who was a contem porary of the tyrant when she was pregnant with this very Dionysius, dreamt that she had become the mother of a little Satyr. The interpreters of prodigies, who at that time were in Sicily called Galeotse, gave her for answer when she con sulted them about it, (according to the story told by Philistus,) that the child whom she was about to bring forth would be the most illustrious man of Greece, with very lasting good fortune. Am I recalling you to the fables of the Greek poets and those of our country? For the Vestal Virgin, in Ennius, says The agitated dame with trembling limbs Brings in a lamp, and with unbridled tears, Starting from broken sleep, pours forth these words:• 0 daughter of the fair Eurydice, You whom rny father loved, see strength and life Desert my limbs, and leave me helpless all. 1 thought I saw a man of handsome form Seize me, and bear me through the willow groves, Along the river banks and places yet unknown. And then alone, T tell you true, my sister, I seem'd to wander, and with tardy steps To seek to trace you, but my efforts fail'd; While no clear path did guide my doubtful feet. And then, I thought, my father thus address'd me, With evil-boding voice: Alas! my daughter, What numerous woes by you must be endured; Though fortune shall in after times arise From out of the waters of this river here. Thus, sister, spake my father, and then vanish'd • 2STor, though much wish'd for, did he once return! In vain, with many tears, I raised my hands Up to the azure vault of the highest heaven, And with caressing voice invoked his name, Or seem'd to do so. And 'twas long ere sleep, Freighted with such sad dreams, did quit my breast. Now these accounts, though they perhaps may be the mere inventions of the poets, still are not inconsistent with the general character of dreams. We may grant that that is a fictitious one by which Priam is represented to have been disturbed: Queen Hecuba dream'd an ominous dream of fate- That she did bear no human child of flesh, But a fierce blazing torch. Priam, alarm'd, Ponder'd with anxious fear the fatal dream; And sought the gods with smoking sacrifice. Then the diviner's aid he did entreat, With many a prayer to the prophetic god, If haply he might learn the dream's intent. Thus spake Apollo with all-knowing mind: The queen shall have a son, who, if he grow To man's estate, shall set ajl Troy in flames The ruin of his city and his land. Let us grant, then, that these dreams are, as I have said, merely poetic fictions, and let us add the dream of ^Eneas, which Numerius Fabius Pictor relates in his Annals, as one of the same kind; in which ^Eneas is represented as foreseeing, in his trance, all his future exploits and adventures. But let us come nearer home. What kind of dream was that of Tarquin the Proud, which the poet Accius, m his Tragedy of Brutus, puts into the mouth of Tarquin himself? Sleep closed my weary eyelids, when a shepherd Brought me two rams. The one 1 sacrificed; The other rushing at me with wild force Hurl'd me upon the ground. Prostrate I gazed Upon the heavens, when a new prodigy Dazzled my eyes. The flashing orb of day Took a new course, diverging to the right, With all his kindling beams strangely transversed. Of this dream the diviners gave the following interpretation Dreams are in general reflex images Of things that men in waking hours have known; But sometimes dreams of loftier character Rise in the tranced soul, inspired by Jove, Prophetic of the future. Then beware Of him, whom thou dost think as stupid as The ram thou dreamest of. For in his breast Dwells manliest wisdom. He may yet expel Thee from thy kingdom. Mark the prophecy: That change in the sun's course thou didst behold, Betoken'd revolution in the state, And as the sun did turn from left to right, we predict So shall that revolution meet success. Let us again return to foreign events. Heraclides of Pontus, an intelligent man, who was one of Plato's disciples and followers, writes that the mother of Phalaris fancied that she saw in a drearn the statues of the gods whom Phalaris had consecrated in his house. Among them it appeared to her that Mercury held a cup in his right hand, from which he poured blood, which as soon as it touched the earth gushed forth like a fresh fountain, and filled the house with streaming gore. The dream of the mother was too fatally realized by the cruelty of the son. Why need I also relate, out of the history of Persia by Dinon, the interpretations which the Magi gave to the cele brated prince, Cyrus? For he dreamed that beholding the sun at his feet, he thrice endeavoured to grasp it in his hands, but the sun rolled away and departed, and escaped from him. The Magi (who were accounted sages and teachers in Persia) thus interpreted the dream, saying, that the three attempts of Cyrus to catch the sun in his hands, signified that he would reign thirty years ; and what they predicted really came to pass ; for he was forty years old when he began to reign, and he reached the age of seventy. Among all barbarous nations, indeed, we meet with proof that they likewise possess the gift of divination and presentiment. The Indian Calanus, when led to execution, said, while ascending the funeral pile, 0 what a glorious departure from life ! when, as happened to Hercules, after niy body has been consumed by fire, my soul shall depart to a world of light. And when Alexander asked him if he had anything to say to him; Yes, replied he, .we shall soon meet again; and this prophecy was soon fulfilled, for a few days afterwards Alexander died in Babylon. I will quit the subject of dreams for awhile, and return to them presently. On the very night that Olympias was delivered of Alexander, the temple of Diana of the Ephesiaus was burned ; and when the morning dawned, the Magi declared that the ruin and destroyer of Asia had been born that night. So much for the Magi and the Indians. Now let us return to dreams. Ccelius relates that Hannibal, wishing to remove a golden column from the temple of Juno Lacinia, and not knowing whether it was solid gold or merely gilt, bored a hole in it ; and as he had found it solid, he determined to take it away. But the following night Juno appeai-ed to him in a dream, and warned him against doing so, and threatened him that if he did, she would take care that he should lose an eye with which he could see well. He was too prudent a man to neglect this threat ; and therefore, of the gold which had been abstracted from the column in boring it, he made a little heifer, which he fixed on the capital. And the same story is told in the Grecian history of Silenus, whom Ccelius follows. And he was an author who was particularly diligent in relating the exploits of Hannibal. He says that when Hannibal had taken Saguntum, he dreamed in his sleep that he was summoned to a council of the gods, and that when he arrived at it, Jupiter commanded him to carry the war into Italy, and one of the deities in council was appointed to be his conductor in the enterprise. He therefore began his march under the direction of this divine protector, who enjoined him not to look behind him . Hannibal, however, could not long keep in his obedience, but yielded to a great desire to look back, when he immediately beheld a huge and terrible monster, surrounded with ser pents, which, wherever it advanced, destroyed all the trees, and shrubs, and buildings. He then, marvelling at this, inquired of the god what this monster might mean; and the god replied, that it signified the desolation of Italy ; and com manded him to advance without delay, and not to concern himself with the evils that lay behind him and in his rear. In the history of Agathocles it is said, that Hamilcar the Carthaginian, when he was besieging Syracuse, dreamed that he heard a voice announcing to him, that he -should sup on the succeeding day in Syracuse. When the morning dawned a great sedition arose in his camp between the Carthaginian and Sicilian soldiers. And when the Syracusans found this out, they made a vigorous sally and attacked the camp un expectedly, and succeeded in making Hamilcar prisoner while alive, and thus his dream was verified. All history is full of similar accounts; and the experience of real life is equally rich in them. That illustrious man, Publius Decius, the son of Quintus Decius, the first of the Decii who was a consul, being a military tribune in the consulship of Marcus Valerius and Aulus Cornelius, when our army was sorely pressed by the Samnites, and being accustomed to expose himself to great personal danger in battle, was warned to take greater care of himself; on which he replied (as our annals report), that he had had a dream, which informed him that he should die with the greatest glory, while engaged in the midst of the enemy. For that time he succeeded in happily rescuing our army from the perils that surrounded it. But three years after, when he was consul, he devoted himself to death for his country, and threw himself armed among the ranks of the Latins; by which gallant action the Latins were defeated and destroyed: and his death was so glorious that his son desired a similar fate.But let us now come, if you please, to the dreams of philosophers. We read in Plato that Socrates, when he was in the public prison at Athens, said to his friend Crito that he should die in three day, for that he had seen in a dream a woman of extreme beauty who called him by his name, and quoted in his presence this verse of HomerOn the third day you'll reach the fruitful Phthia. 1 And it is said that it happened just as it had been foretold. Again, what a man, and how great a man, is Xenophon the pupil of Socrates! He, too, in his account of that war in which he accompanied the younger Cyrus, relates the dreams which he sawthe accomplishment of which was marvellous. Shall we then say that Xenophon was a liar or dotard? What shall we say, too, of Aristotle, a man of singular and almost divine genius? Was he deceived himself, or does he wish others to be deceived, when he informs us that Eudemus of Cyprus, his own intimate friend, on his way to Macedonia, came to Pherae, a celebrated city of Thessaly, 1 Horn. :Hfjari Kfv rpirdrca $0ii)v tpi$ta\ov IKO(U.TIV. which was then under the cruel sway of the tyrant Alexander. In that town he was seized with a severe illness, so that he was given over by all the physicians, when he beheld in a dream a young man of extreme beauty, who informed him that in a short time he should recover, and also the tyrant Alexander would die in a few days; and that Eudemus himself would, after five years' absence, at length return home. Aristotle relates that the first two predictions of this dream were immediately accomplished; for Eudemus speedily recovered, and the tyrant perished at the hands of his wife's brother; and that towards the end of the fifth year, when, in consequence of that dream, there was a hope that he would return into Cyprus from Sicily, they heard that he had been slain in a battle near Syracuse; from which it appeared that his dream was susceptible of being interpreted as meaning, that when the soul of Eudemus had quitted his body, it would then appear to have signified the return home. To the philosophers we may add the testimony of Scpho- cles, a most learned man, and as a poet quite divine, who, when a golden goblet of great weight had been stolen from the temple of Hercules, saw in a dream the god himself appearing to him, and declaring who was the robber. Sopho cles paid no attention to this vision, though it was repeated more than once. When it had presented itself to him several times, he proceeded up to the court of Areopagus, and laid the matter before them. On this, the judges issued an order for the arrest of the offender nominated by Sophocles. On the application of the torture the criminal confessed his guilt, and restored the goblet; from which event this temple of Hercules was afterwards called the temple of Hercules the Indicate. But why do I continue to cite the Greeks? when, somehow or other, I feel more interest in the examples of my ellowcountrymen. All our historians,the Fabii, the Gellii, and, more recently, Ccelius, bear witness to similar facts. In the Latin war, when they first celebrated the votive games in honour of the gods, the city was suddenly roused to arms, and the games being thus interrupted, it was necessary to appoint new ones Before their commencemen,however, just as the people had taken their places in the circus, a slave who had been beaten with rods was led through the circus, bearing a gibbet. After this event, a certain Roman rustic had a dream, in which an apparition informed him that he had been displeased with the president of the games, and the rustic was ordered to apprise the senate of that fact. He, however, did not dare to do so; on which the apparition appeared a second time, and warned him not to provoke him to exert his power. Even then he could not summon courage to obey, and presently his son died. After this, the same admonition was repeated in his dreams for the third time. Then the peasant himself became extremely ill, and related the cause of his trouble to his friends, by whose advice he was carried on a litter to the senatehouse; and as soon as he had related his dreams to the senate, he recovered his health and strength, and returned home on foot perfectly cured. Thereupon, the truth of his dreams being admitted by the senate, it is related that these games were repeated a second time. It is recorded in the history of the same Crelius, that Caius Gracchus informed many persons that during the time that he was soliciting the qusestorship, his brother Tiberius Gracchus appeared to him in a dream, and said to him, that he might delay as much as he pleased, but that nevertheless he was fated to die by the same death which e himself had suffered. Coclius asserts that he heard this fact, and related it to many persons, before Caius Gracchus had become tribune of the people. And what can be more certain than such a dream as this 1 Who, again, can despise those two dreams, which are so frequently dwelt upon by the Stoics?one concerning Simonides, who, having found the dead body of a man who was a stranger to him lying in the road, buried it. Having performed this office, he was about to embark in a ship, when the man whom he had buried appeared to him in a dream at night, and warned him not to undertake the voyage, for that if he did he would perish by shipwreck. Therefore, he returned home again, but all the other people who sailed in that vessel were lost. The other dream, which is a very celebrated one, is related in the following manner:Two Arcadians, who were in timate friends, were travelling together, and arriving at Megara, one of them took up his quarters at an inn, the other at a friend's house. After supper, when they had both gone to bed, the Arcadian, who was staying at his friend's house, saw an apparition of his fellowtraveller at the inn, who prayed him to come to his assistance immediately, as the innkeeper was going to murder him. Alarmed at this intimation, he started from his sleep; but on recollection, thinking it nothing but an idle dream, he lay down again. Presently, the apparition appeared to him again in his sleep, and entreated him, though he would not come to his as sistance while yet alive, at least not to leave his death unavenged. He told him further, that the innkeeper had first murdered him, and then cast him into a dungcart, where he lay covered with filth; and begged him to go early to the gate of the town, before any cart could leave the town. Much excited by this second vision, he went early next morning to the gate of the town, and met with the driver of the cart, and asked him what he had in his waggon. The driver, upon this question, ran away in a fright. The dead body was then discovered, and the innkeeper, the evidence being clear against him, was brought to punishment. What can be more akin to divination than such a dream as this? But why do I relate any more ancient instances of similar things, when such dreams have occurred to ourselves? for I have often told you mine, and I have as often heard you talk of yours. When I was proconsul in Asia, it appeared to me as I slept, that I saw you riding on horseback till you reached the banks of a great river, and that you were suddenly thrown off and precipitated into the waters, and so disappeared. At this I trembled exceedingly, being overcome with fear and apprehension. But suddenly you reappeared before me with a joyful countenance, and, with the same horse, ascended the opposite bank, and then we embraced each other. It is easy to conjecture the signification of such a dream as this; and hence the learned inten <reters of Asia predicted to me that those events would take place which afterwards did come to pass. I now come to your own dream, which I have sometimes heard from yourself, but more often from our friend Sallust. He used to say, that in that flight and exile of yours, which was so glorious for you, so calamitous for our country, you stayed awhile in a certain villa of the territory of Atina, when, having sat up a great part of the night, you fell into a deep and heavy slumber towards the morning. And from this slumber your attendants would not awake you, as you had given orders that you were not to be disturbed, though your journey was sufficiently urgent. When at length you awoke about the second hour of the day, you related to Sallust the following dream:That it had seemed to you that, as you were wandering sorrowfully through some solitary district, Caius Marius appeared to you with his fasces covered with laurel, and that he asked you why you were afflicted. And when you informed him that you had been driven from your country by the violence of the disaffected, he seized your right hand, and urged you to be of good cheer, and ordered the lictor nearest to him to lead you to his monument, saying, that there you should find security. Sallust told me, that upon hearing this dream, he himself exclaimed at once that your return would be speedy and glorious; and that you also appeared to be de lighted with your dream. A short time afterwards I was informed, as you well know, that it was in the monument of Marius that, on the instance of that excellent and famous consul Lentulus, that most honourable decree of the senate was passed for your recal, which was applauded with shouts of incredible exultation in a very full assembly; so that, as you yourself observed, no dream could have a higher character of divination than this which occurred to you at Atina. But you will say that there are likewise many false dreams. No doubt there are some which are perhaps obscure to us; but, even allow that there are some which are actually false, what argument is that against those which are true ?of which, indeed, there would be a great many more if we went to bed in perfect health; but as it is, from our being over charged with wine and luxuries, all our perceptions become troubled and confused. Consider what Socrates, in the Republic of Plato, says on this subject. When, says he, that part of the soul which is capable of intelligence and reason is subdued and reduced to languor, then that part in which there is a species of ferocity and uncivilized savageness being excited by immoderate eating and drinking, exults in our sleep and wantons about unre strainedly; and therefore all kinds of visions present them selves to it, such as are destitute of all sense or reason, in which we appear to be giving ourselves up to incest and all kinds of bestiality, or to be committing bloody murders, and massacres, and all kinds of execrable deeds, with a triumphant defiance of all prudence and decency. But in the case of a man who is accustomed to a sober and regular life, when he commits himself to sleep, then that part of his soul which is the seat of intellect and reason is still active and awake, being replenished with a banquet of virtuous thoughts; and that portion which is nourished by pleasure, is neither destroyed by exhaustion nor swollen by satiety, either of which is accustomed to impair the vigour of the soul, whether nature is deficient in anything, or super abundant or overstocked; and that third division also, ill which the vehemence of anger is situated, is lulled and restrained; so, consequently, it happens, that owing to the due regulation of the two more violent portions of the soul, the third, or intellectual part, shines forth conspicuously, and is fresh and active for the admission of dreams; and therefore the visions of sleep which present themselves before it are tranquil and true. Such are the very words of Plato. Shall we, then, prefer listening to the doctrine of Epicurus on this point? As for Carneades, he sometimes says one thing and sometimes another, from his mere fondness for discussion. And yet, what are the sentiments which he utters? At all events, they are never expressed either with elegance or propriety. And will you prefer such a man as this to Plato and Socrates 1 men who, even if they were to give no reason for their tenets, should, by the mere authority of their names, outweigh these minute philosophers. Plato then asserts that we should bring our bodies into such a disposition before we go to sleep as to leave nothing which may occasion error or perturbation in our dreams. For this reason, perhaps, Pythagoras laid it down as a rule, that his disciples should not eat beans, because this food is very flatulent, and contrary to that tranquillity of mind which a truthseeking spirit should possess. When, therefore, the mind is thus separated from the society and contagion of the body, it recollects things past, examines things present, and anticipates things to come. For the body of one who is asleep lies like that of one who is dead, while the spirit is full of vitality and vigour. And it will be yet more so after death, when it will have got rid of the body altogether; and therefore we _see that even on the approach of death it becomes much more divine. For it often happens that those who are attacked by a severe and mortal malady, foresee that their death is at hand. And in this state they often behold ghosts and phantoms of the dead. Then they are more than ever anxious about their reputations; and they who have lived otherwise than as they ought, then most especially repent of their sins. And that the dying are often possessed of the gift of divi nation, Posidonius confirms by that notorious example of a certain Rhodian who, being on his deathbed, named six of his contemporaries, saying which of them would die first, which second, which, next to him, and so on. There are, he imagines, besides this, three ways in which men dream under the immediate impulse of the Gods: one, when the mind intuitively perceives things by the relation which it bears to the Gods; the second, arising from the fact of the air being full of immortal spirits, in whom all the signs of truth are, as it were, stamped and visible; the third, when the Gods themselves converse with sleepers,and that, as I have said before, takes place more especially at the approach of death, enabling the minds of the dying to anti cipate future events. An instance of this is the prediction of Calanus, of whom I have already spoken. Another is that of Hector, in Homer, who, when dying himself, foretels the approaching death of Achilles. If there were no such thing as divination, Plautus would not have been so much applauded for the following line: My mind presaged (prcesagibat), when I first went out, That I was going on a fruitless journey: for the verb sagio means, to feel shrewdly. Hence old women are sometimes called sagce (witches), because they are ambi tious of knowing many things; and dogs are called sagacioiis. Whoever, therefore, say it (knows) before the event has come to pass, is said prcesagire (to have the power of knowing the future beforehand). There exists, therefore, in the mind a presentiment, which strikes the soul from without, and which is enclosed in the soul by divine operation. If this becomes very vivid, it is termed frenzy, as happens when the soul, being abstracted from the body, is stirred up by a divine inspiration. What sudden transport fires my virgin soul ! Jly mother, oh, my mother! dearest name Of all dear names! But oh, my breast is full Of divination and impending fates, While dread Apollo with his mighty impulse Urges me onward. Sisters, my sweet sisters! I grieve to anticipate the coming fate Of our most royal parents. You are all More filial and more dutiful than I. I only am enjoin'd this cruel task, To utter imminent ruin. You do serve them; I injure them ; and your obedience Shines well, set-off by my disloyal rage.1 0 what a tender, moral, and delicate poem ! though the beauty of it does not affect the question. What I wish to prove is, that that frenzy often predicts what is true and real. I see the blazing torch of Troy's last doom, Fire, and massacre, and death. Arm, citizens! Bring aid and quench the flames. In the following lines, it is not so much Cassandra who speaks, as the Deity enclosed in human form:Already is the fleet prepared to sail; It bears destruction rapidly it speeds: A dreadful army traverses the shores, Destined to slaughter. 1 seem to be doing nothing but quoting tragedies and fables. I would mention a story I have heard from your self, and that not an imaginary, but a real circumstance, and closely related to our present discussion. Caius Coponius, a skilful general, and a man of the highest character for learn ing and wisdom, who commanded the fleet of the Rhodians, with the appointment of praetor, came to you at Dyrrha- chium, and informed, you that a certain sailor in a Khodiau galley had predicted that, in less than a month, Greece would 1 This is a quotation from Pacuvius's play of Hercules ; the speaker is Cassandra. be deluged with blood, that Dyrrhachium would be pillaged, and that the people would flee and take to their ships; that, looking back in their flight, they would see a terrible con flagration. He added, moreover, that the fleet of the lihodians would soon return, and retire to Rhodes. You told me that you yourself were surprised at this intelligence, and that Marcus Varro and Marcus Cato, both men of great learning, who were with you, were exceedingly alarmed. A few days afterwards, Labienus, having escaped from the battle of Phar- salia, arrived and brought an account of the defeat of the army: and the rest of the prediction was soon accomplished; for the corn was dragged out of the granaries, and strewed about all the streets and alleys, and destroyed. Yoxi all embarked on board the ships in haste and alarm; and at night, when you looked back towai-ds the town, you beheld the barges on fire, which were burned by the soldiers because they would not follow. At last you were deserted by the fleet of the Rhodians, and then you found that the prophet had been a true one. I have explained as concisely as possible the fore warnings of dreams and frenzy, with which I said that art had nothing to do; for both these kinds of prediction arise from the same cause, which our friend Cratippus adopts as the true explana tion namely, that the souls of men are partly inspired and agitated from without. By which he meant to say, that there is in the exterior world a sort of divine soul, whence the human soul is derived; and that that portion of the human soul which is the fountain of sensation, motion, and appetite, is not separate from the action of the body; but that portion which partakes of reason and intelligence is then most ener getic, when it is most completely abstracted from the body. Therefore, after having recounted veritable instances of presentiments and dreams, Cratippus used to sum up his conclusions in this manner: If, he would say, the exist ence of the eyes is necessary to the existence and operation of the function of sight, though the eyes may not be always exercising that function, still he who has once made use of his eyes so as to see correctly, is possessed of eyes capable of the sensation of correct sight: just so if the function and gift of divination cannot exist without the exercise of divination, and yet a man who has this gift may sometimes err in its exercise, and not foresee correctly; then it is sufficient to prove the existence of divination, that some event should have been once so correctly divined that none of its circum stances appear to have happened fortuitously. And as a multitude of such events have occurred, the existence of divination ought not to be doubted.But as to those divinations which are explained by conjecture, or by the observation of events; these, as I have said before, are not of the natural, but artificial order; in which artificial class are the haruspices, and augurs, and interpreters. These are discredited by the Peripatetics, and defended by IL PORTICO. Some of them are established by certain monuments and systems, as is evident from the ritual books of the ancient Etruscans respecting electrical interpre tation of the omens conveyed by the entrails of victims and by lightning, and by our own books on the discipline of the augurs Other divinations are explained at once by con jecture, without reference to any written authorities; such as the prophecy of Calchas in Homer, who, by a certain num ber of flying sparrows, predicted the number of years which would be occupied in the siege of Troy; and as an event which we read recorded in the history of Sylla, which hap pened under your own eyes. For when Sylla was in the territory of Nola, and was sacrificing in front of his tent, a serpent suddenly glided out from beneath the altar; and when, upon this, the soothsayer Posthumius exhorted him to give orders for the immediate march of the army, Sylla obeyed the injunction, and entirely defeated the Samnites, who lay before Nola, and took possession of their richly- provided camp. It was by this kind of conjectural divination that the fortune of the tyrant Dionysius was announced a little before the commencement of his reign; for when he was travelling through the territory of Leontini, he dismounted and drove his horse into a river; but the horse was carried away by the current, and Dionysius, not being able with all his efforts to extricate him, departed, as Philistus reports, lamenting his loss. Some time afterwards, as he was journeying further down the river, he suddenly heard a neighing, and to his great joy found his horse in very comfortable condition, with a swarm of bees hanging on his mane. And this prodigy intimated the event which took place a few days after this, when Dionysius was called to the throne. Need I say more 1 Ho\v many intimations were given to the Lacedaemonians a short time before the disaster of Leuctra, when arms rattled in the temple of Hercules, and his statue streamed with profuse sweat! At the same time, at Thebes (as Callisthenes relates), the foldingdoors in the temple of Hercules, which were closed with bars, opened of their own accord, and the armour which was suspended on the walls was found fallen to the ground. And at the same period, at Lebadia, where divine rites were being performed in honour of Trophonius, all the cocks in the neighbourhood began to crow so incessantly as never to leave off at all; and the Boeotian augurs affirmed that this was a sign of victory to the Thebans. because these birds crow only on occasions of victory, and maintain silence in case of defeat. Many other signs, at this time, announced to the Spartans the calamities of the battle of Leuctra; for, at Delphi, on the head of the statue of Lysander, who was the most famous of the Lacedaemonians, there suddenly appeared a garland of wild prickly herbs. And the golden stars which the Lacedae monians had set up as symbols of Castor and Pollux, in the temple of Delphi, after the famous naval victory of Lysander, in which the power of Athens was broken, because those divinities were reported to have appeared in the Lacedaj- monian fleet during that engagement, fell down, and were seen no more. And the greatest of all the prodigies which were sent as warnings to those same Lacedaemonians, happened when they sent to consult the oracle of Jupiter at Dodona on the success of the combat; and when the ambassadors had cast their questions into the urn from which the responses were to be drawn, an ape, whom the king of Molossus kept as a pet, dis turbed and confounded all the lots, and everything else which had been prepared for the purpose of giving a reply in due form. Upon which the priestess who presided at the oracular rites, declared that the Lacedaemonians must rather look to their safety than expect a victory. Must I say more 1 In the second Punic war, when Flaminius, being consul for the second time, despised the signs of future events, did he not by such conduct occasion great disasters to the state? For when, after, having reviewed the troops, he was moving his camp towards Arezzo, and leading his legions against Hannibal, his horse suddenly fell with him before the statue of Jupiter Stator, without any apparent cause. But though those who were skilful in divina tion declared it was an evident sign from the Gods that he should not engage in battle, he paid no attention to it. After wards, when it was proposed to consult the auspices by the consecrated chickens, the augur indicated the propriety of deferring the battle. Flaminius asked him what was to be done the next day, if the chickens still refused to feed? He replied that in that case he must still rest quiet. Fine auspices, indeed, replied Flaminius, if we may only fight when the chickens are hungry, but must do nothing if they are full. And so he commanded the standards to be moved forward, and the army to follow him; on which occasion, the standard-bearer of the first battalion could not extricate his standard from the ground in which it was pitched, and several soldiers who endeavoured to assist him were foiled in the attempt. Flaminius, to whom they related this incident, despised the warning, as was usual with him; and in the course of three hours from that time, the whole of his army was routed, and he himself slain. And it is a wonderful story, too, that is told by Coelius, as having happened at this very time, that such great earth quakes took place in Liguria, Gallia, and many of the islands, and throughout all Italy, that many cities were destrojred, and the earth was broken into chasms in many places, and rivers rolled backwards, while the waters of the sea rushed into their channels. Skilful diviners can certainly derive correct pre sentiments from slight circumstances. When Midas, who be came king of Phrygia, was yet an infant, some ants crammed some grains of wheat into his mouth while he was sleep ing. On this the diviners predicted that he would become exceedingly rich, as indeed afterwards happened. While Plato was an infant in his cradle, a swarm of bees settled on his lips during his slumbers; and the diviners answered that he would become extremely eloquent; and this prediction of his future eloquence was made before he even knew how to speak. Why should I speak of your dear and delightful friend, Roscius 1 Did he tell lies himself, or did the whole city of Lanuvium tell lies for him? When he was in his cradle at Solonium, where he was being brought up, (a place which belongs to the Lanuvian territory.) the story goes, that one night, there being a light in the room, his nurse arose and found a serpent coiled around him, and in her alarm at this sight she made a great outcry. The father of Roscius related the circumstance to the soothsayers, and they answered that the child would become preeminently distinguished and illus trious. This adventure was afterwards engraved by Praxiteles in silver, and our friend Archias celebrated it in verse. What, then, are we waiting for 1 Are we to wait till the Gods are conversant with us and our affairs, while we are in the forum, and on our journeys, and when we are at home? yet though they do not openly discover themselves to us, they diffuse their divine influence far and wide an influence which they not only inclose in the caverns of the earth, but sometimes extend to the constitutions of men. For it was this divine influence of the earth which inspired the Pythia at Delphi, while the Sibyl received her power of divination from nature. Why should we wonder at this 1 Do we not see how various are the species and specific properties of earths 1 of which some parts are injurious, as the earth of Amp- sanctus in Hirpinum, and the Plutonian land in Asia: and some portions of the soil of the fields are pestilential, others salubrious; some spots produce acute capacities, others heavy characters. All which things depend on the varieties of atmosphere, and are inequalities of the exhalations of the different soils. It likewise often happens that minds are affected more or less powerfully by certain expressions of countenance, and certain tones of voice and modulations, often also by fits of anxiety and terror a condition indicated in these lines of the poet : Madden'd in heart, and weeping like as one By the mysterious rites of Bacchus wrought Into wild ecstasy, she wanders lone Amid the tombs, and mourns her Teucer lost. And this state of excitement also proves that there is a divine energy in human souls. And so Democritus asserts, that without something of this ecstasy no man can become a great poet ; and Plato utters the same sentiment : and he may call this poetic inspiration an ecstasy or madness as much as he pleases, so long as he eulogizes it as eloquently as he does in his Phecdon. What is your art of oratory in pleading causes 1 What is your action? Can it be forcible, commanding, and copious, unless your mind and heart are in some degree animated by a kind of inspiration 1 I have often beheld in yourself, and, to descend to a less dignified example, even in your friend ufEsop, such fire and splendour of expression and action, that it seemed as if some potent inspiration had altogether ab stracted him from all present sensation and thought. Besides this, forms often come across us which have no real existence, but which nevertheless have a distinct appear ance. Such an apparition is said to have occurred to Bren- ims, and to his Gallic troops, when he was waging an impious war upon the temple of Apollo at Delphi. For on that occa sion it is reported that the Pythian priestess pronounced these words:I and the white virgins will provide for the future. In accordance with which, it happened that the Gauls fancied that they saw white virgins bearing arms against them, and that their entire army was overwhelmed in the snow. Aristotle thinks that those who become ecstatic or furious through some disease, especially melancholy persons, possess a divine gift of presentiment in their minds. But I know not whether it is right to attribute anything of this kind to men with diseases of the stomach, or to persons in a frenzy, for time divination rather appertains to a sound mind than to a sick body. The Stoics attempt to prove the reality of divination in this way: If there are Gods, and they do not intimate future events to men, they either do not love men, or they are ignorant of the future; or else they conceive that know ledge of the future can be of no service to men; or they con ceive that it does not become their majesty to condescend to intimate beforehand what must be hereafter; or lastly, we must say that even the Gods themselves cannot tell how to forewarn us of them. But it is not true that the Gods do not love men, for they are essentially benevolent and philanthropic; and they cannot be ignorant of those events which take place by their own direction and appointment. Again, it cannot be a matter of indifference to us to be apprised of what is about to happen, for we shall become more cautious if we do know such things. Nor do they think it beneath their dignity to give such inti mations, for nothing is more excellent than beneficence. And lastly, the Gods cannot be ignorant of future events. There fore there are no Gods, and they do not give intimations of the future. But there are Gods: so therefore they do give such intimations; and if they do give such intimations, they must have given us the means of understanding them, or else they would give their information to no purpose. And if they do give us such means, divination must needs exist; therefore divination does exist. Such is the argument in favour of divination by which Chrysippus, Diogenes, and Antipater endeavour to demonstrate their side of the question. Why, then, should any doubt be entertained that the arguments that I have advanced are entirely true? If both reason and fact are on my side, if whole nations and peoples, Greeks and barbarians, and our own ancestors also, confirm all my assertions, if also it has always been maintained by the greatest philosophers and poets, and by the wisest legislators who have framed constitutions and founded cities, must we wait till the very animals give their verdict? and may not we be content with the unanimous authority of all mankind1? Nor indeed is any other argument brought forward to prove that all these kinds of divination which I uphold have no existe nce, than that it appears difficult to explain what are the different principles and causes of each kind of divination. For what reason can the soothsayer allege why an injury in the lungs of otherwise favourable entrails should compel us to alter a day previously appointed, and defer au enterprise? How can an augur ex plain why the croak of a raven on the right hand, and a crow on the left, should be reckoned a good omen? What can an astrologer say by way of explaining why a conjunction of the planet Jupiter or Venus with the moon is propitious at the birth of a child, and why the conjunction of Saturn or Mars is injurious? or why God should warn us during sleep, and neglect us when we are awake? or lastly, what is the reason why the frantic Cassandra could foresee future events, while the sage Priam remained ignorant of them? Do you ask why everything takes place as it does? Very right; but that is not the question now; what we are trying to find out is whether such is the case or not. As, if I were to assert that the magnet is a kind of stone which attracts and draws iron to itself, but were unable to give the reason why that is the case, would you deny the fact altogether? And you treat the subject of divination in the same way, though we see it, and hear of it, and read of it, and have received it as a tradition from our ancestors. Nor did the world in general ever doubt of it before the introduction of that philosophy which has recently been invented, and even since the appearance of philosophy, no philosopher who was of any authority at all has been of a contrary opinion. I have already quoted in its favour Pythagoras, Democritus, and Socrates. There is no exception but Xenophanes among the ancients. I have likewise added the old Academicians, the Peripatetics, and the Stoics: all supported divination; Epi curus alone was of the opposite opinion. But what can be more shameless than such a man as he, who asserted that there was no gratuitous and disinterested virtue in the world? XL. But what man is there who is not moved by the testi mony and declarations of antiquity? Homer writes that Cal- chas was a most excellent augur, and that he conducted the fleet of the Greeks to Troy, more, I imagine, by his know ledge of the auspices than of the country. Amphilochus and Mopsus were kings of the Argives, and also augurs, and built the Greek cities on the coast of Cilicia. And before them lived Amphiaraus and Tiresias, men of no lowly rank or ob scure fame, not like those men of whom Ennius says They hire out their prophecies for gold: no; they were renowned and first rate men, who predicted the future by means of the knowledge which they derived from birds and omens; and Homer, speaking of the latter even in the infernal regions, says that he alone was con sistently wise, while others were wandering about like shadows. As to Amphiaraus, he was so honoured by the general praise of all Greece, that he was accounted a god, and oracles were established at the spot where he was buried. Why need I speak of Priam king of Asia? had not he two children possessed of this gift of divination, namely a son named Helenus, and a daughter named Cassandra, who both prophesied, one by means of auspices, the other through an excited state of mind and divine inspiration1? of which de scription likewise were two brothers of the noble family of the Marcii, who are recorded as having lived in the days of our ancestors. Does not Homer inform us, too, that Polyidus the Corinthian predicted the various fates of many persons, and the death of his son when he was going to the siege of Troy? And as a general rule, among the ancients, those who were possessed of authority \asually also possessed the know ledge of auguries; for, as they thought wisdom a regal attri bute, so also did they esteem divination. And of this our state of Rome is an instance, in which several of our kings were also augurs, and afterwards even private persons, endued with the same sacerdotal office, ruled the commonwealth by the authority of religion. And this kind of divination has not been neglected even by barbarous nations; for the Druids in Gaul are diviners, among whom I myself have been acquainted with Divitiacus vEduus, your own friend and panegyrist, who pretends to the science of nature which the Greeks call physiology, and who asserts that, partly by auguries and partly by conjecture, he foresees future events. Among the Persians they have augurs and diviners, called magi, who at certain seasons all assemble in a temple for mutual conference and consultation; as your college also used once to do on the nones of the month. And no man can become a king of Persia who is not previously initiated in the doctrine of the magi. There are even whole families and nations devoted to divina tion. The entire city of Telmessus in Caria is such. Likewise in Elis, a city of Peloponnesus, there are two families, called lamidse and ClutidoD, distinguished for their proficiency in divination. And in Syria the Chaldeans have become famous for their astrological predictions, and the subtlety of their genius. Etruria is especially famous for possessing an inti mate acquaintance with omens connected with thunderbolts and things of that kind, and the art of explaining the signi fication of prodigies and portents. This is the reason why our ancestors, during the flourishing days of the empire, enacted that six of the children of the principal senators should be sent, one to each of the Etrurian tribes, to be instructed in the divination of the Etrurians, in order that this science of divination, so intimately connected with reli gion, might not, owing to the poverty of its professors, be cultivated for merely mercenary motives, and falsified by bribery. The Phrygians, the Pisidians, the Cilicians, and Arabians are accustomed to regulate many of their affairs by the omens which they derive from birds. And the Umbrians do the same, according to report. It appears to me that the different characteristics of divination have originated in the nature of the localities themselves in which they have been cultivated. For as the Egyptians and Babylonians, who reside in vast plains, where no mountains obstruct their view of the entire hemisphere, have applied themselves principally to that kind of divination called astrology, the Etrurians, on the other hand, because they, as men more devoted to the rites of religion, were used to sacrifice victims with more zeal and frequency, have espe cially applied themselves to the examination of the entrails of animals; and as, from the character of their climate and the denseness of their atmosphere, they are accustomed to witness many meteorological phenomena, and because for the same reason many singular prodigies take place among them, arising alike from heaven or from earth, and even from the concep tions or offspring of men or cattle, they have become won derfully skilful in the interpretation of such curiosities, the force of which, as you often say, is clearly declared by the very names given to them by our ancestors, for because they point out (ostendunt}, portend, show (monstrant), and predict, they are called ostents, portents, monsters, and prodigies. Again, the Arabians, the Phrygians, and Cilicians, because they rear large herds of cattle, and, both in summer and winter, traverse the plains and mountainous districts, have on that account taken especial notice of the songs and flight of birds. The Pisidians, and in our country the Umbrians, have applied themselves to the same art for the same reason. The whole nation of the Carians, and most especially the Telmessians, who reside in the most productive and fertile plains, in which the exuberance of nature gives birth to many extraordinary productions, have been very careful in the observation of prodigies. But who can shut his eyes to the fact that in every well constituted state auspices, and other kinds of divination, have been much esteemed? What monarch or what people has ever neglected to make use of them in the trans actions of peace, and still more especially in time of war, when the safety or welfare of the commonwealth is implicated in a greater degree? I do not speak merely of our own countrymen, who have never undertaken any martial enter prise without inspection of the entrails, and who never con duct the affairs of the city without consulting the auspices, I rather allude to foreign nations. The Athenians, for ex ample, always consulted certain divining priests, (whom they called yaavrei?,) when they convoked their public assemblies. The Spartans always appointed an augur as the assessor of their king, and also they ordained that an augur should be present at the council of their Elders, which was the name they gave to their public council; and in every important transaction they invariably consulted the oracle of Apollo at Delphi, or that of Jupiter Harnmon, or that of Dodona. Lycurgus, who formed the Lacedaemonian commonwealth, desired that his code of laws should receive confirmation from the authority of Apollo at Delphi; and when Lysander sought to change them, the same authority forbade his innovations. Moreovei', the Spartan magistrates, not content with a careful superintendence of the state affairs, went occasionally to spend a night in the temple of Pasiphae, which is in the country in the neighbourhood of their city, for the sake of dreaming there, because they considered the oracles received in sleep to be true. But I return to the divination of the Eomans. How often has our senate enjoined the decemvirs to consult the books of the Sibyls! For instance, when two suns had been seen, or when three moons had appeared, and when flames of fire were noticed in the sky; or on that other occasion, when the sun was beheld in the night, when noises were heard in the sky, and the heaven itself seemed to burst open, and strange globes were remarked in it. Again, information was laid before the senate, that a portion of the territory of Privernum had been swallowed up, and that the land had sunk down to an incredible depth, and that Apulia had been convulsed by terrific earthquakes; which portentous events announced to the Romans terrible wars and disastrous seditions. On all these occasions the diviners and their auspices were in perfect accordance with the prophetic verses of the Sibyl. Again, when the statue of Apollo at Cuma was covered with a miraculous sweat, and that of Victory was found in the same condition at Capua, and when the hermaphrodite was born, were not these things significant of horrible dis asters? Or again, when the Tiber was discoloured writh blood, or when, as has often happened, showers of stones, or sometimes of blood, or of mud, or of milk, have fallen, when the thunder bolt fell on the Centaur of the Capitol, and struck the gates of Mount Aventine, and slew some of the inhabitants; or again, when it struck the temple of Castor and Pollux at Tusculum, and the temple of Piety at Rome, did not the soothsayers in reply announce the events which subsequently took place, and were not similar predictions found in the Sibylline volumes'? How often has the senate commanded the decemvirs to consult the Sibylline books! In what important affairs, and how often has it not been guided wholly by the answers of the soothsayers! In the Marsic war, not long ago, the temple of Juno the Protectress was restored by the senate, which was excited to this holy act by a dream of Csccilia, the daughter of Quintus Metellus. But after Sisenna, who men tions this dream, had related the wonderful correspondence of the event with the prediction, he nevertheless (being influ enced, I suppose, by some Epicurean) proceeded to argue that dreams should never be trusted: however, he states nothing against the credit of the prodigies wrhich took place, and which he reports, at the beginning of the Marsic war1, when the images of the gods were seen to sweat, and blood flowed in the streams, and the heavens opened, and voices were heard from secret places, which foretold the dangers of the combat; and at Lanuvium the sacred bucklers were found to have been gnawed by mice, which appeared to the augurs the worst presage of all. Shall I add further what we read recorded in our annals, thnt in the war against the Veientes, when the Alban lake had risen enormously, one of their most distinguished nobles came over to us and said, that it \vas predicted in the sacred books concerning the destinies of the Veientes, which they had in their own possession, that their city could never be captured while the lake remained full; and that if, when the lake was opened, its waters were allowed to run into the sea, the .Romans would suffer loss, if, on the contrary, they were so drawn off that they did not reach the sea, then we should have good success? And from this circumstance arose the series of immense labours, subsequently undertaken by our ancestors in conducting away the waters of the Alban lake. But when the Veientes, being weary of war, sent ambassadors to the Roman senate, one of them exclaimed that that de serter had not ventured to tell them all he knew, for that in those same sacred books it was predicted that Rome should soon be ravaged by the Gauls, an event which happened six years after the city of Veii surrendered. The cry of the fauns, too, has often been heard in battle; and prophetic voices have often sounded from secret places in periods of trouble ; of which, among others, we have two notable examples, for shortly before the capture of Rome a voice was heard which proceeded from the grove of Vesta, which skirts the new road at the foot of the Palatine Hill, exhorting the citizens to repair the walls and gates, for that if they were not taken care of the city would be taken. The injunction was neglected till it was too late, and it after wards was awfully confirmed by the fact. After the disaster had occurred, our citizens erected an altar to Aius the Speaker, which we may still see carefully fenced round, opposite the spot where the warning was uttered. Many authors have reported that once, after a great earthquake had happened, they heard a voice from the temple of Juno, commanding that expiation should be made by the sacrifice of a pregnant sow, and hence it was afterwards called the temple of Juno the Admonitress. Shall we then despise these oracular inti mations, which the Gods themselves vouchsafed us, and which our ancestors have confirmed by their testimony? The Pythagoreans had not only high reverence for the voice of the Gods, but they likewise respected the warnings of men (hominum), which they call omina. And our ancestors were persuaded that much virtue resides in certain words, and therefore prefaced their various enterprises with certain auspicious phrases, such as, May good and prosperous and happy fortune attend. They commenced all the public ceremonies of religion with these words, Keep silence; and when they announced any holidays, they commanded that all lawsuits and quarrels should be suspended. Likewise, wheu the chief who forms a colony makes a lustration and review of it, or when a general musters an arm, or a censor the people, they always choose those who have lucky names to prepare the sacrifices. The consuls in their military enrol ments likewise take care that the first soldier enrolled shall be one with a fortunate name; and you know that you your self were very attentive to these ceremonial observances when you were consul and imperator. Our ancestors have likewise enjoined that the name of the tribe which had the precedence should be regarded as the presage of a legitimate assembly of the Comitia. And of presages of this kind I can relate to you several celebi'ated examples. Under the second consulship of Lucius Paulus, when the charge of making war against the king Perses had been allotted to him, it happened that on the evening of that very same day, when he returned home and kissed his little daughter Tertia, he noticed that she was very sorrowful. What is the matter, my Tertia, said he, why are you so sad? My father, replied she, Perses has perished. Upon which he caught her in his arms, and caressing her, exclaimed, I embrace the omen, my daughter. But the real truth was, that her dog, who happened to be called Perses, had died. I have heard Lucius Flaccus, a priest of Mars, say, that Csecilia, the daughter of Metellus, intending to make a matri monial engagement for her sister's daughter, went to a certain temple, in order to procure an omen, according to the ancient custom. Here the maiden stood, and Ctecilia sat for a long time without hearing any sound, till the girl, who grew tired of standing, begged her aunt to allow her to occupy her seat for a short period, in order to rest herself. Csecilia replied, Yes, my child, I willingly resign my seat to you. And this reply of hers was an omen, confirmed by the event, for Ceecilia died soon after, and her niece married her aunt's husband. I know that men may despise such stories, or even laugh at them, but such conduct amounts to a disbelief in the existence of the Gods themselves, and to a contempt of their revealed will. Why need I speak of the augurs 1 that part of the qxiestion concerns you. The defence of the auguries, I say, belongs peculiarly to you. When you were a consul, Publius Claudius, who was one of the augurs, announced to you, when the augury of the Goddess Salus was doubted, that a disas trous domestic and civil war would take place, which happened a few months afterwards, but was suppressed by your exer tions in still fewer days. And I highly approve of this augur, who alone for a long period remained constant to the study of divination, without making a parade of his auguries, while his colleagues and yours persisted in laughing at him, sometimes terming him an augur of Pisidia or Sora by way of ridicule. Those who assert that neither auguries nor auspices can give us any insight into or foreknowledge of the future, say that they are mere superstitious practices, wisely invented to impose on the ignorant; which, however, is far from being the case: for our pastoral ancestors under ROMOLO are not, nor indeed is ROMOLO himself, so crafty and cunning as to in vent religious impositions for the purpose of deceiving the mul titude. But the difficulty of acquiring a thorough knowledge of the auspices renders many who are indifferent to them eloquent in their disparagement, for they would rather deny that there is anything in the auspices than take the pains of studying what there really is. What can be more divine than that prediction, which you cite in your poem of Marius, that I may quote your owrn authority in favour of my argument? Jove's eagle, wounded by a serpent's bite, In his strong talons caught the writhing snake, And with his goring beak tortured his foe And slaked his vengeance in his blood. At last He let, the venomous reptile from on high Fall in the whelming flood, then wing'd his flight To the far east. Marius beheld, and mark'd The augury divine, and inly smiled To view the presage of his coming fame; Meanwhile the thunder sounded on the left, And thus confirm'd the omen. Moreover, the augurial system of Romulus was a pastoral rather than a civic institution. Nor was it framed to suit the opinions of the ignorant, but derived from men of approved skill, and so handed down to posterity by tradition. Therefore Romulus was himself an augur as well as his brother Remus, if we may trust the authority of Ennius. Both wish'd to reign, arid both agreed to abide The fair decision of the augury Here Remus sat alone, and watch 'd for signs Of fav'ring omen, while fair Eomulus On the Aventine summit raised his eyes To see what lofty flying birds should pass. A goodly contest which should rule, and which With his own name should stamp the future city. Now like spectators in the circus, till The consul's signal looses from the goal The eager chariots, so the obedient crowd Awaited the strife's victor and their king. The golden sun departed into night, And the pale moon shone with reflected ray, When on the left a joyful bird appear'd, And golden Sol brought back the radiant day. Twelve holy forms of Jove-directed birds Wing'd their propitious flight. Great Romulus The omen hail'd, for now to him was given The power to found and name th eternal city. Now, however, let us return to the original point from which we have been digressing. Though I cannot give you a reason for all these separate facts, and can only distinctly assert that those things which I have spoken of did really happen, yet have I not sufficiently answered Epicurus and Carneades by proving the facts themselves'? Why may I not admit, that though it may be easy to find principles on which to explain artificial presages, the subject of divine intimations is more obscure? for the presages which we deduce from an examination of a victim's entrailsfrom thunder and lightning, from prodigies, and from the stars, are founded on the accurate observation of many centuries. Now it is certain, that a long course of careful observation, thus carefully conducted for a series of ages, usually brings with it an incredible accuracy of knowledge; and this can exist even without the inspiration of the Gods, when it has been once ascertained by constant obser vation what follows after each omen, and what is indicated by each prodigy. The other kind of divination is natural, as I have said before, and may by physical subtlety of reasoning appeal- referable to the nature of the Gods, from which, as the wisest men acknowledge, we derive and enjoy the energies of our souls; and as everything is filled and pervaded by a divine intelligence and eternal sense, it follows of necessity that the soul of man must be influenced by its kindred wTith the soul of the Deity. But when we are not asleep, our faculties are employed on the necessary affairs of life, and so are hindered from communication with the Deity by the bondage of the body. There are, however, a small number of persons, who, as it were, detach their souls from the body, and addict themselves, with the utmost anxiety and diligence, to the study of the nature of the Gods. The presentiments of men like these are derived not from divine inspiration, but from human reason ; for from a contemplation of nature, they anticipate things to come, as deluges of water, and the future deflagration, at some time or other, of heaven and earth. There are others who, being concerned in the government of states, as we have heard of the Athenian Solon, foresee the rise of new tyrannies. Such we usually term prudent men ; like Thales the Milesian, who, wishing to convict his slanderers, and to show that even a philosopher could make money, if he should be so inclined, bought up all the olive-trees in Miletus before they were in flower; for he had probably, by some knowledge of his own, calculated that there would be a heavy crop of olives. And Thales is said to have been the first man by whom an eclipse of the sun was ever predicted, which happened under the reign of Astyages. Physicians, pilots, and husbandmen have likewise pre sentiments of many events : but I do not choose to call this divination ; as neither do I call that warning which was given by the natural philosopher Anaximander to the Lacedae monians, when he forewarned them to quit their city and their homes, and to spend the whole night in arms on the plain, because he foresaw the approach of a great earthquake, which took place that very night, and demolished the whole town; and even the lower part of Mount Taygetus was torn away from the rest, like the stern of a ship might be. In the same way, it is not so much as a diviner, as a natural philosopher that we should esteem Pherecydes, the master of Pythagoras who, when he beheld the water exhausted in a running spring, predicted that an earthquake was nigh at hand. The mind of man, however, never exerts the power of natural divination, unless when it is so free and disengaged as to be wholly disentangled from the body, as happens ia the case of prophets and sleepers. Therefore, as I have said before, Diceearchus and our friend Cratippus approve of these two sorts of divination, as long as it is understood that, inasmuch as they proceed from nature, though they may be the highest, they are not the only kind. But if they deny that there is any force in observation, then by such denial they exclude many things which are connected with the common experience and institutions of mankind. However, since they grant us some, and those not insignifi cant things, namely, prophecies and dreams, there is no reason why we should consider these as very formidable antagonists, especially when there are some who deny the existence of divination altogether. Those, therefore, whose minds, as it were, despising their bodies, fly forth, and wander freely through the universe, being inspired and influenced by a certain divine ardour, doubtless perceive those things which those who prophecy predict. And spirits like these are excited by many influ ences that have no connexion with the body, as those which are excited by certain intonations of voice, and by Phrygian melodies, or by the silence of groves and forests, or the murmur of torrents, or the roar of the sea. Such are the minds which are susceptible of ecstasies, and which long beforehand foresee the events of futurity; to which the following lines refer: Ah, see you not the vengeance apt to come, Because a mortal has presumed to judge Between three rival goddesses'? he's doom'd To fall a victim to the Spartan dame, More dreadful than all furies. Many things have in the same way been predicted by pro phets, and not only in ordinary language, but also In verses which the fauns of olden times And white-hair'd prophets chanted. It was thus that the diviners; Marcius and Publicius, are said to have sung their predictions. The mysterious responses of Apollo were of the same nature. I believe also that there were certain exhalations of certain earths, by which gifted minds were inspired to utter oracles. These, then, are the views which we must entertain of prophets. Divinations by dreams are of a similar order, because presentiments which happen to diviners when awake, happen to ourselves during sleep. For in sleep the soul is vigorous, and free from the senses, and the obstruction of the cares of the body, which lies prostrate and deathlike; and, since the soul has lived from all eternity, and is engaged with spirits innumerable, it therefore beholds all things in the universe, if it only preserves a watchful attitude, unencumbered by excess of food or drinking, so that the mind is awake during the slumber of the body, this is the divination of dreamers. Here, then, comes in an important, and far from natural, but a very artificial interpretation of dreams by Antiphon: and he interprets oracles and prophecies in the same way; for there are explainers of these things just as grammarians are expounders of poets. For, as it would have been in vain for nature to have produced gold, silver, iron, and copper, if she had not taught us the means of extracting them from her bosom for our use and benefit; and as it would have been in vain for her to have bestowed seeds and fruits upon men, if she had not taught them to distinguish and cultivate them, for what use would any materials whatsoever be to us, if we had no means of working them up? thus with every useful thing which the Gods have bestowed on us, they have vouchsafed us the sagacity by which its utility may be appre ciated; and so, because in dreams, oracles, and prophecies there are many things necessarily obscure and ambiguous, some have received the gift of interpretation of them. But by what means prophets and sleepers behold those things, which do not at the time exist in sensible reality, is a great question. But when we have once cleared up those points which ought to be investigated first, then the other subjects of our examination will be easier. For the discussion about the Nature of the Gods, which you have so clearly ex plained in your second book on that subject, embraces the whole question; for if we grant that there are Gods, and that their providence governs the universe, and that they consult for the best management of all human affairs, and that not only in general, but in particular, if we grant this, which indeed appears to me to be undeniable, then we must hold it as a necessary consequence that these Gods have bestowed on men the signs and indications of futurity. The mode, however, by which the Gods endue us with the gift and power of divination requires some notice. The Porch will not allow that the Deity can be in terested in each cleft in entrails, or in the chirping of birds. They affirm that such interference is altogether indecorous unworthy of the majesty of the Gods, and an incredible im possibility. They maintain that from the beginning of the world it has been ordained that certain signs must needs precede certain events, some of which are drawn from the entrails of animals, some from the note and flight of birds, some from the sight of lightning, some from prodigies, some from stars, some from visions of dreamers, and some from exclamations of men in frenzy: and those who have a clear perception of these things are not often deceived. Bad con jectures and incorrect interpretations are false, not because of any imposture in the signs themselves, but because of the ignorance of their expounders. It being, therefore, granted and conceded that there exists a certain divine energy, by which human life is supported and surrounded, it is not hard to conceive how all that hap pens to men may happen by the direction of heaven; for this divine and sentient energy, which expands throughout the universe, may select a victim for sacrifice, and may, by exterior agency, effect any change in the condition of its entrails at the period of its immolation: so that any given characteristic may be found excessive or defective in the animal's body. For by very trifling exertions nature can alter, or new-model, or diminish many things. And the prodigies which happened a little before Caesar's death are of great weight in preventing iis from doubting this, when on that very day on which he first sat on the golden throne and went forth clad in a purple robe, when he was sacrificing, no heart was found in the intestines of the fat ox. Do you then suppose that any warm-blooded animal, unless by divine interference, can live an instant without a heart 1 He was himself surprised at the novelty of the phenomenon; on which Spuriuna observed that he had reason to fear that he would lose both sense and life, since both of these proceed from the heart. The next day the liver of the victim was found defective in the upper extremity. Doubtless the im mortal Gods vouchsafed Ceesar these signs to apprize him of his approaching death, though not to enable him to guard against it. When, therefore, we cannot discover in the entrails of the victim those organs without which the animal cannot live, we must necessarily suppose that they have been annihilated by a superintending Providence at the very instant that the sacrifice is offered. And the same divine influence may likewise be the cause why birds fly in different directions on different occa sions, why they hide themselves sometimes in one place and sometimes in anothei', and why they sing on the right hand or on the left. For if every animal according to its own will can direct the motions of its body, so as to stoop, to look on one side, or to look up, and can bend, twist, contract, or extend its limbs as it pleases, and does those things almost before think ing of doing them, how much more easy is it for a God to do so, whose deity governs and regulates all things. It is the Deity, too, which presents various signs to us, many of which history has recorded for us; as for instance, we find it stated that if the moon was eclipsed a little before sunrise in the sign of Leo, it was a sign that Darius should be slain and the Persians be defeated by Alexander and the Macedonians. And if a girl was born with two heads, it was a sign that there was to be a sedition among the people and corruption and adultery at home. If a woman should dream that she was delivered of a lion, the country in which such an occurrence took place would soon be subjected to foreign domination. Of the same kind is the fact mentioned by Herodotus, that the son of Croesus spoke, though the gift of speech was by nature denied him; which prodigy was au indication that his father's kingdom and family would be utterly destroyed. And all our histories relate that the head of Servius Tullius while sleeping appeared to be on fire, which was a sign of the extraordinary events which followed. As, therefore, a man who falls asleep while his mind is full of pure meditations, and all circumstances around him adapted to tranquillity, will experience in his dreams true and certain presentiments; so also the chaste and pure mind of a waking man is better suited to the observation of the course of the stars, or the flight of birds, and the intima tions of the truth to be collected from entrails. And connected with this principle is the tradition which we have received concerning Socrates, which is often affirmed by himself in the books of his disciples that he possessed a certain divinity, which he called a demon, and to which he was always obedient, a genius which never com pelled him to action, but often deterred him from it. The same Socrates (and where can we find a better authority?) being consulted by Xenophon, whether he should follow Cyrus to the wars, gave him his counsel, and then added these words, The advice I give you is merely human: in such obscure and uncertain cases, it is best to consult the oracle of Apollo, to whom the Athenians have always pub licly appealed in questions of importance. It is likewise written of Socrates, that having once seen his friend Crito with his eye bandaged, and having asked him what was the matter with it, he received for answer, that as he was walking in the fields, a branch of a tree he had attempted to bend sprang back, and hit him in the eye. Upon this, Socrates replied, This is the consequence of your not having obeyed me when I recalled you, following the divine presentiment, according to my custom. Another remarkable story is told of Socrates. After the battle in which the Athenians were defeated at Delium, under the command of Laches, he was obliged to fly with that unfortunate general. At length reaching a spot where three ways met, he refused to pursue the same track as the rest. When they inquired the cause of his behaviour, he said that he was restrained by a God. The others, who left Socrates, fell in with the enemy's cavalry. Antipater has collected many other instances of the admi rable divination of Socrates, which I omit, for they are quite familiar to you, and I need not further enumerate them. I cannot, however, avoid mentioning one fact in the history of this philosopher, which strikes me as magnificent, and almost divine; namely, that when he had been condemned by the sentence of impious men, he said, he was prepared to die with the most perfect equanimity; because the God within him had not suffered him to be afflicted with any idea of o2 impending evil, either when he left his home, or when he appeared before the court. I think, therefore, that true divination exists, although those men are often deceived who appear to proceed on con jecture, or on artificial rule?. For men are fallible in all arts, and we cannot suppose tliey are infallible here. It may happen that some sign, which has an AMBIGUOUS SIGNIFICATION, is received in a certain one. It may happen that some par ticular has escaped the notice of the inquirer, or is purposely concealed by him, because opposed to his interest. I should, however, consider my plea for divination suffi ciently established, if only a few well-authenticated cases of presentiment and prophecies could be discovered; whereas, in truth, there are many. I will even declare without hesi tation, that a single instance of presage and prediction, all the points of which are borne out by subsequent events and that definitely and regularly, not casually and fortuitously would suffice to compel an admission of the reality of divi nation from all reasonable minds. It appears to me, moreover, that we should refer all the virtue and power of divination to the Divinity, as Posi- donius has done, as before observed; in the next place to Fate, and afterwards to the nature of things. For reason compels us to admit that by Fate all things take place. By Fate I mean that which the Greeks call ei/mp^e'i'^, that is, a certain order and series of causes for cause linked to caiise produces all things : and in this connexion of cause consists the constant truth which flows through all eternity. From whence it follows that nothing happens which is not pre destined to happen; and in the same way nothing is predes tined to happen, the nature of which does not contain the efficient causes of its happening. From which it must be understood that fate is not a mere superstitious imagination, but is what is called, in the lan guage of natural philosophy, the eternal cause of things; the cause why past things have happened, why present things do happen, and why future things will happen. And thus we are taught by exact observation, what consequences are usually produced, by what causes, though not invariably.. And thus the causes of future events may truly be discerned by those who behold them in states of ecstasy or quiet. Since, then, all things happen by a certain fate, (as will be shown in another place.) if any man could exist who could comprehend this succession of causes in his intellectual view, such a man would be infallible. For being in possession of a knowledge of the causes of all events, he would neces sarily foresee how and when all events would take place. But as no being except the Deity alone can do this, man can attain no more than a kind of presentiment of futurity, by observing the events which are the usual consequences of certain signs. For those events that are to happen in future do not start into existence on a sudden. But the regular course of time resembles the untwisting of a cable, producing nothing absolutely new, but all things in a grand concatena tion or series of repetitions. And this has been observed by those who possess the gift of natural divination, and by those who study the regular successions of certain things. For though they do not always apprehend the causes, yet they clearly discern the signs and marks of the causes. And by diligently investi gating and committing to memory all such signs, and the traditions of our ancestors concerning them, they produce an elaborate system of that divination which is termed technical respecting the entrails of victims, thunder and lightning, prodigies, and celestial phenomena. We must not, therefore, be astonished that those who addict themselves to divination foresee many events which have no place of existence. For all things do even now exist, though they are removed in point of time. And as the vital embryo of all vegetation exists in seeds, from which they afterwards germinate, so are all things even now hidden in their causes, and perceived as hereafter to happen by the mind when it is thrown into an ecstasy, or relaxed in sleep, and cool reason and calculation is often granted a presenti ment of them. And as the astrologers who watch the risings, settings, and various courses of the sun, moon, and other stars, can predict long before all their revolutions and phenomena; so those who have noted the series and conse quence of events, with constant and indefatigable atten tion, during a very long period, do generally, or (if that is too difficult) at least occasionally, foresee with certainty the things that are to come to pass. Such are some of the arguments derived from the nature of fate, by which the reality of divination may be proved. Another powerful plea in favour of divination, may be drawn from Nature herself, which teaches us how great is the energy of the mind when abstracted from the bodily senses, as it is most especially in ecstasy and sleep. For even as the Gods know what passes in our minds without the aid of eyes, ears or tongues, (on which divine omniscience is founded the feeling of men, that when they wish in silence for, or offer up a prayer for anything, the Gods hear them,) so when the soul of man is disengaged from corporeal impe diments, and set at freedom, either from being relaxed in sleep, or in a state of mental excitement, it beholds those wonders which, when entangled beneath the veil of the flesh, it is unable to see. It may be difficult, perhaps, to connect this piinciple of nature with that kind of divination which we have stated to result from study and art. Posidonius, however, thinks that there are in nature certain signs and symbols of future events. We are informed that the inhabitants of Cea, according to the report of Heraclides of Pontus, are accus tomed carefully to observe the circumstances attending the rising of the Dog Star, in order to know the character of the ensuing season, and how far it will prove salubrious or pestilential. For if the star rose with an obscure and dim appearance, it proved that the atmosphere was gross and foggy, and its respiration would be heavy and unwhole some. But if it appeared bright and lucid, then that was a sign that the air was light and pure, and therefore healthful. Democritus believed that the ancients had wisely enjoined the inspection of the entrails of animals which had been sacrificed, because by their condition and colour it is possible to determine the salubrity or pestilential state of the atmo sphere, and sometimes even what is likely to be the fertility or sterility of the earth. And if careful observation and practice recognise these rules as proceeding from nature, then every day might bring us many examples which might deserve notice and remark; so that the natural philosopher whom Pacuvius introduces in his Chryses, seems to me very ignorant of the nature of things, wlien he says, All those who understand the speech of birds And hearts of victims better than their own, May be just listen'd to, but not obey'd. Why should he make such a remark here, when a little after he speaks thus plainly in a contrary sense 1 Whatever God may be, 'tis he who forms, Preserves and nurtures all. Unto himself Ho back absorbs all beings, evermore The universal Sire, at once the source And end of nature. Why, then, since the universe is the sole and common home of all creatures, and since the minds of men always have existed, and will exist, why, I say, should they not be able to perceive the consequences, and what is the result indicated by each sign, and what events each sign foreshows r( These are the arguments which I had to bring forward on the subject of divination. For the rest, I in nowise believe in those who predict by lots, or those who tell fortunes for the sake of gain, nor those necromancers who evoke the manes, whom your friend Appius consulted. Of little service are the Morsian prophet, The Haruspi of the village, the astrologer Of the throng'd circus, or the priest of Isis, Or the imposturous interpreter Of dreams. All these are but false conjurors, Who have no skill to read futurity, They are but hypocrites, urged on by hunger ; Ignorant of themselves, they would teach others, To whom they promise boundless wealth, and beg A penny in return, paid in advance. Such is the style in which Ennius speaks of those pre tenders of divination; and a few verses before, he lias affirmed that though the Gods exist, they take no care of the human race. I am of a contrary opinion, and approve 01 divination, because I believe that the Gods do watch over men, and admonish them, and presignify many things to them, all levity, vanity, and malice being excluded. And when Quintus had said this, You are, indeed, said I, admirably prepared. When I have been considering, as I frequentlj7 have, vnth deep and prolonged cogitation, by what means I might serve as many persons as possible, so as never to cease from doing service to my country, no better method has occurred to me than that of instructing my fellow-citizens in the noblest arts. And this I natter myself thai I have already in some degree effected in the numerous works which I have written. In the treatise which I have entitled Hortensius, I have earnestly recommended them to the study of philoso phy; and in the four books of Academic Questions, I have laid open that species of philosophy which I think the least arrogant, and at the same time the most consistent and elegant. Again, as the foundation of all philosophy is the knowledge of the chief good and evil which we should seek or shun, I have thoroughly discussed these topics in five books, in order to explain the different arguments and objections of the various schools in relation thereto.1 In five other books of Tusculan Questions, I have explained what most conduces to render life happy. In the first, I treat of the contempt of death ; in the second, of the endurance of pain and sorrow ; in the third, of mitigating melancholy; in the fourth, of the other perturbations of the mind; and in the fifth, I elaborate that most glorious of all philosophic doctrines the all-sufficiency of virtue ; and prove that virtue can secure our perpetual bliss without foreign appliances and assistances. When these works were completed, I wrote three books on the Nature of the Gods. I have discussed all the different bearings and topics of that subject, and now I proceed in the composition of a treatise on Divination, in order to give 1 He is here referring to the treatise De Finibus. that subject the amplest development. And if, when this is finished, I add another on Fate, I shall have abundantly examined the whole of that question. To this catalogue of my writings, I must likewise add my six books on the Republic, which I composed when I was directing the government of the State. A grand subject, indeed, and peculiarly connected with philosophy, and one which has been richly elaborated by Plato, Aristotle, Theo- phrastus, and the whole tribe of the Peripatetics. I must not forget to mention my Essay on Consolation, which afforded me myself no inconsiderable comfort, and will, I trust, be of some benefit to others. Besides this, I lately wrote a work on Old Age, which I addressed to Atticus ; and since it is owing to philosophy that our friend Cato is the good and brave man that he is, he is well entitled to an honourable place in the list of my writings. Moreover, as Aristotle and Theophrastus, two authors emi nently distinguished both for the penetration and fertility of their genius, have united with their philosophy precepts like wise for eloquence, so I think that I too may class among my philosophical writings my treatise on the Oratorical Art. So there are three books on Oratory, a fourth Essay entitled Brutus, and a fifth named the Orator. Such are the works I have already written, and I am girding myself up to what remains, with the desire (if I am not hindered by weightier business) of leaving no philosophical topic otherwise than fully explained and illustrated in the Latin language. For what greater or better service can we render to our country, than by thus educating and instructing the rising generation, especially in times like these, and in the present state of morality, when society has fallen into such disorders as to require every one to use his best exertions to check and restrain it? Not that I expect to succeed (for that, indeed, cannot be even hoped) in winning all the young to the study of philo sophy. I shall be glad to gain even a few, the fruits of whose industry may have an extended effect on the republic. Indeed, I already begin to gather some fruit of my labour, from those of more advanced years, who are pleased with my various books. By their eagerness for reading what I write, my ambition for writing is from day to day more vehemently excited. And indeed such individuals are far more numerous than I could have imagined. A magnificent thing- it will be, and glorious indeed for the Romans, when they shall no longer find it necessary to resort to the Greeks for philosophical literature. And this desideratum I shall cer tainly effect for them, if I do but succeed in accomplishing my design. To the undertaking of explaining philosophy I was origi nally prompted by disastrous circumstances of the state. For during the civil wars I could not defend the common wealth by professional exertions; while at the same time I could not remain inactive. And yet I could not find anything worthy of myself for me to undertake. My fellow-citizens, therefore, will pardon me, or rather will thank me; because when Rome had become the property of one man. I neither concealed myself, nor deserted them, nor yielded to grief, nor conducted myself like a politician indignant at either an individual or the times, nor played the part of a flatterer of, or courtier to, the power of another, so as to be ashamed of myself. For from Plato and philosophy I had learnt this lesson, that certain revolutions are natural to all republics, which alternately come under the power of monarchs, and democracies, and aiistocracies. And when this fate had befallen our own Commonwealth, then, being deprived of my customary employments, I applied myself anew to the study of philosophy, doing so both to alleviate my own sorrow for the calamities of the state, and also in the hope of serving my fellow-countrymen by rny writings. And thus in my books I continued to plead and to harangue, and took the same care to advance the interests of philosophy as I had before to promote the cause of the Republic. Now, however, since I am again engaged in the affairs of government, I must devote my attention to the state, or I should rather say, all my labours and cares must be occupied about that ; and I shall only be able to give to philosophy whatever little leisure I can steal from public business and public employments. Of these matters, however, I shall find a better occasion to speak; let me now return to the subject of divination. For when my brother Quintus had concluded his arguments on the subject of divination, con tained in the preceding book, and we had walked enough to satisfy us, we sat down in my library, which, as I before noticed, is in my Lyceum. Then I said, Quintus, you have defended the doctrine of the Stoics, respecting divination, with great accuracy, and on the strictest Stoical principles. And what particularly pleased me was, that you supported your cause chiefly by authorities, and those, too, of great force and dignity, borrowed from our own countrymen. It is now my part to notice what you have advanced. But I shall do so without offering anything absolutely on one side or the other, examining all your argu ments, often expressing doubts and distrusting myself. For if I assumed anything I could say on this subject as certain, I should play the part of a diviner even while denying divination. I am, no doubt, greatly influenced by that preliminary question which Carneades used to raise, namely, What is the subject matter of divination 1 Is it things perceived by the senses, or not 1 Such things we see, or hear, or taste, or smell, or touch. Is there, then, among such, anything which we perceive more by some foreseeing power, or agitation of the mind, than through nature herself] Or could a diviner, if he were blind as Tiresias, somehow or other distinguish between white and black 1 or if he were deaf, could he distinguish between the articulations and modulations of voices? Divi nation, therefore, cannot be applied to those objects which come under the cognisance of the senses. Nor is it of much use, even in matters of art and science. In medicine for instance, if a person is sick we do not call in the diviner or the conjuror, but the physician ; and in music, if we wish to learn the flute or the harp, we do not take lessons from the soothsayer, but from the musician. It is the same in literature, and in all those sciences which are matters of education and discipline. Do you think that those who addict themselves to the art of divination can thereby inform us whether the sun is larger than the earth or of the same size as it appears, or whether the moon shines by her own light or by a radiance borrowed from the sun, or what are the laws of motion obeyed by these orbs, or by those other five stars which are termed the planets [None of those who pass for diviners pretend to be able to instruct mankind in these matters, nor can they prove the truth or falsehood of the problems of geometry. Such mat ters belong to the mathematician, not to conjurors. And in those questions which are agitated in moral philosophy, is there any one with respect to which any diviner ever gives an answer, or is ever consulted as to what is good, bad, or indifferent? For such topics properly belong to philosophers. As to duties, who ever consulted a diviner how to regulate his behaviour to his parents, his brethren, or his friends 1 or in what light he should regard wealth, and honour, and authority? These things are referred to sages, not diviners. Again, as to the subjects which belong to dialecticians, or natural philosophers. What diviner can tell whether there is one world or more than one 1 what are the principles of things from which all things derive their being1? That is the science of the natural philosopher. Or who asks a diviner how to solve the difficulty of a fallacy, or disentangle the perplexity of a sorites, which we may render by the Latin word acervalem (an accumulation), though it is unnecessary; for just as the word philosophy, and many other Grecian terms, have become naturalized in our language, so this word sorites is already sufficiently familiar among us. These subjects belong to the logician, not to the diviner. Again, if the question be, which is the best form of govern ment, what are the relative advantages or disadvantages of such and such laws and moral regulations, should we dream of advising with a soothsayer from Etruria, or with princes and chosen men experienced in political matters 1 Now, if divination regards neither those things which are perceived by the senses, nor those which are taught by art, nor those which are discussed by philosophy, nor those which affect the politics of the state, I scarcely understand what can be its object. It must either bear upon all topics, or else some particular one must be allotted to it in which it may be exercised. Now common sense certifies us that it does not bear on all topics, and we are at a loss to discover what particular topic, or subject matter, it can embrace. It follows, therefore, that divination does not exist. V. There is a common Greek proverb to this effect : The wisest prophet 's he who guesses best. Will, then, a soothsayer conjecture what sort of weather is coming better than a pilot? or will he divine the character of an illness more acutely than a doctor? or the proper way to carry on a war better than a general '? But I observe, 0 Quintus, that you have pnidently dis tinguished the topics of divination from those matters which lie within the sphere of art and skill, and from those which are perceived by the observation of the senses, or by any system. You have denned it thus: Divination is the pre sentiment and power of foretelling or predicting those things which axe fortuitous. But, in the first place, you are only arguing in a circle. For does not a pilot, or a physician, or a general foresee the probabilities of things fortuitous as well as your diviner? Can, then, any augur whatsoever, or sooth sayer, or diviner, conjecture better whether a patient will escape from sickness, or a ship from peril, or the army from the manoeuvres of the enemy, than a physician, or pilot, or general? But you said that these matters did not belong to the diviner; but that men could foresee impending winds or showers by certain signs ; and to confirm this argument, you have cited certain verses of my translation of Ai-atus. And yet these atmospheric phenomena are fortuitous ; for they only happen occasionally, and not always. What, then, is this presentiment of things fortuitous, which you call divina tion, and to what can it be applied? For those things of which we can have a previous notion by some art or reason, you speak of as belonging not to diviners, but to men of skill in them. Thus you have left divination nothing but the power of predicting those fortuitous things which cannot be foreseen by any art or any prudence. If, for example, any one had, many years before, predicted that Marcus Marcellus, who was thrice consul, was to perish by a shipwreck, he would, doubtless, have been a true diviner, because such a fact could not have been foreseen by any other means than that of divination. Divination, there fore, is a foreknowledge of events which depend on fortune. But can there be a just presentiment of those things which do not admit of any rational conjecture to explain why they will happen? For what do we mean when we say a thing happens by chance, or fortune, or hazard, or accident, but that something has happened or taken place wnich might never have happened or taken place at all, or -which might have happened or taken place in a different manner? Now how can that be fairly foreseen or predicted which thus takes place by chance, and the mere caprice of fortune? It is by reason that the physician foresees that a malady will increase, a pilot that a tempest will descend, and a general that the enemy will make certain diversions. And yet these men, who have generally good reasons on which their opinions respecting relative probabilities are founded, are themselves often deceived. As when the husbandman sees his olive-trees in blossom, he ventures to expect that they will also bear fruit; nevertheless, he is sometimes mistaken. Now, if those who never assert anything but from some probable conjecture founded on reason, are often mistaken, what are we to think of the conjectures of those men who derive their presages of futurity from the entrails of victims, or birds, or prodigies, or oracles, or dreams. I have not as yet come to show how utterly null and vain such signs are, as the cleft of a liver, the note of a crow, the flight of an eagle, the shooting of a star, the voices of people in frenzy, lots and dreams, of each of which I shall speak in its turn ; at present I dwell only on the general argument. How can it be fore seen that anything will happen which has neither any as signable cause, or mark, to show why it will happen The eclipses of the sun and moon are predicted for a series of many years before they happen, by those who make regular calculations of the courses and motions of the stars. They only foretell that which the invariable order of natuie will necessarily bring about. For they perceive that in the un- deviating course of the moon's motions, she will arrive at a given period at a point opposite the sun, and become so exactly under the shadow of the earth, which is the boundary of night, that she must be eclipsed. They likewise know, that when the same moon comes between the earth and the sun, the latter must appear eclipsed to the eyes of men. They know in what sign each of the wandering stars will be at a future pariod, and when each sign will rise and set on any specific day. So that you know on what principles those men proceed who predict these things. But what rational rule can guide those men who predict the discovery of a treasure, or the accession to an estate 1 And by what series of cause and effect are the approach of events of this kind indicated 1 If these events, and others of the same kind, happen by any kind of neces sity, then what is there that we can suppose to be brought about by chance or fortune For nothing is so opposite to regularity and reason as this same fortune ; so that it seems to me that God himself cannot foreknow absolutely those things which are to happen by chance and fortune. For if he knows it. ilien it will certainly happen; and if it will certainly happen, there is no chance in the matter. But there is chance; therefore there is no such thing as a pre sentiment of the future. If, however, you maintain that there is no such thing as fortune, and that all things which happen, and which are about to happen, are determined by fate from all eternity, then you must change your definition of divination, which you have termed the presentiment of thing's fortuitous. For if nothing can happen, or come to pass, or take place, unless it has been determined from all eternity that it shall happen at a certain time what, chance can there be in anything 1 And if there is no such thing as chance, what becomes of your definition of divination, which you have called a pre sentiment of fortuitous events'? although you said that everything which happened, or which was about to happen, depended on fate. [Nevertheless, a great deal is said on this subject of fate by the Stoics. But of this elsewhere. To return to the question at issue. If all things happen by fate, what is the use of divination. For that which he who divines predicts, will truly come to pass ; so that I do not know what character to affix to that circumstance of an eagle making our friend King Deiotaris renounce his journey; when, if he had not turned back, he would have slept in a chamber which fell down in the ensuing night, and have been crushed to death in the ruins. For if his death had been decreed by fate, he could not have avoided it by divination ; and if it was not decreed by fate, he could not have experienced it. What, then, is the use of divination, or what reason is there why I should be moved by lots, or entrails, or any kind of prediction 1 For if in the first Punic war it had beesettled by fate, that one of the Roman fleets, commanded by the consuls Lucius Junius and Publius Clodius, should perish by a tempest, and that the other should be defeated by the Carthaginians, then even if the chickens had eaten ever so greedily, still the fleets must have been lost. But if the fleets would not have perished, if the auspices had been obeyed, then they were not destroyed by fate. But you say that everything is owing to fate; therefore there is no such thing as divination. If fate had determined, that in the second Punic war the army of the Komans should be defeated near the lake Thra- simenus, then could this event have been avoided, even if Flaminius the consul had been obedient to those signs f and those auspices which forbade him to engage in battle'? Cer tainly it might. Either, then, the army did not perish by fate for the fates cannot be changed, or if it did perish by fate (as you are bound to assert), then, even if Flaminius had obeyed the auspices, he must still have been defeated. Where, then, is the divination of the Stoics 1 which is of no use to us whatever to warn us to be more prudent, if all things happen by destiny. For do what we will, that which is fated to happen, must happen. On the other hand, what ever event may be averted is not fated. There is, there fore, no divination, since this appertains to things which are certain to happen; and nothing is certain to happen, which may by any means be frustrated. Moreover, I do not even think that the knowledge of futurity would be useful to us. How miserable would have been the life of King Priam if from his youth he could have foreseen the calamities which awaited his old age! Let us, however, leave alone fables, arid come to facts that are more near to us. I have recounted, in my essay entitled Conso lation, the misfortunes which have happened to the greatest men of our commonwealth. Omitting, therefore, the ancients, do you think that it would have been any advantage to Marcus Crassus, when he was flourishing with the amplest riches and gifts of fortune, to have foreknown that he should behold his son Publius slain, his forces defeated, and lose his own life beyond the Euphrates with ignominy and disgrace? Or do you think that Pompey would have experienced much satisfaction in being thrice made consxil, and having received three triumphs, and having attained the summit of glory by his heroic actions, if he could have foreseen that he should be assassinated in the deserts of Egypt after the defeat of his army, and that after his death those disasters should happen which we cannot mention without tears? What do we think of Caesar 1 Would it have been any pleasure to Caesar to have anticipated by divination, that one day, in the midst of the throng of senators whom he himself had elected, in the temple of Victory built by Pompey, and before that general's statue, and before the eyes of so many of his own centurions, he should be slain by the noblest citizens, some of whom were indebted to him for their digni ties, aye, slain under such circumstances that not one of his friends, or even of his servants, would venture to approach him? Could he have foreseen all this, in what wretchedness would he have passed his life 1 It is, therefore, certainly more advantageous for man to be ignorant of future evils than to know them. For it cannot be said, at least not by the Stoics, that Pornpey would not have taken up arms, nor Crassus passed the Euphrates, nor Csesar engaged in the civil war, if they had foreseen the future; therefore the end which they met with was not in evitably ordained by fate. For you insist upon it that all things happen by fate, therefore divination would have availed them nothing. It would even have deprived them of all enjoy ment in the earlier part of their lives; for what gratification could they have enjoyed if they had been always thinking of their end I Therefore, to whatever argument the Stoics resort in defence of divination, their ingenuity is always baffled. For if that which is to happen may happen in different mode;, then, indeed, fortune may have great power; but that which is fortuitous cannot be certain. If, on the other hand, every event is absolutely determined by fate, and the time and cir cumstance in connexion with which it is to take place, what service can diviners render us by informing us that very sad events arc portended for us. They add, moreover, that when we are duly attentive to religious ceremonies, all things will fall more lightly on us. But if everything happens by fate, no religioxis ceremonies cau lighten the event. Homer acknowledges this, when he introduces Jupiter uttering complaints that he cannot save the life of his son Sarpedon against the order of fate; and the same sentiment is expressed in the Greek verse Great Destiny o'ermaster's Jove himself. It appears to me that such a fate as this is justly ridiculed by the Atellane plays; but on such a serious subject we must not allow ourselves to be facetious. I therefore conclude with this observation. If we cannot foresee anything which happens by chance, since that thing is necessarily uncertain, therefore there is no divination; and if, on the contrary, things that are to happen can be foreseen because they happen by an infallible fatality, there is no divination, because you say divination only relates to for tuitous events. But what I have hitherto said respecting divination may be looked upon as a mere slight skirmishing of oratory. I must now enter on the contest in good earnest, and prepare to encounter the most formidable arguments of your cause. For you say that there exist two kinds of divination, one artificial, the other natural. The artificial consists partly in conjecture, partly in continued observation. The natural, on the other hand, is what the mind lays hold of or receives externally from the divinity, from which we all derive the origin, and fashioning, and preservation of our minds. Under the artificial divination you enumerate several varieties of divination connected with the inspection of entrails, the observation of thunderstorms and prodigies, and the auguries of those who deal in signs and omens. And under this artificial class you include all kindsof conjectural divination. As to the natural species of divination, it appears to be sent forth and to issue either from a certain ecstasy of the spirit, or to be conceived by the mind when disengaged from the senses and from cares by sleep. But you suppose that all divination is derived from three things God, Fate, and Nature. But as you could give no sound explanation, you laboured to confirm it by a wonderful multitude of imaginary examples, concerning which you must permit me to say, that a philosopher ought not to use evidences which may be true through accident, or false and fictitious through malice. It behoves you to show, by reason and argument, why each circtimstance happens as it does, rather than by the events, especially when they are such as I am quite unable to give credit to. To begin then with the Soothsayers, whose science I believe that the interest of Religion and the State requires to be upheld. But as we are alone, it behoves us, and myself more especially, to examine the truth without partiality, since I am in doubt on many points. Let us proceed, if you please, first to consider the inspec tion of the entrails of victims. Can you then persuade any man in his senses, that those events which are said to be SIGNIFIED by the entrails, are known by the augurs in con sequence of a long series of observations [How long, I wonder! For what period of time can such observations have been continued 1 What conferences must the augurs hold among themselves to determine which part of the victim's entrails represents the enemy, and which the people ; what sort of cleft in the liver denoted danger, and what sort presaged advantage? Have the augurs of the Etrurians, the Eleans, the Egyptians, and the Carthaginians arranged these matters with one another? But that, besides that it is quite impossi ble, cannot be imagined. For we see that some interpret the auspices in one way, and some in another, and no common rule of discipline is acknowledged among the professors of the art; and certainly if some secret virtue existed in the victim's entrails which clearly declared the future, it must either belong to the universal nature of things, or be connected in some way or other with the Deity himself. But what com munication can there exist between so great and so divine a natuz-e of things, one so beautiful, and so admirably diffused throughout every part and motion, and (I will not say) the gall of the cock, (though that, indeed, is said by many to be the most significant of all signs,) but the liver, or heart, or lungs of a fat bullock 1 Can such things possibly teach us the hidden mysteries of futurity? Democritus, speaking as a natural philosopher, than which no class of men are more arrogant, on this subject, trifles ingeniously enough. Man, who knows not the common facts of earth, Must waste his time in star-gazing. He remarks, that the colour and condition of the victim's entrails may indicate the nature of the pasturage, and the abundance or scarcity of those things which the earth brings forth. He even supposes they may guide our opinions respecting the wholesonieness or pestilential state of the atmosphere. 0 happy man! such a person can certainly never want amusement. The idea of any one being so enchanted with such trifling, as not to see that this theory might be plausible, if, indeed, the entrails of all animals assumed the same appearance and colour at one and the same time! But if we discover that the liver of one animal is sound and healthy, and that of another withered and diseased at the same moment, what indication can we draw from the state and colour of the entrails'? Does this at all resemble the indications from which that Pherecydes, in a case which you have cited, predicted the approach of an earthquake from the drying up of a spring? It required a little confidence, I think, after the earthquake had taken place, to presume to say what power had produced it ; [but] could they even foresee that it would take place at all from the appearance of a running spring? Many such stories are recounted in the schools, but we are not obliged to believe the whole of them. But even supposing that what Democritus says is true, when do we seek to know the general phenomena of nature by an examination of entrails; or when did soothsayers ever tell us anything of the sort from such an inspection? They warn us of danger from fire or water. Sometimes they predict that inheritances will be added to our fortunes, and .sometimes that we shall lose what we already possess. They regard the cleft in the lungs as a matter of vital importance to our property and our very life ; they in vestigate the top of the liver on all sides with the most scrupulous exactness, and if by any chance they cannot dis cover it, they affirm that nothing more disastrous could have happened. It is impossible, as I have before observed, that such a system of observation can have any certainty about it; such divination as this nourished not among the ancients; it is the invention of mere art, if, indeed, there can be any art, properly so called, of things unknown. But what connexion has it with the nature of things? And even if it were united and joined therewith, so as to form one harmonious whole, which I see is the opinion of the natural philosophers, Ulo and especially of those who say that all things that exist are but one whole ; still what correspondence can there be between the order of the universe and the discovery of a treasure? For if an increase of my wealth is indicated by the entrails of a victim, and this fact is a necessary link in the chain of nature, then it follows, in the first place, that we must suppose that the entrails themselves form other links; and secondly, that my private gain is connected with the nature of things. Are not the natural philosophers ashamed to say such things as these? For, although there may be some connexion in the nature of things, which I admit to be possible, (for the Stoics have collected many cases which they think confirm the notion, as when they assert that the little livers of little mice increase in winter, and that dry pennyroyal flourishes in the coldest weather, and that the distended vesicles, in which the seeds of its berries are contained, then burst asunder; that the chords of a stringed instrument at times give notes different from their usual ones; that oysters and other shell-fish increase and decrease with the growth and waning of the moon ; and that trees lose their vitality as the moon declines, just as they dry up in winter, and that this is the time to\cut them. Why need I speak of the seas, and the tides of the ocean, the flow and ebb of which are said to be governed by the moon? and many other examples might be related to prove that some natural connexion subsists between objects appa rently remote and incongruous. Let us grant this, for it does not in the least make against our argument ;) granting, I say, that there is a cleft of some kind in a liver, does that indicate gain to any one? By what natural affinity, by what harmony, by what secret accord of nature, or, to use the Greek term, by what sympathy can you discern a necessary relation between a cleft liver and my gain, or between my gain and heaven and earth, and the universal nature of things? I may even grant you this, though I shall be greatly damaging my argument if I allow that there is any connexion between nature and entrails. But suppose I make this concession, how does it happen that he who would obtain some benefit from the Gods can discover, just when he wishes, a victim exactly adapted to his purpose? I had thought this objection was unanswerable, but see how cleverly you get over it. I do not blame you for this, I rather commend your memory. But I am ashamed of Antipater, Chrysippus, and Posidonius, who all assert the same proposition namely, that the divine and sentient energy which extends through the universe, directs us even in the choice of the victim by whose entrails we are to frame our divinations. And to improve upon this theory, you agree with them in asserting that at the very instant that the sacrifice is offered, a certain appropriate change takes place in the victim's entrails, so that we can therein discover some sig nificant addition or deficiency, since all things are obedient to the will of the Gods. Believe me, there is not an old woman in the world so superstitious as gravely to believe these things. Can you imagine that the same bullock, if chosen by one man, will have the head of the liver, and if chosen by another will not have it 1 Can this same head come and go at the instant just to accommodate the individual who offers the sacrifice 1 Do you not perceive that there must be considerable chance in the choice of the victim 1 and in fact the thing speaks for itself, that this must be the case. For when one ill-omened victim is discovered to have had no head to its liver, it often happens that the one which is offered immediately afterwards has the most perfect entrails imaginable. What then becomes of the menaces of the first victim's entrails, or how have the Gods been so suddenly appeased? But you will say, that in the entrails of the fat bull which Caesar offered, there was no heart, and since it was not possible that this animal could have lived without a heart, we must suppose that the heart was annihilated at the instant of immolation. How is it that you think it impossi ble that an animal can live without a heart, and yet do not think it impossible that t its heart could vanish so suddenly, nobody knows whither? For myself, I know not how much vigour in a heart is necessary to carry on the vital function, and suspect that if afflicted by any disease, the heart of a victim may be found so withered, and wasted, and small, as to be quite unlike a heart. But on what argument can you build an opinion that the heart of this same fat bullock, if it existed in him before, disappeared at the instant of immola-lion? Did the bullock behold Ceesar in a heartless condition even while arrayed in the purple, and thus lose its own heart by mere force of sympathy? Believe me, you are betraying the city of philosophy while defending its castles. In trying to prove the truth of the auguries, you are overturning the whole system of physics. A victim has a heart, and head of the liver : the moment that you sprinkle him with meal and wine they depart, some God carries them off, some power destroys or consumes them. It is not nature alone, therefore, which causes the decay and destruction of everything; and there are some things which arise out of nothing, and some which suddenly perish and become nothing. What natural philosopher ever said such a thing as this? The soothsayers affirm it. Do you then think that you are to believe them rather than the natural philosophers? Again, when you sacrifice to several Gods at the same time, how is it that the sacrifice is favourably received by some, and is rejected by others? And what inconsistency must there be among the Gods, if they threaten by the first entrails, and promise good fortune by the second ! Or is there such strong dissension among the Deities, even when they are nearly related to each other, that certain entrails bode good when offered to Apollo, and evil when offered to his sister Diana? It is clear that since the victims are brought by chance, the entrails must in the case of each sacrificer depend upon what victim falls to his share, and that very thing requires some divination to know what victim falls to each person's share, as, in the case of lots, what is drawn by each person. Then you will speak of lots, though you are not strengthen ing the authority of sacrifices by comparing them to lots, but weakening that of lots by comparing them to sacrifices. Do you think, when we send a messenger to ^Equime- lium to bring us a lamb to sacrifice, and the lamb which is brought to me possesses entrails peculiarly accommodated to the circumstances of the case, that the messenger has been guided to him not by chance, but by divine direction? For if you wish to SIGNIFY THAT [GRICE: MEAN THAT] in this case chance interferes, as being some lot connected with the will of the Gods, I am sony that your friends the Stoics should give the Epicureans such occasion to ridicule them, for you know well how they deride oil such ideas. And, indeed, it is no hard matter to be facetious on such an idea. Epicurus, in order to show his wit on the subject, introduced transparent airy deities, residing, as it were, be tween the two worlds as between two groves, that they may avoid destruction from the fall of either. These deities, it seems, possess bodies like ourselves, though I cannot find that they make any use of them. Epicurus therefore, who, by a roundabout argument of this kind, takes away the Gods, naturally feels no hesitation in taking away divination also. But though he is consistent with himself, the Stoics are not ; for as the God of Epicurus never troubles himself with any business, either regarding himself or others; he, therefore, cannot grant divination to men. On the other hand, the God of the Stoics, even though lie does not grant divination, must still regulate the affairs of the universe and take care of mankind. Why, then, do you involve yourself in these dilemmas which you can never disentangle? For this is the way in which, when they are in a hurry, they usually sum up the matter- a If there are Gods, there must be divination; but there are gods, therefore there is divination. It would be much more plausible to say There is no divination, there fore there are no Gods. Observe how imprudently the Stoics make this assertion, that if there is no divination, there are no Gods ; for divination is plainly discarded, and yet we must retain a belief in Gods. After having thus destroyed divination by the in spection of entrails, all the rest of the science of the sooth sayers is at an end ; for prodigies and lightning follow in the same category. With respect to the latter, their predictions are founded on a long series of observations, while the interpretation of prodigies proceeds chiefly on inference and conjecture. What observations, then,, have been made about lightning? The Etrurians, forsooth, have divided heaven into sixteen parts; for it was not very difficult to double the four quarters, which we recognise, into eight, and then to repeat the process, so as by that means to say from what direction the lightning had come. But in the first place, what difference does it make? Secondly, what does such a thing intimate Is it not plain from the astonishment which was at first excited in men's minds, because they feared the thunder and the hurling of the thunderbolt, that they believed that they were the immediate manifestations brought about by the all-powerful ruler of all things, Jupiter? This is the reason of the enactment in the public registers, that the comitia of the people shall not be held when Jupiter thunders and lightens. It was enacted, perhaps with a view to the interest of the state, for our ancestors wished to have pretexts for not holding the comitia. Therefore, in the case of the comitia, lightning is the only vitiating irregularity. But in all other matters it is a most favourable auspice if it comes on the left hand. But we will speak of the auspices hereafter ; at present we will confine ourselves to lightning. What can be less proper for natural philosophers to say, than that anything certain is indicated by things which are uncertain 1 I cannot believe that you are one of those who imagine that there were Cyclopes in mount ^Etna who forged Jove's thunderbolt, for it would be wonderful indeed if Jupiter should so often throw it away when he had but one. Nor would he warn men by his thunderbolts what they should do or what thoy should avoid. For the opinion of the Stoics on this point is, that the exhalations of the earth which are cold, when they begin to flow abroad, become winds ; and when they form themselves into clouds, and begin to divide and break up their fine particles by repeated and vehement gusts, then thunder and lightning ensue ; and that when by the conflict of the clouds the heat is squeezed out so as to emit itself, then there is lightning. Can we, then, look for any intimation of futurity in a thing which we see brought about by the mere force of nature, without any regularity or any determined pei'iods 1 If Jupiter wished that we should form divinations by lightnings, would he throw away so many flashes in vain ] For what good does he do when he throws a thunderbolt into the middle of the sea, or upon lofty mountains, which is very common, or upon deserts, or in the countries of those nations among which no meteorological observations are made ] Oh ! but a head was discovered in the Tybcr. As if I affirmed that those soothsayers had no skill ! What I deny is only their divination. For the distribution of the firma ment, which we have just mentioned, and their various observations, enable them to note the direction from which the lightning has proceeded, and where it falls. But no reason can inform us of its signification. You will, however, urge against me my own verses The father of the Gods who reigns supreme On high Olympus, smote his proper fane, And hurl'd his lightnings through the heart of Rome. At the same time the statue of Natta and the images of the Gods, and Romulus and Remus, with that of the beast who was nursing them, were struck by the thunderbolt and thrown down ; and the answers of the soothsayers, with reference to these prodigies, were found perfectly correct. That also was a surprising thing, that the statue of Jupiter was placed in the Capitol, two years later than it had been contracted for, at the very time that information of the conspiracy was being laid before the senate. Will you, then, (for this is the way you are used to argue with me,) bring yourself to uphold that side of the question in opposition to your own actions and writings? You are my brother, and all you say is entitled to my respect. Yet what is there here that offends you? Is it the thing itself, which is of such and such a character, or I myself, who only wish to get at the truth? I therefore say nothing upon it for the sake of contradiction, and only seek from you yourself information respecting all the prin ciples of the art of soothsaying. But you have involved yourself in an inextricable dilemma; for foreseeing that you would be hard pressed, when I should urge you to explain the cause of every divination, you made many excuses to show why, when you were sure of the fact, you did not inquire into its principles and causes, that the question was, what was done, and not why it was done; as if I granted that it was done at all, or as if it were not the duty of a philosopher to inquire into the reason why every thing takes place. At the same time you quoted my prog nostics, and spoke of the scammony, the aristoloch, and other herbs, whose virtues were evident to you from their effects, though the law of their operation was unknown to you. All this is, however, beside the main question. For the Stoic Boethus, whose name you have cited, and even our friend Posidonius have investigated the causes of prognostics, and though it is not easy to discover the cause of such occult mysteries, yet the facts themselves may be observed and animadverted upon. But as to the statue of Natta and the tables of the law which were struck by lightning, what observations were made, or what was there ancient connected with the matter 1 The Pinarii Nattse are noble, therefore danger was to be feared from the nobility. This was a very cunning device of Jupiter! Romulus, represented by the sculptor as sucking a she-wolf, was likewise smitten by the lightning. Hence, according to you, some danger to the city of Rome was threatened. How cleverly does Jupiter make us acquainted with future events by such signs as these! Again, his statue was being erected at the very same time that the conspiracy was being discovered in the senate, and you conceive this coincidence happened rather by the providence of God than by any chance of fortune. And you think that the statuary who had contracted for the making of that column with Torquatus and Cotta, was not so long delayed in accomplishing his work by idleness or poverty, but by the special interposition of the immortal Gods. Now I do not absolutely deny that such might possibly be the case; but I do not know that it was, and wish to be instructed by you. For when some things appeared to me to have happened by chance in the way in which the sooth sayers had predicted, you launched out into a long discourse on the doctrine of chances, saying that four dice thrown at hazard may produce Venus by accident, but that four hundred dice cannot produce a hundred Venuses. In the first place, I know no reason in the nature of things why they should not do even this ; but I will not argue that point, for you have plenty of similar examples, and talk about a chance dashing of colours, the snout of a pig, and many other similar instances. You say that Carneades argued in the same way about the head of a little Pan; as if that might not have happened by chance, and as if there must not be in all marble the raw material of even such a head as Praxiteles would have made. For a perfect head is only formed by cutting away. Praxiteles adds nothing to the marble, but when much that was superfluous is removed, and the features are arrived at, then you learn that that which is now polished up was always contained within. Such a figure, therefore, may have spontaneously existed in the quarries of Chios. But grant that this is a fiction, have you never fancied that you could discover in the clouds the figures of lions and centaurs 1 Accident may, therefore, some times imitate nature, though you denied that just now. But as we have sufficiently discussed divination by entrails and lightning, we must now consider portents and prodigies, in order that we may leave no branch of the system of the soothsayers untouched. You have mentioned a wonderful story of a mule that was delivered of a colt; a strange event, because of its extreme rarity. But if such a thing were impossible, it would never happen at all; and this may be said against all sorts of pro digies, that those things which are impossible never happened at all; and if they are possible, it need not surprise us that they happen occasionally. Besides, in extraordinary events, ignorance of their causes produces astonishment; but in ordinary events such igno rance occasions no such result. The man who is astonished if a mule brings forth a colt, does not know how it is that a mare brings forth a foal, or indeed how, in any case, nature effects the birth of a living animal; but he is not surprised at what he sees frequently, even if he does not know why it happens; but if that which he never beheld before happens, then he calls it a prodigy. In this case, is it a prodigy when the mule conceives, or when she brings forth 1 Perhaps the conception may have been contrary to nature, but after that her delivery is almost necessary. But we have spoken enough on this topic: let us examine the origin of the establishment of soothsayers. For when we are acquainted with it, we shall be better able to judge what degree of credit it is entitled to. They tell us that as a labourer one day was ploughing in a field in the territory of Tarquinium, and his ploughshare made a deeper furrow than usual, all of a sudden there sprung out of this same furrow a certain Tages, who, as it is recorded in the books of the Etrurians, possessed the visage of a child, but the prudence of a sage. When the labourer was surprised at seeing him, and in his astonishment made a great outcry, a number of people assembled round him, and before long all the Etrurians came together at the spot. Tages then discoursed in the presence of an immense crowd, who treasured up his words with the greatest care, and after wards committed them to writing. The information they derived from this Tages was the foundation of the science of the soothsayers, and was subsequently improved by the accession of many new facts, all of which confirmed the same principles. Here is the story that the Etrurians give out to the world. This record is preserved in their sacred books, and from it their augurial discipline is deduced. Now do you imagine that we need a Carneades or Epicurus to refute such a fable as this1? Lives there any one so absurd as to believe that this (shall I say god, or man 1) was thus ploughed up out of the earth 1 If he was a god, why did he conceal himself under the earth against the order of nature, so as not to behold the light till he was ploughed up] Could not that same god have instructed mankind from a station somewhat more elevated? And if this Tages was a man, how could he have lived thus buried and smothered in the earth 1 and how could he have learnt the wonders he taught to others? But I am even more foolish than those who believe such nonsense, for thus wasting so much time in refxiting them. There is an old saying of Cato, familiar enough to everybody, that he wondered that when one soothsayer met another, he could help laughing. For of all the events pre dicted by them, how very few actually happen? And when one of them does take place, where is the proof that it does not take place by mere accident 1 When Hannibal fled to king Prusias, and was eager to wage war with the enemy, that monarch replied that he dared not do so, because the entrails of the sacrifice wore an unfavourable aspect. Would you, then, said Hannibal, rather trust a bit of calf's flesh than a veteran general? And as to Caesar, when he was warned by the chief sooth sayer not to venture into Africa before the winter, did he not cross? If he had not done so, all the forces of the enemy would have assembled in one place. Why need I enumeratethe responses of the soothsayers, of which I could cite an infinite number, which have either received no accomplishment at all, or an accomplishment exactly the reverse of the prediction 1 In this last Civil War, for instance good Heavens! how often were their responses utterly falsified by the result ! How many false prophecies were sent to us from Rome into Gi'eece! How many oracles in favour of Pompey! For that general was not a little affected by entrails and prodigies. I have no wish to recount these things to you, nor indeed is it necessary, for you were present. But you see that nearly all the events took place in the manner exactly contrary to the predictions. So much for responses. Let us now say a word or two on prodigies. You have mentioned several things on this topic which I wrote during my consulship. You have brought up many of those anecdotes collected by Sisenna before the Mar- sian War, and many recorded by Callisthenes before the un fortunate battle of the Spartans at Leuctra, of each of which I will speak separately, as far as seems necessary; but at present we must discuss of prodigies in general. For what is the meaning of this kind of divination this dreadful denouncing of impending calamities derived from the Gods 1 In the first place, what is the object of the Gods, in giving us prodigies and signs which we cannot understand without interpreters, and in advertising us of disasters which we cannot avoid 1 But even honest men do not act thus, giving notice to their friends of impending misfortune which they cannot possibly avoid; and physicians, though they are often aware of the fact, yet never tell their patients that they must needs die of the complaint from which they are suffering. For the prediction of an evil is only beneficial when we can point out some means of avoiding it or miti gating it. What good, then, did these prodigies, or their interpreters, do to the Spartans, or more recently to the Romans 1 If they are to be considered as the signs of the Gods, why were they so obscure? For if they were sent in order that we might understand what was about to happen, then it ought to have been, declared intelligibly; and if we were not intended to know, then they should not have been given even obscurely. As for all conjectures on which this kind of divination depends, the opinions of men differ so much from each other that they often make very opposite deductions from the same thing. For as in legal suits, the plea of the plaintiff is contrary to that of the defendant, and yet both are within the limits of credibility, so in all those affairs which only admit of conjectural interpretation, the reasoning must be extremely uncertain. And as for those things which are caused at times by nature, and at others by chance, (some times, too, likeness gives rise to mistakes,) it is very foolish to attribute all these things to the interpositions of the Gods, without examining their proximate causes. You believe that the Boeotian diviners of Lebadia foreknew by the crowing of the cocks that the victory belonged to the Thebans, because these birds only crow when they are vic torious, and hold their peace when they are beaten. Did, then, Jupiter give a signal to so important a city by the means of hens 1 But do cocks only crow when they are vic torious 1 At that time they were crowing, and they had not conquered. You say that this was a prodigy. It would have been a prodigy, and a very great one, if the crowing had pro ceeded from fishes instead of birds. But what hour is there of day, or of night, when cocks do not crow 1 and if they are sometimes excited to crow by their joy in victory, they may likewise be excited to do the same by some other kind of joy. Democritus, indeed, states a very good reason why cocks crow before the dawn; for, as the food is then driven out of their stomachs, and distributed over their whole body and digested, THEY UTTER A CROWING, being satiated with rest. But in the silence of the night, says ENNIO (si veda), they indulge their throats, which are hoarse with crowing, and give their wings repose. As, then, this animal is so much inclined to crow of its own accord, what made it occur to Callisthenes to assert that THE GODS had given the cocks a signal to crow; since either NATURE [H. P. Grice,Natural meaning, and non-natural meaning] or chance might have done it? It is announced to the senate that it had RAINS BLOOD, that the river has become blackened with blood, and that the statues of the immortal gods are covered with sweat. Do you imagine that Thales or Anaxagoras, or any other natural philosopher, would have given credence to such news? Blood and sweat only proceed from the animal body. There might have been some discoloration caused by some ox contagion of earth very LIKE BLOOD, and some moisture may have fallen on the statues from without, resembling perspiration, as we see sometimes in plaster during the prevalence of a south wind. And in time of war such phenomena appeal more numerous and more important than usual, as men are then in a state of alarm, while they are not noticed in peace. Besides, in such periods of fear and peril, such stories are more easily believed, and invented with more impunity. We are, however, so silly and inconsiderate, that if mice, which are always at that work, happen to gnaw anything, we immediately regard it as a prodigy. So because, a little before the Marsian war, THE MICE GNAWED the shields at Lanuvium, the soothsayers declares it to be a most important prodigy; as if it may make any difference whether mice, who day and night are gnawing something, had gnawed bucklers or sieves. For if we are to be guided by such things, I ought to tremble for the safety of the commonwealth, because the mice lately gnawed Plato's Republic in my library; and if they had eaten the book of Epicurus on Pleasure, I ought to have expected that corn would rise in the market. Are we, then, alarmed if at any time any unnatural productions are reported as having proceeded from man or beast? One of which occurrences, to be brief, may be accounted for on one principle. Whatever is born, of whatever kind it may be, must have some cause in nature, so that even though it may be contrary to custom, IT CANNOT POSSIBLY BE CONTRARY TO NATURE. Investigate, if you can, the natural cause of every novel and extraordinary circumstance. Even if you cannot discover the cause, still you may 'feel sure that nothing can have taken place without a cause; and, by the principles of nature, drive away that terror which the novelty of the thing may have occasioned you. Then neither earthquakes, nor thunderstorms, nor showers of blood and stones, nor shooting stars, nor glancing torches will alarm you any more. If you ask Chrysippus to explain the laws hat govern these phenomena, though he is a great defender of divina tion, he will never tell you that they have happened by chance, but he will give you a natural explanation of all of them. For, as it has been before stated, nothing can happen without a cause, and nothing happens which is impossible; iior, if that has happened which could happen, ought it to be regarded as a prodigy. Therefore there are no such things as prodigies. For if we place in the rank of prodigies every rare occurrence, it follows that a wise man is one of the greatest prodigies. For I believe there are fewer instances of wise men in the world, than of mules which have brought forth young. So this principle concludes that that which cannot take place in the nature of things never does take place; and that that which can take place in the nature of things, is not a prodigy, and therefore there are no prodigies at all. Therefore a diviner and interpreter of prodigies being con sulted by a man who informed him, as a great prodigy, that he had discovered in his house a serpent coiled around a bar, answered very discreetly, that there was nothing very wonderful in this, but if he had found the bar coiled around the serpent, this would have been a prodigy indeed. By this reply, he plainly indicated that nothing can be a prodigy which is consistent with the nature of things. Caius Gracchus wrote to Marcus Pomponius, that his father having caught two serpents in his house, sent to consult the soothsayers. Why were two serpents entitled to such an honour more than two lizards or two mice 1 Because these are every day occurrences, you would reply, while ser pents were comparatively rare; as if it signified how often a thing which was possible took place. But I marvel, if the release of the female snake caused the death of Tiberius Gracchus, and that of the male was to be fatal to Cornelia, why he let either of them escape. For he does not record that the soothsayers had told him what would happen if he let neither of the snakes escape. But it seems T. Gracchus died soon after, doubtless of some natural malady which destroyed his constitution, and not because he had saved the life of a viper. Not that the infelicity of the haruspices is so great that their predictions are never fulfilled by any chance whatever. And, I must confess, if I could but believe it, I should exceedingly wonder at the story which you have cited from Homer respecting the prediction of Calchas, who, from observing the number of a flock of sparrows, foretold the number of years that would be expended in the siege of Troy. DE NAT. ETC. Q 2-6 ON Of which conjecture Homer makes Agamemnon1 speak thus, if I may repeat you a translation of the passage which. I made in a leisure hour Not for their grief the Grecian host I blame; But vanqui.sh'd! baffled! oh, eternal shame! Expect the time to Troy's destruction giv'n, And try the faith of Calchas and of heav'n. What pass'd at Aulis, Greece can witness bear, And all who live to breathe this Phrygian air, Beside a fountain's sacred brink was raised Our verdant altars, and the victims blazed; ('Twas where the plane-tree spreads its shades around) The altars heaved; and from the crumbling ground A mighty dragon shot, of dire portent; From Jove himself the dreadful sign was sent. Straight to the tree his sanguine spires he roll'd, And curl'd around in many a winding fold. The topmost branch a mother-bird possest ; Eight callow infants fill'd the mossy nest; Herself the ninth: the serpent as he hung, Stretch'd his black jaws, and crush'd the crying young; While hov'ring near, with miserable moan, The drooping mother wail'd her children gone. The mother last, as round the nest she flew, Seized by the beating wing, the monster slew ; Nor long survived, to marble turn'd he stands A lasting prodigy on Aulis' sands. Such was the will of Jove ; and hence we dare Trust in his omen and support the war. For while around we gazed with wond'ring eyes, And trembling sought the Pow'rs with sacrifice, Full of his god, the rev'rend Calchas cried : Ye Grecian warriors, lay your fears aside, This wondrous signal Jove himself displays, Of long, long labours, but eternal praise. As many birds as by the snake were slain, So many years the toils of Greece remain; But wait the tenth, for llion's fall decreed. Thus spoke the prophet, thus the fates succeed. Now is not this a curious mode of augury1? to conjecture by the number of sparrows eaten by a serpent, the number of years expended in the Trojan war. Why years rather than months or days? And how -was it that Calchas selected sparrows, in which there is nothing supernatural, for the signs of his prophecy 1 while he is silent about the serpent, which 1 This is a mistake of Cicero's. It is Ulysses who speaks. The pas sage occurs in Iliad . JTU changed, as it is said, into stone (an event which is im possible). Lastly, what analogy or relatkfe can subsist between the sparrows seen and the years predicted 1 As to what you have said respecting the serpent which appeared to Sylla while he was sacrificing, I recollect the whole circumstance; and remember that just as Sylla was about to attack the enemy at Nola, he made a sacrifice, and that at the moment the victim was offered, a serpent issued from beneath the altar, and that the same day a glorious victoiy was gained, not l;wing to the advice of the soothsayers, but to the skill of the general. And prodigies of this kind have nothing miracu lous in them ; which, when they have taken place, are brought under conjecture by some particular interpretation, as in the case of the grain of wheat found in the mouth of Midas while an infant, or that of the bees, which are said to have settled on the lips of the infant Plato. Such things are less admirable for themselves than for the conjectures they gave rise to ; for they may either not have taken place at the time specified, or have been fulfilled by mere accident. I likewise suspect the truth of the report which you have related respecting Roscius namely, that a serpent was found coiled round him when he was in his cradle. But even if it be a fact that a serpent was thus in the cradle, it is not very wonderful, especially in Solonium, where snakes are in the habit of basking before the fire. As to the interpretation which the soothsayers gave of the circumstance, that the child would become most illustrious and most celebrated, I. am astonished that the immortal Gods should have announced such great glory to a comedian, and preserved such an obsti nate silence respecting Scipio Africanus. You have related several prodigies whicli happened to Flaminiusj for instance, that his horse suddenly fell with him, there is surely nothing very astonishing in that. Also, that the standard of the first centurion could not easily be pulled out of the earth. Perhaps the standard-bearer was pulling but timidly at the stick which he had fixed in the ground with confident resolution. What is the wonder in the horse of Dionysius having escaped out of the river, and in his afterwards having had a swarm of bees cluster on his mane? But because Dionvsius happened to ascend the throne of Syracuse soon after this event, what had happened by chance was regarded as an extraordinary prodigy and prognostic. You go on to say, that at Lacedsemon, the armour in the temple of Hercules rattled. At Thebes the closed gates of the temple of the same God suddenly burst open of their own accord, and the bucklers which had been suspended on the walls fell to the ground. Certainly nothing of this kind could have happened without some motion or impulse ; but why need we impute such motion to the Gods rather than call it an accident1? At Delphi, you say, that a chaplet of wild herbs suddenly appeared growing on the head of Lysander's statue. Do you think then that the chaplet of herbs existed before any seed was ripened 1 These seeds were probably carried there by birds, not by human agency, and whatever is on a head may seem to resemble a crown. And as to the circum stance which you add, that about the same time the golden stars of Castor and Pollux, placed in the temple of Delphi, suddenly vanished, and could nowhere be discovei'ed ; this seems to me not so much the work of the Gods, as the sacrilege of thieves. I certainly do wonder at the roguery of the Ape of Dodona being recorded in the Greek histories. For what is less strange than that a most mischievous animal should have upset the urn, and scattered the oracular lots? The his torians, however, deny that this prodigy was followed by any disastrous event occurring among the Lacedaemonians. Now to come to what you have reported respecting the citizen of Veii, who declared to the Senate that if the. Lake Albanus overflowed, and ran into the sea, Rome would perish, and that if its course were diverted elsewhere, Veii must fall. Accordingly the water of the Alban lake was subsequently drained away by new channels, not for the safety of the citadel and the city, but solely for the benefit of the suburban district. A short time afterwards, a voice was heard, warning cer tain individuals to beware lest Rome should be taken by the Gauls; and upon this they consecrated an altar on the New Road, to Aius the Speaker. What, then, did this Aius the Speaker speak and talk, and derive his name from that circumstance, when no one knew him ; and has he been silent ever since he has had an habitation, an altar, and a name 1 And the same remark will apply to Juno the Admonitress; for what warning has she ever given us, except the one respecting the full sow 1 XXXIII. This is enough to say about prodigies. Let me now speak of auspices and of lots those, I mean, which are thrown at hazard, not those which are announced by vati cination, which we more properly call oracles, and which we shall discuss when we investigate divination of the natural order; and after this we will consider the astrology of the Chaldeans. But first let us consider the question of auspices. It is a very delicate matter for an augur to speak against them. Yes, to a Marsian perhaps, but not to a Roman. For we are not like those who attempt to predict the future by the flight of birds, and the observation of other signs ; and yet I believe that Romulus, who founded our city by the auspices, considered the augural science of great utility in foreseeing matters. For antiquity was deceived in many things, which time, custom, and enlarged experience have corrected. And the custom of reverence for, and discipline and rights of, the augurs, and the authority of the college, are still retained for the sake of their influence on the minds of the common people. And certainly the consuls P. Claudius and L. Junius de served severe punishment, who set sail in defiance of the auspices ; for they ought to have been obedient to the esta blished religion, and not to have rejected so obstinately the national ceremonials. Justly, therefore, was one of them condemned by the judgment of the people, while the other perished by his own hand. Flaminius, likewise, was not duly submissive to the auspices; and that was the reason, you say, why he was defeated. But, the year afterwards, Paullus was guided by them. Did he the less for that perish with his army in the battle of Cannes 1 Even allowing the existence of auspices, which I do not, certainly those at present in use, whether by means of birds or celestial signs, are but mere semblances of auspices, and not real ones. Quintus Fabius, I pray thee, assist me in the auspices. He answers, I have heard. The augurial officer among our forefathers was a skilful and learned man ; now they take the first that offers. For a man must needs be skilful and learned who understands the meaning of silence. For in auspices we call that silence which is free from all Irregularity. To understand this, belongs to a perfect augur. It sometimes happens, however, that when he who wishes to consult the auspices has said to the augur whom he has chosen to assist him, Say, if silence is observed, the augur, without looking above or around him, answers immediately, Silence appears to be observed. On this the consulter rejoins, Tell me whether the chickens are eating. The augur replies, They are eating. But when the consulter fur ther demands, What kind of fowls are they, and whence do they come? the augur answers, The chickens were brought in a cage by a person who is termed a poulterer. Such, then, are the illustrious birds whom we call, forsooth, the messengers of Jupiter ; and whether they eat or not, what does it signify? Certainly nothing to the auspices. But since, if they eat at all, some portion of food must inevitably fall on the ground and strike (pavire) the earth, this was at first called terripavium, then terripudium, and is now called tripudium. When, therefore, the chicken lets fall from its beak a particle of its food, the augur declares that the tripu dium solistimum is consummated. What true divination can there be in an auspice of this nature, so artificially forced and tortured? which, we have a proof, was not used among the most ancient augurs; for we have an ancient decree of the college of augurs, that any bird may make the tripudium. So that, then, there would be an auspice if the bird was free to show itself, and the bird might appear to be the messenger and interpreter of Jupiter. But when a miserable bird is kept in a cage, and ready to die of hunger, if such an one, when pecking up its food, happens to let some particle fall, can you think this an auspice, or do you believe that Romulus consulted the gods in this manner? Do you imagine that those who pretend to augury apply themselves at the present day to discern the signs of heaven 1 No ; they give their orders to the poulterer. He makes his report. It has been reckoned an excellent auspice on all occasions, among the Romans, when it thunders on the left hand, except in reference to the Comitia ; and this exception was doubtless contrived for the benefit of the commonwealth, in order that the chiefs of the state might be the interpreters of the Comitia in whatever concerns the judgments of the people, the rights of the laws, and the creation of the magistrates. But, you argue, in consequence of the letters of Ti berius Gracchus, Scipio Nasica and Caius Martins Figulus resigned the consulship, because the augurs determined that they had been irregularly created. Well, who denies that there is a school of Augurs 1 What I deny is, that there is any such thing as divination. But the soothsayers are diviners ; and after Tiberius Gracchus had introduced them into the senate, on account of the sudden death of the individual whose office it was to report the order of the elections, they said that the Comitia had not been legally constituted. Now, in reference to this case, observe that they could not speak by authority of the summoner of the president of the centuries, for he was dead; and conjecture without divination could say that. Or perhaps what they said was no better than the result of chance, which prevails to a considerable extent in all affairs of this nature. For what could the sooth sayers of Etruria know as to whether the tent they observed was as it should be, and whether the regulations of the pomoerium, or circumvallation, were exactly obeyed. For myself, I agree with the sentiments of Caius Marcellus rather than with those of Appius Claudius, who were both of them my colleagues ; and I think that, although the college and law of augurs were first instituted on account of the reverence entertained for divination in ancient times, they were afterwards maintained and preserved for the sake of the state. Of this, however, more elsewhere. At present, let us examine the auguries of other nations who have evinced therein more superstition than art. They make use of all kinds of birds for their auspices; we confine ourselves to few: and one set of omens are reckoned unfavourable by them, and a different set by us. King Deiotarus often asked me for an account of our discipline and system of divination, and I asked him for information aoout nis. Good heavens ! how different were the two methods, in some instances, so much so as to be downright contradictory to one another. And he had re course to augurs on all occasions ; but how very seldom do we apply to them unless the auspices are required by the people! Our ancestors were unwilling to wage any war without consulting the auspices. But how many years have elapsed since this ceremony has been neglected by our proconsuls and propraetors? They never take auspices ; they do not pass over rivers by the encouragement of omens ; nor do they wait for the intimation of the sacred chickens. As to that divination which consists in observing the flight of birds from some elevated spot once considered of so much consequence in military expeditions, MARCO MARCELLO, who was consul five times, as well as imperator and chief augur too, omitted it altogether. What is become, then, of divina tion by birds, which (as wars are carried on by people who take no care about any auspices) seems to be retained by the city magistrates, while it is renounced by our military com manders? So much did Marcellus despise auspices, that when he was proceeding on any enterprise, he was accustomed to travel in a closed litter, that he might not be liable to be hindered by them. And we augurs now-a-days act much in the same way, when, for fear of what is called a joint auspice, we order the sacrificial cattle to be separated from each other. Not that I commend conduct like this ; for to make these contrivances, either that an auspice should not happen at all, or that if it happens it should not be seen, what is it but an attempt to avoid the admonitions of Jupiter? It is ridiculous enough for you to assert that this king Deiotarus did not repent of having believed the auspices which he experienced when he went in search of Pompey, because he had, by doing his duty, thus secured the fidelity and friendship of the Romans ; for that praise and glory were dearer to him than his kingdom and possessions. I dare say they were ; but this has nothing to do with the auspices. Surely no crow could inform him that it was a piece of magnanimity to defend the liberty of the Roman people. It was he himself who felt spontaneously what he did feel; and birds can do no more than signify bare events, be they for tunate or disastrous. Thus, I conceive that Deiotarus in this affair followed no other auspices than those of conscience, which taught him to prefer his duty to his interest. But if the birds showed him that the result would be prosperous, they certainly deceived him; for he fled from the battle, together with Pompey, and a grievous time it was for him. From this general he was compelled to separate another affliction; and, to crown his troubles, he soon had Csesar quartered upon him, both as a guest and an enemy. What could be more painful than this? Lastly, Csesar, after having deprived him of the tetrarchy of the Trogini, and bestowed it on a certain Pergamenian of his train, after having likewise deprived him of Armenia, which had been granted him by the senate, after having been entertained by him with most princely hospitality, left his entertainer the king wholly stripped of his possessions. It is needless to add more. I will return to my original subject. If we seek to know events by those auspices which are sought from birds, it appears by this argument that no birds could truly have predicted prosperity to king Deiotarus. If we want to know our duty, that is not to be sought from augury, but from virtue. I say nothing, then, of the augural staff of Romulus, which you declare to have remained unconsumed by fire in the midst of a general conflagration ; and pass over the razor of Attius Navius, which is reported to have cut through a whetstone. Such fables as these should not be admitted into philosophical discussions. What a philosopher has to do is, first, to examine the nature of the augural science, to investigate its origin, and to pursue its history. But how pitiful is the nature of a science which pretends that the eccentric motions of birds are full of ominous import, and that all manner of things must be done, or left undone, as their flights and songs may indicate ! How can their inclinations to the right or left determine the power of auspices? and how, when, and by wrhom were such absurd regulations as these invented? The Etrurian soothsayers hold as the author of their dis cipline a child whom a ploughshare suddenly dug up from a clod of the earth. Whom do we Romans look upon as the author of ours? Is it Attius Navius? But Romulus and Remus lived several years before him, and they were both augurs, as we are informed. Shall we call our system the invention of the Pisidians, the Cilicians, or the Phrygians 1 Shall we, by speaking thus, call men devoid of all civilization the authors of divination? But, you say, all kings, people, and nations use auspices ; as if there was anything in the world so very common as error is, or as if you yourself, in judging, were guided by the opinion of the multitude. How few, for instance, are there who deny that pleasure is a good: most people even think it the chief good. But is the Stoic frightened from his creed by their numbers? or does the multitude follow their authority in many things 1 What wonder is there, then, if in respect of auspices, and all kinds of divinations, weak spirits are affected by those popular superstitions, though they cannot overturn the truth 1 And what uniformity or settled agreement exists between augurs [The poet Ennius, referring to our Roman augurs, says When on the left it thunders, all goes well. In Homer, on the contrary, Ajax,1 making some complaint or other to Achilles about the ferocity of the Trojans, speaks in this manner For them the father of the Gods declares, His omens on the right, his thunder theirs. So that omens on the left appear fortunate to us, while the Greeks and barbarians prefer those on the right. Although I am not unaware that our Romans call prosperous signs sinistra, even if they are in fact dextra. But certainly our countrymen used the term sinistra, and foreigners the word dextra, because that usually appeared the best. How great, however, is this contrariety ! Why need I stop to mention that they use different birds and different signs from our selves? they take their observations in a different way, and give answers in a different way; and it is superfluous to admit that some of these modes are adopted through error, some through superstition, and that they often mislead. To this catalogue of superstitions you have not hesi- 1 This is another piece of forge tfulness on the part of CICERONE (si veda). See Iliad. tated to add a number of omens and presages. For instance, you have quoted the words which ./Emilia addressed to Paulus, that Perses had perished; which Paulus received as an omen of success. You quote likewise the speech that Cecilia made to her sister's daughter I yield my place to you. Nor is this all : you cite the phrase, favete linguis (keep silence); and you extol the prerogative presage derived from the name of the person who takes precedence in the elections of the comitia. I call this being ingenious and eloquent against yourself; for how, if you attend to things like these, can your mind be free and calm enough to follow, not supersti tion, but reason, as your guide in action 1 Is it not so? If any one, while speaking on his own affairs, in the course of his common conversation, drops a word that may seem to you to bear on anything which you are thinking or doing, shall that circumstance inspire you with either fear or energy? When Marcus Crassus was embarking his army at Brundu- sium, a. certain itinerant vender of figs from Caunus cried out in the harbour, Will you buy any cauneas / Let us say, if you please, that this was an omen against Crassus's expedition ; for that it was as much as to say, Cave ne eas (Beware how you go), and that if Crassus had obeyed the omen he would not have perished. But if we regard such omens as these, we shall have to take notice of sneezes, the breaking of a shoe-tie, or the tripping over a pebble in walking. It now remains for us to speak of the lots, and the Chal dean astrologers, vaticinations, and dreams. And first let us speak of lots. What, now, is a lot? Much the same as the game of mora, or dice, ! and other games of chance, in which luck and fortune are all in all, and reason and skill avail nothing. These games are full of trick and deceit, invented for the object of gain, superstition, or error. But let us examine the imputed origin of the lots, as we did that of the system of the soothsayers. We read in the records of the Prsenestines, that Numeriua Sufnicius, a man of high reputation and rank, had often been commanded by dreams (which at last became very threaten- ! The Latin has quod talos jacere, quod tesseras, tali being dice with four flat and two round sides, and tesserce dice with six flat sides. ing) to cut a flint-stone in two, at a particular spot. Being extremely alarmed at the vision, he began to act in obedience to it, in spite of the derision of his fellow-citizens; and he had no sooner divided the stone, than he found therein certain lots, engraved in ancient characters on oak. The spot in •which this discovery took place is now religiously guarded, being consecrated to the infant Jupiter, who is represented with Juno as sitting in the lap of Fortune, and sucking her breasts, and is most chastely worshipped by all mothers. At the same time and place in which the Temple of For tune is now situated, they report that honey flowed out of an olive. Upon this the augurs declared that the lots there instituted would be held in the highest honour; and, at their command, a chest was forthwith made out of this same olive- tree, and therein those lots are kept by which the oracles of Fortune are still delivered. But how can there be the least degree of sure and certain information in lots like these, which, under Fortune's direction, are shuffled and drawn by the hands of a child? How were the lots conveyed to this particular spot, and who cut and carved the oak of which they are composed 1 Oh, say they, there is nothing which God cannot do. I wish that he had made these Stoical sages a little less inclined to believe every idle tale, out of a superstitious and miserable solicitude. The common sense of men in real life has happily succeeded in exploding this kind of divination. It is only the antiquity and beauty of the Temple of Fortune that any longer pre serves the Prsenestine lots from contempt even among the vulgar. For what magistrate, or man of any reputation, ever resorts to them now? And in all other places they are wholly disregarded; so that Clitomachus informs us, that with refe rence to this, Carneades was wont to say that he had never been so fortunate as when he saw Fortune at Prseneste. So we will say no more on this topic. Let us now consider the prodigies of the Chaldeans. Eudoxus, who was a disciple of Plato, and, in the judgment of the greatest men, the first astronomer of his time, formed the opinion, and committed it to writing, that no credence should be given to the predictions of the Chaldeans in their calculation of a man's life from the day of his nativity. Paneetius, who is almost the only member of THE PORTICO who rejects astro logical prophecies, says that Archelaus and Cassander, the two principal astronomers of the age in which he himself lived, set no value on judicial astrology, though they were very celebrated for their learning in other parts of astronomy. Scylax of Halicarnassus, a great friend of Pansetius, and a first-rate astronomer, and chief magistrate of his own city, likewise rejected all the predictions of the Chaldeans. But to proceed merely on reason, omitting for the present the testimony of these witnesses. Those who put faith in the Chaldeans, and their calcu lations of nativities, and their various predictions, argue in this manner: they affirm that in that circle of constellations which the Greeks term the Zodiac there resides a ceiiain energy, of such a character that each portion of its circum ference influences and modifies the surrounding heavens ac cording to what stars are in those and the neighbouring parts at each season ; and that this energy is variously affected by those wandering stars which we call planets. But when they come into that portion of the circle in which is situated the rise of that star which appears anew, or into that which has anything in conjunction or harmony with it, they term it the true or quadrate aspect. And moreover, as there happen at every season of the year several astronomical revolutions, owing to approximations and retirements of the stars which we see, which are affected by the power of the sun, they think it not merely probable, but true, that according to the temperature of the atmosphere at the time must be the animation and formation of children from their mother's womb; and that their genius, disposition, temper, constitution, behaviour, fortune, and destiny through life depend upon that. What an incredible insanity is this ! for every error does not deserve the mere name of folly. The Stoic Diogenes grants, that the Chaldeans possess the power of foreseeing certain events ; to the limit, that is, of predicting what a child's disposition and his particular talent and ability are likely to be. But he denies that the other things which they profess can possibly be known. For instance ; two twins may re semble each other in appearance, and yet their lives and fortunes may be entirely dissimilar. Procles and Eurysthenes, kings of the Laceduemonians, were twin-brethren. But they did not live the same number of years ; for Procles died a year before his brother, and much excelled him in the glory of his actions. But I question whether even that portion of prophetic power which the worthy Diogenes concedes to the Chaldeans, by a sort of prevarication in argument, can be fairly ascribed to them. For, as according to them the birth of infants is regulated by the moon, and as the Chaldeans observe and take notice of the natal stars with which the moon happens to be in conjunction at the moment of a nativity, they are founding their judgment on the most fallacious evidence of their eyes, as to matters which they ought to behold by reason and intellect. For the science of Mathematics, with which they ought to be acquainted, should teach them the comparative proximity of the moon to the earth, and its re lative remoteness from the planets Venus and Mercury, and especially from the sun, whose light it is supposed to borrow. And the other three intervals, those, namely, which separate the sun from Mars and from Jupiter and from Saturn, and the distance also between that and the heaven, which is the bound and limit of our universe, are infinite and immense. What influence, then, can such distant orbs ti'ansmit to the moon, or rather to the earth? Moreover, when these astrologers maintain, as they are bound to maintain, that all children that are born on the earth under the same planet and constellation, having the same signs of nativity, must experience the same destinies, they make an assertion which evinces the greatest ignorance of astronomy. For those circles which divide the heaven into hemispheres circles which the Greeks call horizons, and the Latins finientes perpetually vary according to the spot from which they are drawn ; and, therefore, the risings and settings of the stars appear to take place at different seasons to dif ferent races of men. If, then, the condition of the atmosphere is affected by the energy and virtue of the stars, sometimes in one way and sometimes in another, how can those children who are born at the same time in different climates be subject to the same starry influences in various quarters of the globe 1 For instance, in the country which we Romans inhabit, the dog-star rises some days after the summer solstice, while among the Troglodytes, a people of Africa, it is said to rise before it. So that if I were to grant that the heavenly influences have an effect upon all the children who are born upon the earth, it would follow, that all who are born at the same time in different regions of the earth, must be born not with the same but with different inclinations according to the different conditions of climate; which, however, they by no means admit. For they persist in maintaining that all chil dren who are born at the same period, have at their nativity the same astrologicl destinies allotted to them, whatever their native country may be. But what folly is it to imagine, that while attending to the swift motions and revolutions of heaven, we should take no notice of the changes of the atmosphere immediately around us, its weather, its winds, and rains when weather differs so much even in places which are nearest to one another, that there is often one weather at Tusculum and another at Rome; as is especially remarked by sailors, who, after having doubled a cape, often find the greatest possible change in the wind. When the calmness or disturbed state of the weather is so variable, is it the part of a man in his senses to say that these circumstances have no effect on the births of children happen ing at that moment, (as, indeed, they have not,) and yet to affirm, that that subtle and indefinable thing, which cannot be felt at all, and can scarcely be comprehended, namely, the conjuncture which arises from the moon and other stars, does affect the birth of children 1 What? is it a slight error, not to understand that by this system that energy of seminal principles which is of so much influence in begetting and procreating the child is utterly put out of sight? for who can help observing that the parents impress on their children, to a great extent, their own forms, manners, features, and gestures. Now this could hardly happen if it were not the power and nature of the parents which was the efficient cause, but the condition of the moon and the temperature of the heavens. Why need I press the argument that those who are born at one and the same moment, are dissimilar in their nature, their lives, and their circumstances? Besides, is there any doubt that many persons, though they were born with great bodily defects, are never theless afterwards cured of them, and set right by the self- corrective power of their nature, or by the attention of their nui-ses, or the skill of their physicians? or that many chil dren have been born so tongue-tied that they could not speak, and yet have been cured by the application of the knife'? Many likewise by meditation or exercise have removed their natural infirmities. Thus Phalereus records that Demos thenes when young could not pronounce the letter R; but afterwards by constant practice he learnt to articulate it perfectly. Now, if such defects had been occasioned by the influence of the stars, nothing could have altered them. Need I say more? Does not difference of situation make races of men different 1 It is easy enough to give a list of such instances; and to point out what differences exist be tween the Indians and Persians, the ^Ethiopians and Syrians, in respect both of their persons and characters, so as to present an incredible variety and dissimilarity. And this fact proves, that the climate influences the nativities of men far more than the aspect of the moon and stars. For though some pretend that the Chaldean astrologers have verified the nativities of children by calculations and experi ments in the cases of all the children who have been born for 470,000 years, this is a mistake. For had they been in the habit of doing so, they would never have given up the practice. But. as it is, no author remains who knows of such a thing being done now, or ever having been done. You see that I am not using the arguments of Carneades, but those rather of Pantetius, the chief of the Stoics But answer me now this question. Were all those persons who were slain in the battle of Cannae born under the same constellation, as they met with one and the same end? Again, have those men who are singular in their genius and courage, a separate, some peculiar star of their own too 1 For what moment is there in which a multitude of persons are not born? and yet no one has ever been like Homer. And if the aspect of the stars and the state of the firma ment influenced the birth of every being, it should, by parity of reasoning, influence inanimate substances; yet what can be more absurd than such an idea? I grant, indeed, that Lucius Tarutius of Firma, my own personal friend, and a man particularly well acquainted with the Chaldean astrology, traced back the nativity of our own city, Rome, to those equinoctial days of the feast of Pales in which Romulus is reported to have begun its foundations, and asserted that the moon was at that period in Libra, and on this discovery, he hesitated not to pronounce the destinies of Rome. Oh, the mighty power of delusion ! Is even the b'irth-day of a city subject to the influence of the stars and moon'? Granting even that the condition of the heavens, when he draws his first breath, may influence the life of a child, does it follow that it can have any effect on brick or cement, of which a city is composed? Why need I say more? Such ideas as these are refuted every day. How many of these Chaldean prophecies do I remember being repeated to Pompey, Crassus, and to Caesar himself ! according to which, not one of these heroes was to die except in old age, in domestic felicity, and perfect renown ; so that I wonder that any living man can yet believe in these impostors, whose predictions they see falsified daily by facts and results. It only remains for us now to examine those ttfo sorts of divination which you term natural, as distin guished from artificial namely, vaticinations and dreams. With your permission, brother Quiutus, we will now treat of these. I shall be very well pleased to hear you, (answered Quintus,) for I entirely agree with all you have hitherto advanced, and, to tell you the trut, although I have had my feelings on the subject strengthened by your arguments, yet of my own accord I looked upon the opinion of the Stoics respecting divination as rather too superstitious, and was more inclined to favour the arguments which have been adduced by the Peripatetics, and the ancient DicEearchus. and Cratippus, who now flourishes, who all maintain that there exists in the minds of men a certain oracular and pro phetic power of presentiment, whereby they anticipate future events, whether they are inspired with a divine ecstasy, or are r.s it were disengaged from the body, and act freely and easily during sleep. I wish therefore to know what is your opinion respecting these vaticinations and dreams, and by what ingenious devices you mean to invalidate them. When Quintus had thus spoken, I proceeded again to speak, starting afresh, as it were, from a new beginning. I am very well aware, brother Quintus, I replied, that you have always entertained doubts respecting the other kinds of divination; but that you are very favourable to the two natural kinds namely, ecstasy and dreams, which appear to proceed from the mind when at liberty. T will therefore tell you my idea very candidly respecting these two species of divination, after I have examined a little the sentiment of the Stoics, and espe cially of our friend Cratippus, on this subject. For you said that Cratippus, Diogenes, and Antipater summed up the question in this manner : If there are Gods, and they do not inform men beforehand respecting future events, either they do not love men, or do not know what is going to happen; or they think that the knowledge of the future would be of no service to mankind; or they believe it incon sistent with the majesty of Gods to reveal to men the things that must come to pass; or, lastly, we must believe that even the Gods themselves are incapable of declaring them. But we cannot say that the Gods do not love man, for they are essentially benevolent and philanthropic. And they cannot be ignorant of those things, which they themselves have appointed and designed: neither can it be uninteresting or unimportant to us to know what must happen to us, for we should be more prudent if we did know. Nor can the Gods think it inconsistent with their dignity to advertise men of future events, for nothing can be more sublime than doing- good. Nor are they unable to perceive the future before hand. If, therefore, there are no Gods, they do not declare the future to us; but there are Gods, therefore they do declare. And if the Gods declare future events to us, they must have furnished us with means whereby we may appre hend them, otherwise they would declare them in vain; and if they have given us the means of apprehending divination, then there is a divination for us to apprehend therefore there is a divination. 0 acutest of men, in what concise terms do they think that they have settled the question for ever! They assume premises to draw their conclusion from, not one of which is granted to them. But the only conclusion of an argument which can be approved, is one in which the point doubted of is established by facts which are not doubtful. L. Do you not see how Epicurus, whom the Stoics forsooth term a blunderer, reasons in order to prove that the universe is infinite in the very nature of things? That which is finite, says he, has an end. Every one will concede this. What ever has an end, may be seen externally from something else. This also may be granted him. Now that which includes al, cannot be discerned externally from anything else. This proposition likewise appears undeniable. Therefore that which includes all, having no end, is necessarily infinite. Thus by the proposition which we are compelled to admit, he clearly proves the point in question. Now this is just what you dialecticians have not yet done in favour of divination ; and you not only bring forward no pro position as your premises, so self-evident as to be universally admitted; but you assume such premises as, even if they be granted, your desired conclusion would be as far as ever from following. For instance, your first proposition is this: If there are Gods they must needs be benevolent. Who will grant you this 1 Will Epicurus, who asserts that the Gods do not care about any business of their own or of others? or will our own countryman Ennius, who was applauded by all the Romans, when he said I've always argued that the Gods exist, But that they care for mortals I deny ; and then gives reasons for his opinion; but it is not neces sary to quote him further. I have said enough to show that your friends assume as certain, propositions which are matters of doubt and controversy. The next proposition is this, That the Gods must needs know all things, because they have made all things. But how great a dispute is there as to this fact among the most learned men, several of whom deny that all things were created by the immortal Gods! Again, they assert, that it is the interest of man to know those things which are about to come to pass. But Dicsear- chus has written a great book to prove that ignorance of futurity is better than knowledge of futurity. They deny that it is inconsistent with the majesty of the Gods to look into every man's house, forsooth, so as to see what is expedient for each individual. Nor is it possible, say they, for them to be ignorant of the future. This is denied by those who will not allow that what is future can be certain. Do not you see, therefore, that they have assumed as certain and admitted axioms, things which are doubtful? After which, they twist the argument about and sum it up thus : Therefore, there are no Gods; and they do not grant men intimations of the future. And, having settled the question thus, to their own satisfaction, they add, But there are Gods; a fact which is not admitted by all men; there fore, they do grant intimations. Even that consequence I cannot see; for they may grant no intimations of the future and yet exist as Gods. Again, it is asserted; If the Gods grant intimations to men respecting future events, they must grant some means of explaining these intimations. But surely the contrary may be the case ; for the Gods may keep to themselves the mean ing of the signs which they impart to men ; for else, why should they teach it to the Etrurians rather than to the Romans? Again, they argue, that if the Gods have given men the means of understanding the signs they impart, then the existence of divination is manifest. Biit grant that the Gods do give such means, what does it avail, if we happen to be incapable of receiving them 1 Last of all, their conclusion is ; Therefore, there certainly is such a thing as divination. It may be their conclusion, but it is not proved; for, as they themselves have taught us, •' false premises cannot produce a true result. Therefore, the whole conclusion falls to the ground. Let us now consider the arguments of that most excellent man, our friend Cratippus. As, says he, the use and function of sight cannot exist without the eyes and yet the eyes do not always perform their office, and, as he who has once enjoyed correct sight, so as to see what truly exists, is conscious of the reality of vision ; so, if the practice of divination cannot exist without the power of divination and though in the exercise of this power of divination some errors may occur, and the diviner may be misled so as not to foresee the truth ; yet the existence of divination is sufficiently attested by the fact that some true divinations have been made, containing such exact predictions of all the particulars of future events, that they can never have been made by chance, of which numerous instances might be cited. The exist ence of divination must therefore be admitted. The argument is neatly and concisely stated. But Cratippus twice assumes what he wishes to prove; and even if we were willing to grant him very large concessions, we could not possibly agree with his conclusions. His argument is this: Though the eyes should sometimes possess very imperfect sight, yet, provided they sometimes see clearly, it is evident that the power of vision is in them. On the same principle, if any one has ever once uttered a true divination, he must always be considered as possessing the faculty of divining, even when he blunders. Now I entreat you, my dear Cratippus, to consider how little is the resemblance between these two cases. To me there is none at all. The eyes which see clearly exert no more than their natural faculty of sight. But minds, if they have sometimes truly foreseen future events, either in ecsta sies or dreams, have done so by fortune and accident ; unless, indeed, you imagine those who believe that dreams are but dreams, will grant you that when they happen to dream any thing that is true, it is no longer the effect of chance. But we may concede for the present these two assumptions of Cratippus, which the Greek dialecticians would call lem mata. But we prefer speaking in Latin; still the presump tion, which they term prolepsis, cannot be granted. Cratippus goes on assuming premises in this manner: There are, says he, presentiments innumerable which are not fortuitous. Now this we absolutely deny. See how great is the magnitude of the difference between us. Not being able to agree with his premises, I assert that he has drawn no conclusion. Oh, but perhaps it is very impudent of us not to concede a point which is so clear ! But what is clear? Why, he replies, that many predictions are fulfilled. Yes ; but are there not many more which are not fulfilled? Does not this very variation, which is the peculiar property of fortune, teach us that fortune, not nature, regulates such predictions? Moreover, if your conclusion is true, 0 renowned Cratippus! for to you I address myself do not you perceive that the soothsayers, and those who predict by thunder and light ning, and the interpreters of prodigies, and the augurs, and the Chaldean astrologers, and those who tell fortunes by drawing lots, will all bring forward the same argument as yourself in their own favour? Not one of these men has been so unfortunate as never on any occasion to find his pre dictions verified. This being the case, you must either admit all the other kinds of divination which you now most properly reject; or, if you absolutely condemn them, I do not see how you will be able to defend those two which you retain as favourable exceptions. For on the same principle that you maintain these, the others also may be true which you discard. But what authority has this same ecstasy, which you choose to call divine, that enables the madman to foresee things inscrutable to the sage, and which invests with divine senses a man who has lost all his human ones 1 We Romans preserve with solicitude the verses which the Sibyl is reported to have uttered when in an ecstasy, the interpreter of which is by common report believed to have recently uttered certain falsities in the senate, to the effect that he whom we did really treat as king should also be called king, if we would be safe. If such a prediction is indeed contained in the books of the Sibyl, to what particular person or period does it refer? For, whoever was the author of these Sibylline oracles, they are very ingeniously com posed; since, as all specific definition of person and period is omitted, they in some way or other appear to predict everything that happens. Besides this, the Sibylline oracles are involved in such profound obscurity, that the same verses might seem at different times to refer to different subjects. It is evident, however, that they are not a song composed by any one in a prophetic ecstasy, as the poem itself evinces, being far less remarkable for enthusiasm and inspiration than for technicality and labour ; and as is especially proved by that arrangement which the Greeks call acrostics where, from the first letter of each verse in order, words are formed which express some particular meaning ; as is the case with some of Ennius's verses, the initial letters of which make, Which Ennius wrote. But such verses indicate rather attention than ecstasy in those who write them. Now, in the verses of the Sibyl, the whole of the paragraph on each subject is contained in the initial letters of every verse of that same paragraph. This is evidently the artifice of a practised writer, not of one in a frenzy; and rather of a diligent mind than of an insane one. Therefore, let us con sider the Sibyl as so distinct and isolated a character, that, according to the ordinance of our ancestors, the Sibylline books shall not even be read except by decree of the senate, and be used rather for the putting down than the taking up of religious fancies. And let us so arrange matters with the priests under whose custody they remain, that they may pro phesy anything rather than a king from these mysterious volumes; for neither Gods nor men any longer tolerate the notion of restoring kingly government at Rome. But many people, you say, have in repeated instances uttered true predictions ; as, for example, Cassandra, when she said, Already is the fleet,'' ' &c. ; and in a subsequent prophecy, Ah! see you not? &c. Do you then expect me to give credence to these fables 1 I will grant that they are as delightful as you please to call them, that they are polished up with every conceivable beauty of language, sentiment, music, and rhythm. LuL we are not bound to invest fictions of this kind with any authority, or to give them any belief. And, on the same principle, I do not think any one bound to pay any attention to such diviners as Publicius (whoever he may be), or Martius, or to the secret oracles of Apollo ; of which some are notoriously false, and others uttered at i-an- dom, so that they command little respect, I will not say from learned men, but even from any person of plain common sense. What ! you will say, did not that old sailor of the fleet of Coponius predict truly the events which took place? No doubt he did ; but they happened to be those very things which at the time everybody thought most likely to ensue. For we were daily hearing that the two armies were situated near each other in Thessaly ; and it appeared to us that Caesar's army had the greater audacity, inasmuch as it was waging war against its own country, and the greater strength, being composed of veteran soldiers. And as to the battle, there was not one of us who did not dread the result, though, as brave men should, we kept our anxiety to ourselves, and expressed no alarm. What wonder, however, was it that this Greek sailor was forced from all self-possession and constancy, as is very com mon, by the greatness of his terror and affright ; and that, being driven to distraction by his own cowardice, he uttered those convictions when raving mad which he had cherished when yet sane? Which, in the name of Gods and men, is most likely; that a mad sailor should have attained to a know ledge of the counsels of the immortal Gods, or that some one of us who were on the spot at the time myself, for in stance, or Cato, or Varro, or Coponius himself could have done so? I now come to you, Apollo, monarch of the sacred centre Of the threat world, full of thy inspiration, The Pythian priestesses proclaim thy prophecies. For Chrysipyus has filled an entire volume with your oracles, many of which, as I said before, I consider utterly false, and many others only true by accident, as often happens in any common conversation. Others, again, are so obscure and involved, that their very interpreters have need of other interpreters; and the decisions of one lot have to be referred to other lots. Another portion of them are so ambiguous, that they require to be analysed by the logic of dialecticians. Thus, when Fortune uttered the following oracle respecting Croesus, the richest king of Asia, When Crocus has the Halys cross'd, A mifdity kingdom will be lost ; that monarch expected he should ruin the power of his enemies; but the empire that he ruined was his own. And whichever result had ensued the oracle would have been true. But, in truth, what reason have I to believe that such an oracle was ever uttered respecting Croesus 1 or why should I think Herodotus more veracious than Ennuis'? Is the one less full of fictions respecting Croesus than the other is re specting Pyrrhus 1 For who now believes that the following answer was given to Pyrrhus by the oracle of Apollo? You ask your fate; 0 king, I answer you, yEacides the Romans will subdue! For, in the first place, Apollo never uttered an oracle in Latin; secondly, this oracle is altogether unknown to the Greeks. Besides, in the days of Pyrrhus, Apollo had already left off composing verses. Lastly, although it was always the case, as is said in these lines of Ennius, The JEacids were but a stupid race, More warlike than sagacious, yet even Pyrrhus might without much difficulty have per ceived the ambiguity of the phrase, Eacides the Romans will subdue; and might have seen that it did not apply more to himself than it did to the Romans. As to that ambiguity which deceived Croesus, it might even have deceived Chrysippus. This one could not have deluded even IL GIARDINO. But the chief argument is, why are the Delphic oracles altered in such a way that I do not mean only lately in our own time, but for a long time nothing can have been more contemptible 1 When we press our antagonists for a reason for this, they say that the peculiar virtue of the spot from which those exhalations of the earth arose, under the influence and excite ment of which the Pythian priestess uttered her oracles, has disappeared by the lapse of time. You might suppose they were speaking of wine or salt, which do lose their flavour by lapse of time; but they are talking thus of the virtue of a place, and that not merely a natural, but a divine virtue; and how is that to have disappeared? By reason of age, is your reply. But what age can possibly destroy a divine virtue? and what virtue can be so divine as an exhalation of the earth which has the power of inspiring the mind, and ren dering it so prophetic of things to come, that it can not only discern them long before they happen, but even declare them in verse and rhythm? And when did this magical virtue dis appear 1 Was it not precisely at the time when men began to be less credulous? Demosthenes, who lived nearly three hundred years ago, said that even in his time the Pythia Philippized, that is to say, supported Philip's influence; and his expression was meant to convey the imputation that she had been bribed by Philip. From which we may infer that other oracles besides those of Delphi were not quite immaculate. Somehow or other, certain philosophers who are very superstitious not to say fanatical appear to prefer anything to behaving with common sense themselves; and so you prefer asserting that that has vanished, and become extinct, which, if it ever had existed, must certainly have been eternal, rather than not believe what is wholly incredible. The error with regard to the divination of dreams is another of the same kind; their arguments for which are extremly far-fetched and obscure. They affirm that the minds of men are divine, that they came from God, and that the universe is full of these consenting intelligences. That, therefore, by this inherent divinity of the mind, and by its conjunction with other spirits, it may foresee future events. But Zeno and the Stoics supposed the mind to contract, to subside, to yield, and even to sleep, itself. And Pythagoras and Plato, authors of the greatest weight, advise men, with a view of seeing things more certainly in sleep, to go to bed after having gone through a certain preparatory course of food and other conduct. Pythagoras, for this reason, coun selled his disciples to abstain from beans; with the idea that this species of food excited the mind, not the stomach. In short, somehow or other, I know nothing is so absurd as not to have found an advocate in one of the philosophers. Do we then think that the minds of men during sleep move by an intrinsic internal energy, or that, as Democritus pre tends, they are affected with external and adventitious visions? On either supposition we may mistake during our dreams many false things for true. For to people sailing, those things appear to be in motion which are stationary, and by a certain ocular deception, the light of a candle sometimes seems double. Why need I in stance the number of false appearances which are presented to the eyes of men, among those who labour under drunken ness, or maniacs? Now, if we cannot trust such appearances as those, I know not why we are to place any absolute reliance on the visions of dreams; for you might as well, if you pleased, argue irom these errors as from dreams. For instance, that if stationary objects appear to move, you might say that this appearance indicated the approach of an earthquake, or some sudden flight ; and that lights seen double presage wars, and discords, and seditions. From the visions of drunkards and madmen one might, doubtless, deduce innumerable const quences by con jecture, which might seem to be presages of future events. For what person who aims at a mark all day long will not sometimes hit it 1 We sleep every night; and there are very few on which we do not dream; can we wonder then that what we dream sometimes comes to pass? What is so uncertain as the cast of dice 1 and yet no one plays dice often without at times casting the point of Venus, and sometimes even twice or thrice in succession. Shall we, then, be so absurd as to attribute such an event to the impulse of Venus, rather than to the doctrine of chances'? If then, on ordinary occasions, we are not bound to give credit to false appearances, I do not see why sleep should enjoy this special privilege, that its false seemings should be honoured as true realities. If it were an institution of nature that men when they sleep really did the things which they dream about, it would be necessary to bind all persons going to bed both hand and foot, for they would otherwise while dreaming perpetrate more outrages than maniacs. Now since we place no confi dence in the visions of madmen, simply because they are delusions, I do not see why we should rely on those of dreamers, which are often the wilder of the two. Is it because madmen do not think it worth while to relate their visions to diviners, but those who dream do [Once more I put this question. If I feel inclined to read or write anything, or to sing or play on an instrument, or to pursue the sciences of geometry, physics, or dialectics, am I to wait for information in these sciences from a dream, or shall I have recourse to study, without which none of those things can be either done or explained Again, if I were to wish to take a voyage, I should never regulate my steering by my dreams. For such conduct would bring its own im mediate punishment. How, then, can it be reasonable for an invalid to apply for relief to an interpreter of dreams rather than to a physician? Can Esculapius or Serapis, by a dream, best prescribe to us the way to obtain a cure for weak health 1 And cannot Neptune do the same for a pilot in his art? Or will Minerva give us medicine without troubling the doctor? And still will the Muses refuse to impart to dreamers the art of writing, reading, and the other sciences? But if the blessing of health were conveyed to us in dreams, these other good things would certainly be so too. But unfortunately the science of medicine cannot be learnt in dreams, and the other arts are in a similar predicament. And if that be the case, then all the authority of dreams is at an end. But this is only a superficial argument. Let us now penetrate the heart of this question. For either some divine energy which takes care of us, gives us presentiments in our dreams; or those who explain them do, by a certain harmony and conjunction of nature which they call a~u/j.Tra.Oeia (sympathy), understand by means of dreams what is suitable for everything, and what is the con sequence of everything; or, lastly, neither of these things is true; but there is a constant system of observation of long standing, by which it had been remarked, that after certain dreams certain events usually follow. The first thing then for us to understand is, that there is no divine energy which inspires dreams; and this being granted, you must also grant that no visions of dreamers proceed from the agency of the Gods. For the Gods have for our own sake given us intellect sufficiently to provide for our future welfare. How few people then attend to dreams, or under stand them, or remember them! How many, on the other hand, despise them, and think any superstitious observation of them a sign of a weak and imbecile mind! Why then should God take the trouble to consult the interest of this man, or to warn that one by dreams, when ho knows that they not only do not think them worth attending to, but they do not even condescend to remember them. For a God cannot be ignorant of the sentiments of every man, and it is unworthy of a God to do anything in vain, or without a cause; nay, that would be unworthy of even a wise man. If, therefore, dreams are for the most part disregarded, or despised, either God is ignorant of that being the fact, or employs the intimation by dreams in vain. Neither of these suppositions can properly apply to God, and therefore it must be confessed, that God gives men no inti mations by means of dream. Again, let me ask you, if God gives us visions of a prophetic nature, in order to apprise us of future events, should we not rather expect them when we are awake than when we are asleep 1 For, whether it be some external and adventitious impulse which affects the minds of those who are asleep, or whether those minds are affected voluntarily by tiieir own agency, or whether there is any other cause why we seem to see and hear or do anything during sleep, the same impulses might surely operate on them when awake. And if for our sakes the Gods effect this during sleep, they might do it for us while awake. Especially as Chrysippus, wishing to refute the Acade micians, makes this remark That those inspirations, visions, and presentiments which occur to us awake, are much more distinct and certain than those which present themselves to dreamers. It would, therefore, have been more worthy of the divine beneficence while exerting its care for us, rather to favour us with clear visions when we are awake, than with the perplexed phantasms of dreams; and since that is not done, we must believe that these phantasms are not divine at all. Moreover, what is the use of such round-about and circuitous proceedings, as for it to be necessary to employ interpreters of dreams, rather than to proceed by a straight forward course If God were indeed anxious for oxir interests, he would say, Do this, do not that; and he would give such intimations to a waking rather than to a sleeping man; but as it is, who would venture to assert that all dreams are true? Ennius says, that some dreams are prophetical; he adds also, that it does not follow that all are so. Now whence arises this distinction between true dreams and false ones 1 and if true dreams come from God, from whence come the false ones? For if these last do like wise come from God, what can be more inconsistent than God? And what can be more ignorant conduct than to excite the minds of mortals by false and deceitful visions? But f only true dreams come from God, and the false and groundless ones are merely human delusions, what authority have you for making such a distinction as is implied in saying, God did this, and nature that 1 Why not rather say either that all dreams come from God (which you deny), or all from nature? which necessarily follows, since you deny that they proceed from God. By nature I mean that essential activity of the mind owing to which it never stands still, and is never free from some agitation or motion or other. When in consequence of the weakness of the body it loses the use of both the limbs and the senses, it is still affected by various and uncertain visions aris ing (as Aristotle observes) from the relics of the several affairs which employed our thoughts and labours during our waking hours; owing to the disturbances of which, marvellous varieties of dreams and visions at times arise. If some of these are false, and others true, I shall be glad to be informed by what definite art we are to distinguish the true from the false. If there be no such art, why do we consult the inter preters 1 If there be any such art, then I wish to know what it is. But they will hesitate. For it is a matter of ques tion, which is more probable; that the supreme and im mortal Gods, who excel in every kind of superiority, employ themselves in visiting all night long not merely the beds, but the very pallets of men, and as soon as they find any person fairly snoring, entertain his imagination with per plexed dreams and obscure visions, which sends him in great alarm as soon as daylight dawns to consult the seer and interpreter: or whether these dreams are the result of natural causes, and the everactive, everworking mind having seen things when awake, seems to see them again when asleep. Which is the more philosophical course, to interpret these phenomena according to the superstitions of old women, or by natural explanations So that even if a true interpretation of dreams could exist, it is certainly not in the possession of those who profess it, for these people are the lowest and most ignorant of the people. And it is not without reason that your friends the Stoics affirm, that no one can ever be a diviner but a wise man. Chrysippus, indeed, defines divination in these words: It is, says he, a power of apprehending, discerning, and ex plaining those signs which are given by the Gods to men as portents; and he adds, that the proper office of a sooth sayer is to know beforehand the disposition of the Gods hi regard to men, and to declare what intimations they give, and by what means these prodigies are to be propitiated or averted. The interpretation of dreams he also defines in this manner. It is, says he, a power of beholding and revealing those things which the Gods signify to men in dreams. Well, then, does this require but a moderate degree of wisdom, or rather consummate sagacity, and perfect erudition?and a man so endowed we have never known. Consider, therefore, whether even if I were to concede to you that there is such a thing as divination which I never will concedeit would still not follow that a diviner could be found to exercise it truly. But what strange ideas must the Gods have, if the intimations which they give us in dreams are such as we cannot understand of ourselves, and such, too, as we cannot find interpreters of: acting almost wisely as the Carthaginians and Spaniards would do if they were to harangue in their native languages in our Roman senate without an interpreter. But what is the object of these enigmas and obscurities of dreamers 1 For the Gods ought to wish us to under stand those things which they reveal to us for our own sake and benefit. What! is no poet, no natural philoso pher obscure? Euphorion certainly is obscure enough, but Homer is not; which, then, is the best? Heraclitus is very puzzling, Democritus is very lucid; are they to be compared? You, for my own sake, give me advice that I do not understand! What is it, then, that you are advising me to do? Suppose a medical man were to prescribe to a sick man an earth-born, grass-walking, housecarrying, unsanguineous animal, in stead of simply saying, a snail; so Amphion in Pacuvius speaks of A four-footed and slow going beast, Rugged, debased, and harsh; his head is short, His neck is serpentine, his aspect stern; He has no blood, but is an animal Inanimate, not voiceless. When these obscure verses had been duly recited, the Greeks cried out, We do not understand you unless you tell us plainly what animal you mean? I mean, said Pacuvius, I mean in one word, a tortoise. Could you not, then, said the questioner, have told us so at first? We read in that volume which Chrysippus has written concerning dreams, that some one having dreamed in the night that he saw an egg hanging on his bed-post, went to consult the interpreter about it. The interpreter informed him that the dream SIGNIFIED that a sum of money is concealed under his bed. He digs, and finds a little gold surrounded by a heap of silver. Upon this, he sends the interpreter as much of the silver as he thinks a fair reward. Then says the interpreter, What! none of the yolk? For that part of the egg appears to intimate gold, while the rest means silver. But did no one else ever dream of eggs. If others have, too, why is this man the only one who ever finds a treasure in consequence? How many poor people are there worthy of the help of the gods, to whom they vouchsafe no such fortunate intimations! And, again, why did this individual receive SUCH AN OBSCURE SIGN of a treasure o,s could be afforded by the resemblance of an egg, instead of being distinctly commanded at once to look for a treasure, in the same way as Simonides is expressly forbidden to put to sea? Therefore, obscure dreams are not at all consistent with the majesty of the gods. But let us now treat of those dreams which you term clear and definite, such as that of the Arcadian whose friend is killed by the inn-keeper at Megara, or that of Simonides, who is warned not to set sail by an apparition of a man whose interment he had kindly superintended. The history of Alexander presents us with another instance of this kind, which I wonder you did not cite, who, after his friend Ptolemy is wounded in battle by a poisoned arrow, and when he appears to be dying of the wound, and is in great agony, fell asleep while sitting by his bed, and in his slumber is said to have seen a vision of the serpent which his mother Olympias cherished, bringing a root in his mouth, and telling him that it grew in a spot very near at hand, and that it possessed such medicinal virtue, that it would easily cure Ptolemy if applied to his wound. On awaking, Alexander relates his dream, and messengers are sent to look for that plant, which, when it is found, not only cures Ptolemy, but likewise several other soldiers, who during the engagement were wounded by similar arrows. You relate a number of dreams of this nature borrowed from history. For instance, that of the mother of Phalaris that of King Cyrus that of the mother of Dionysius that of Hamilcar the Carthaginian, that of Hannibal, that of PUBLIO DECIO, that notorious one of the president that of CAIO GRACCO, and the recent one of Ceecilia, the daughter of METELLO BALEARICO. But the main part of these dreams happened to strangers, and on that account we know little of their particular circumstances: some of them may be mere fictions; for who are they vouched by? As to those dreams that have occurred in our personal experience, what can we say about them,about your dream respecting myself and my horse being submerged close to the bank; or mine, that Marius with the laurelled fasces ordered me to be conducted into his monument? All these dreams, my brother, are of the same character, and, by the immortal Gods, let us not make so poor a use of our eason, as to subject it to our superstition and delusions. For what do you suppose the Marius was that appeared to me? His ghost or image, I suppose, as Demo- critus would call it. Whence, then, did his image come from 1 For images, according to him, flow from solid bodies and palpable forms. What body then of MARIO is in existence? It came, he would say, from that body which had existed; for all things are full of images. It was, then, the image of Marius that haunted me on the Atinian territory, for no forms can be imagined except by the impulsion of images. What are we to think then 1 Are those images so obedient to our word that they come before us at our bidding as soon as we wish them; and even images of things which have no reality whatsoever? For what form is there so preposterous and absurd that the mind cannot form to itself a picture of it? so much so indeed that we can bring before our minds even things which we have never seen; as, for instance, the situations of towns and the figures of men. When, then, I dream of the walls of Babylon, or the counte nance of Homer, is it because some physical image of them strikes my mind1? All things, then, which we desie to be so, can be known to us, for there is nothing of which we cannot think. Therefore, no images steal in upon the mind of the sleeper from without; nor indeed are such external images flowing about at all; and I never knew any one who talked nonsense with greater authority. The energy and nature of human minds is so vigorous that they go on exerting themselves while awake by no adven titious impulse, but by a motion of their own, with a most incredible celerity. When these minds are duly supported by the physical organs and senses of the body, they see and conceive and discern all things with precision and certainty. But when this support is withdrawn, and the mind is deserted by the languor of the body, then it is put in motion by its own force. Therefore, forms and actions belong to it; and many things appear to be heard by, and said to it. Then, when the mind is in a weak and relaxed state, many things present themselves to it commingled and varied in every kind of manner; and most especially do the reminiscences of- those things flit before the mind and move about, which excited its interest or employed its active energies when awake. As, for instance, MARIO at that time was often pre sent to my mind while I recollected with what magnanimity and constancy he had borne his sad misfortunes; and this, I imagine, is the reason why I dreamed of him. You also were thinking of me with great anxiety, when suddenly I appeared to you to have just escaped out of the river. For there were in both of our minds the traces of our waking thoughts. In both instances, however, there were certain additional circumstances; as in mine, the visit to the temple of MARIO; and in yours, the reappearance of the horse on which I was riding, and who sunk at the same time with myself. Do you think then, you will say, that any old woman would be so doting as to believe dreams if they did not sometimes and at random turn out true? A dragon appeared to address Alexander. Doubtless this might be true, or it might be false; but whichever the case may have been, there is surely nothing very wonderful about it; for he did not hear this serpent speakinglie onlydreamed that he heard him; and to make the story more remarkable, the serpent appeared with a branch in its mouth, and yet spoke: still nothing is difficult or impossible in a dream. I would ask, however, how it was that Alexander had this one dream so remarkable and so certain, though he had no such dream on any other occasion, nor have other people seen many such. For myself, excepting that about Marius, I do not recollect having experienced one worth speaking of. I must, therefore, have wasted to no purpose as many nights, as I have slept during my long life. Now, indeed, on account of the intermission of my forensic labours, I have diminished my evening studies, and added some noonday slumbers, in which I never indulged before. But yet, though I sleep so much more than formerly, I am never visited with a prophetic dream, which I should con sider a singular favour now, though engaged in such weighty affairs. Nor do I seem ever to experience any more important dream than when I see the magistrates in the forum, and the senate in the senatehouse. In truth, (and this is the second branch of your division,) what connexion and conjunction of nature (which, as I have said, the Greeks term avp.ira.6euL,) is there of such a character, that a treasure is to be understood by an egg? Physicians, indeed, know of certain facts by which they perceive the approaches and increase of diseases; there are also some indications of a return to health; so that the very fact whether we have plenty to eat or whether we are dying of hunger, is said to be indicated by some kinds of dreamn. But by what rational connexion are treasures, and honours, and victories, and things of that kind, joined to dreams'? They tell us, that a certain individual dreaming of sexual coition, ejected calculi: I grant that sympathy may have had something to do in a case like this,because, in sleeping, his imagination might have been so affected with sensual images, that such an emission took place by the force of nature, rather than by supernatural phantasms. But what sympathy could have presented to Simonides the image of the person, who in a dream warned him not to put to sea 1 Or what sympathy could have occasioned the vision of Alcibiades, who, a little before his death, is said to have dreamed that ie was arrayed in the robes of Timandra his mistress? What relation could this have with the event which afterwards happened to him; when, being slain and cast naked into the street and abandoned by all the world, his mistress took off her mantle and covered his dead body with it? Was this then fixed as a piece of futurity, and had it natural causes, or was it mere accident that the dream was seen, and came true ? Do not the conjectures of the interpreters of dreams rather indicate the subtlety of their own talents, than any natural sympathy and correspondence in the nature of things? A runner, who intended to run in the Olympic games, dreamed during the night that he was being driven in a chariot drawn by four horses. In the morning he applied to an interpreter. He replied to him, You will win: that is what is intimated by the strength and swiftness of the horses. He then applied to Antiphon, who said to him, By your dream it appears that you must lose the race; for do you not see that four reached the goal before you? Here is another story respecting an athlete; and the books of Chrysippus and Antipater are full of such stories. However, I will return to the runner. He then went to a sooth sayer and informed him that he had just dreamed that he was changed into an eagle. You have won your race (said the seer), for this eagle is the swiftest of all birds. He also went to Antiphon, who said to him, You will certainly be conquered; for the eagle chases and drives other birds which fly before it, and consequently is always behind the rest. A certain matron, who was very anxious to have children, and who doubted whether she was pregnant or not, dreamed one night that her womb was sealed up; she, therefore, asked a soothsayer whether her dream signified her pregnancy? He said, No; for the sealing implied, that there could be no conception. But another whom she consulted said, that her dream plainly proved her pregnancy; for vessels that have nothing in them are never sealed at all. How delusive, then, is this conjectural art of those interpreters! THOSE SPOTS MEANT NOTHING TO ME BUT TO THE DOCTOR THEY MEANT MEASLES GRICE Or do these stories that I have recited, and a host of similar ones which IL PORTICO has collected, prove anything else but the subtlety of men, who, from certain imaginary analogies of things, arrive at all sorts of opposite conclusions? Physicians derive certain indications from the veins and breath of a sick man; and have many other SYMPTOMS by which they judge of the future. So, when pilots see the cuttlefish leaping, and the dolphins betaking themselves to the harbours, they recognise these indications as sure signs of an approaching storm. Such signs may be easily explained by reference to the laws of nature NATVRA natural meaning GRICE; but those which I was mentioning just now cannot possibly be accounted for in the same mariner. But the defenders of divination reply, and this is the last objection I shall answer, that a long continuance of observations has created an art. Can, then, dreams be experimented on? And if so, how1? for the varieties of them are innumerable. Nothing can be imagined so preposterous, so incredible, or so monstrous, as to be beyond our power of dreaming. And by what method can this infinite variety bo either fixed in memory or analysed by reason? Astrologers have observed the motion of the planets, for a certain order and regularity in the course of these stars has been discovered which was not suspected. But tell me, what order or regularity can be discerned in dreams1 How can true dreams be distinguished from false ones; since the same dreams are followed by different results to different people, and, indeed, are not always attended by the same events in the case of the same persons? For this reason I am extremely surprised that, though people have wit enough to give no credit to a notorious liar, even when he speaks the trilth, they still, if one single dream has turned out true, do not so much distrust one single case because of the numbers of instances in which they have been found false, as think multitudes of dreams established because of the ascertained truth of this one. If, then, dreams do not come from God, and if there are, no objects in nature NATVRA natural meaning GRICE with which they have a necessary sympathy and connexion, and if it is impossible by experiments and observations to arrive at a sure interpretation of them, the consequence is, that dreams are not entitled to any credit or respect whatever INCLUDING LUTHER KING’S OR PILATE’S – I dreamed I met a Galilean, a most amazing man. And this I say with the greater confidence, since those very persons who experience these dreams cannot by any means understand them, and those persons who pretend to interpret them, do so by conjecture, not by demonstration. And in the infinite series of ages, chance has produced many more extraordinary results in every kind of thing than it has in dreams; nor can anything be more uncertain than that conjectural interpretation of diviners, which admits not only of several, but often of absolutely contrary senses. Let us reject, therefore, this divination of dreams, as well as all other kinds. For, to speak truly, that superstition has extended itself through all nation, and has oppressed the intellectual energies of almost all men, and has betrayed them into endless imbecilities: as I argue in my treatise on the Nature of the Gods, and as I have especially laboured to prove in this dialogue on Divination. For I thought that I should be doing an immense benefit both to myself and to my countrymen if I could entirely eradicate all those superstitious errors. Nor is there any fear that true religion can be endangered by the demolition of this superstition; for it is the part of a wise man to uphold the religious institutions of our ancestors, by the maintenance of their rites and ceremonies. And the beauty of the world and the order of all celestial things compels us to confess that there isan excellent and eternal nature which deserves to be worshipped and admired by all mankind. Wherefore, as this religion whichis united with the knowledge of nature is to be propagated, so also are all the roots of superstition to be destroyed. For it presses upon, and pursues, and persecutes you wherever you turn yourself, whether you consult a diviner, or have heard an omen, or have immolated a victim, or beheld a flight of birds; whether you have seen a Chaldean or a soothsayer; if it lightens or thunders, or if anything is struck by lightning; if any kind of prodigy occurs; some of which events must be frequently coming to pass; so that you can never rest with a tranquil mind. Sleep seems to be the universal refuge from.all labours and anxieties. And yet even from this many cares and perturbations spring forth which, indeed, would of themselves have no influence, and would rather be despised, if certain philosophers had not taken dreams under their special patronage; and those, too, not philosophersof the lowest order, but men of vast learning, and remarkable penetration into the consequences and inconsistencies of things, men who are looked upon as absolute and perfect masters of all science. Nayif Carneades had not resisted their extravagances, I hardly know whether they would not by this time have been reckoned the only philosophers worthy of the name. And it is with those men that nearly all our controversy and dispute re specting divination is mainly waged; not because we think meanly of their wisdom, but because they appear to defend their theories with the greatest acuteness and cautiousness. But,as it is the peculiar property of the Academy to interpose no personal judgment of its own, but to admit those opinions which appear most probable, to compare arguments, and to set forth all that may be reasonably stated in favour of each proposition; and so, without putting forth any autthority of its own, to leave the judgment of the hearers free and unprejudiced; we will retain this custom, which has been handed down from Socrates; and this method, dear brother Quintus, if you please, we will adopt as often as possible in all our dialogues together.Indeed, said he, nothing can be more agreeable to me. Having held these conversations we went away. Nome compiuto: Alessandro Chiappelli. Keyword: academici, Alcibiade, Gli Scipione, la dialettica romana, storia dela filosofia romana, Cicerone, ambassiata, Carneade, Kant, neo-Kantianismo, external world, internal world, the reality of the external world, iconography, detailed ecphrasis of “La scuola di Atene” – dialettica ateniense, dialettica romana. Grice: To Athens, via Rome. Refs.: Luigi Speranza, “Grice e Chiappelli” – The Swimming-Pool Library

 

Luigi Speranza -- Grice e Chiaromonte: la ragione conversazionale e l’implicatura conversazionale della parola – il cane ha molto. Definizione d’ aggetivo – la correlazione – scuola di Rapolla – filosofia basilicatese -- filosofia italiana – Luigi Speranza, pel Gruppo di Gioco di H. P. Grice, The Swimming-Pool Library (Rapolla). Filosofo basilicatese. Filosofo italiano. Rapolla, Potenza, Basilicata. Grice: “Problem with Chiaromonte is that he let things influence him too much! My favourite is his tract on ‘silenzio e parola’ – where as he explains, ‘parabola,’ as used by the Greeks meant conversazione, because among primitive people, it is all about ‘comparison,’ and that is what a parabole is – by comparison we may think of miaow-miaow and the bow-bow theory of meaning!”. Esponente antifascista, appassionato di filosofia (fu discepolo di Andrea Caffi) e di teatro, fondò con Ignazio Silone la rivista culturale indipendente "Tempo Presente". Il padre, medico, si trasfere con la famiglia a Roma, C. si vota all'anti-fascismo, dopo una breve parentesi fra le file fasciste, entrando a far parte della formazione Giustizia e libertà e finendo esule a Parigi per evitare l'arresto della polizia. E in Spagna, combattente repubblicano nella guerra civile spagnola contro le armate franchiste nella pattuglia aerea di André Malraux (la figura di C. è adombrata in quella del personaggio dell'intellettuale Scali, del romanzo L'Espoir), poi abbandonò il fronte per contrasto con i comunisti. Allo scoppio del secondo conflitto mondiale, in seguito all'invasione tedesca della Francia, riparò a New York, facendosi notare nel gruppo dei cosiddetti New York Intellectuals. Fu propugnatore del socialismo libertario che contrappose alle spinte trotzkiste della rivista politics di Macdonald, a cui pure si legò in un sodalizio di amicizia e di frequentazione intellettuale. Ebbe legami d'amicizia con filosofi come Arendt e Camus, e scrittori come Orwell, e collaborò con Salvemini al settimanale italiano a New York, Italia libera. Tornato in Italia una prima volta e una seconda, si sentì esule in patria, anche per il suo rifiuto a sottostare ai compromessi che volevano la cultura strettamente legata ai partiti politici; per un periodo tenne una rubrica di critica teatrale sulla rivista Il Mondo fondata da Mario Pannunzio. Assieme a Silone, fondò "Tempo presente", rivista culturale indipendente, esperienza innovativa nell'Italia dell'epoca che portò avanti, nonostante qualche dissapore con Silone, con grande attenzione agli autori di notevole spessore che riempivano le pagine del mensile. Le sue posizioni furono improntate all'anticomunismo ma, a differenza di Silone, fu senz'altro più utopico; vicino alle posizioni di Albert Camus, teorizzò «la normalità dell'esistenza umana contro l'automatismo catastrofico della Storia». Nel testo La guerra fredda culturale. La Cia e il mondo delle lettere e delle arti (Fazi editore) della storica e giornalista inglese Frances Stonor Saunders, si sostiene che la rivista Tempo presente sia stata finanziata dalla CIA: la Saunders ne individua i fondatori come personaggi di punta del Congress for Cultural Freedom e principali destinatari dei finanziamenti della CIA per attività culturali in Italia. Intrattiene una fitta corrispondenza con Mussayassul, amichevolmente chiamata Muska, una monaca benedettina, sul tema della verità. Altre saggi: La situazione drammatica, Milano, Bompiani, The Paradox of History, Londra, Le Paradoxe de l'Histoire, prefazione di Adam Michnik, introduzione di Marco Bresciani, Cahiers de l'Hôtel de Galliffet, Credere e non credere, Milano, Bompiani; Collana Intersezioni, Bologna, Il Mulino, Scritti sul teatro, Introduzione di Mary McCarthy, Miriam Chiaromonte, Collana Saggi, Torino, Einaudi, Scritti politici e civili, Miriam Chiaromonte, Introduzione di Leo Valiani, con una testimonianza di Silone, Milano, Bompiani, Il tarlo della coscienza (The Worm of Consciousness and Other Essays, Prefazione di Mary McCarthy), Miriam Chiaromonte, Collana Le occasioni, Bologna, Il Mulino, Silenzio e parole: scritti filosofici e letterari, Milano, Rizzoli, Che cosa rimane, Taccuini, Collana Saggi, Bologna, Il Mulino, Lettere agli amici di Bari, Schena, Le verità inutili, S. Fedele, L'ancora del Mediterraneo, La rivolta conformista. Scritti sui giovani e il 68, Una città, Forlì, Fra me e te la verità. Lettere a Muska, W. Karpinski e C. Panizza, Una città, Forlì, Il tempo della malafede e altri scritti, Vittorio Giacopini, Edizioni dell'Asino, Albert Camus-Nicola Chiaromonte, Correspondance, Édition établie, présentée et annotée par Samantha Novello, Collection Blanche, Paris, Gallimard, Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani. Simone Turchetti, Libri: "Le attività culturali della Cia" Galileo, Cesare Panizza, Nicola Chiaromonte. Una biografia. Presentazione di Paolo Marzotto, prefazione di Paolo Soddu, Roma, Donzelli. Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani, XXIV, Roma, Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana Treccani, Filippo La Porta, Maestri irregolari, Bollati Boringhieri. Gino Bianco, Nicola Chiaromonte e il tempo della malafede, Lacaita, Manduria-Roma-Bari, Michele Strazza, Contro ogni conformismo. Nicola Chiaromonte, in "Storia e Futuro", Filippo La Porta, Eretico controvoglia. Nicola Chiaromonte, una vita tra giustizia e libertà, Bompiani. Bocca di Magra Altri progetti Collabora a Wikiquote Citazionio su Nicola Chiaromonte Nicola Chiaromonte, su TreccaniEnciclopedie on line, Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana. Nicola Chiaromonte, in Dizionario biografico degli italiani, Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana. Opere di Nicola Chiaromonte,. Fotografie e documenti di Nicola Chiaromonte La cultura politica azionista. "Nuovo Partito d'Azione". Il fondo librario Chiaromonte. Sotto il generico vocabolo “parola” (cf. Grice, ‘to utter’) si può intendere qualunque segno communicativo che serve a rappresentare una percezione o un'idea o concetto. Pur nondimeno questa voce “parola” – cf. Grice “to utter” -- nell'uso ordinario è ristretta a signare un suono articolato, con cui l’uomo esprime e communica la pércezione o la idea o concetto ad altro uomo; e siccome il suono articolato e stato legato ad altro segno, così la parola, oltre di esser pronunziata (pro-nuntiatum), è anche scritta. Orche cosa è mai questa *communicazione* da un'uomo all'altro? Questa communicazione propriamente è un mezzo di suscitare nell’altro uomo, al quale si dirigge, una percezione o una idea o concetto consimile a quelle che ha e che vuol *communicare* (o signare) colui che ‘signa’. Perciò la communicazione consiste nel far sorgere nell’altro quella stessa percezione o quella stessa idea. Ciò in due modi può succedere, cioè: o mediante una convenzione, arbitrio, concordo, patto, sul segno, sia volontariamente fatta, sia abitualmente seguita, cosicchè ogni segno per ragion di associazione convenzionale desti una percezione o un'idea corrispondente; o pure mediante una naturale (iconica, assoziativa) associazione o meglio co-relazione che si stabilisce tra un segno e una percezione o idea o concetto, cosicchè non abbisogni altro che imitare (proffere) appositamente questo segno per suscitare nell’altro la percezione o idea o concetto naturalmente (iconico, assoziativo) annessa o co-relata. È del primo modo – il modo di correlazione convenzionale -- la maggior parte dei segni; poichè una convenzion prima espressamente o tacitamente fatta, e l'uso che ciascun trova del sistema di communicazione del suo popolo, fan sì che appena si manipula un determinato segno, tosto si destino in coloro che ascoltano le percezioni e le idee co-rispondenti. Sono del secondo modo ogni segno che per lo più imitano una proprieta naturale, come la voce del cane (“Daddy wouldn’t buy me a bow-wow”), il romore del vento, lo scorrer del fiume il rimbombo del tuono, della esplosione, ed altri simili. Ancorchè l'uomo non sa per antecedente convenzione il ‘signato’ di tale ‘segno,’ egli tosto si fa l'idea del ‘segnato’ che s'indica, perchè la imitazione – iconicita, assoziativita – della proprieta naturale sveglia la percezione socia. Sentendo “bac-buc” dei tedeschi, quantunque non sa l'alemanno, mi debbo far tosto l'idea del vuotarsi di un vaso a bocca stretta. In questa categoria va pure il vocativo “o”, perchè la pronunzia molto spontanea di questa vocale fa volgere la persona verso il punto donde “o” vien pronunziato: e quindi da per sè stesso il vocativo “o” serve a chiamare, perchè ottiene spontaneamente questo effetto o risponsa nell’recipiente. Intanto il segno, oltre che serve a mettere in communicazione due uomini fra loro ed a far nascere in essi la ri-produzione (o trasferenza psicologica) di una percezione e di una idea secondo la volontà del ‘signante,’ è al tresi utile ad un'uomo solo, allorchè egli si racchiude in se stesso e si va rappresentando le cose per meditarvi. Difatti è un'osservazione ben comune che noi parliamo dentro noi stessi, allorquando pensiamo le diverse cose, e principalmente allor quando ci rappresentiamo una idea astratta. PRISCIANI GRAMMATICI CÆSARIENSIS.DE VOCE. PHILOSOPHI definiunt vocem effe ærem temuffitmm ftfhtm,uel fiuwm fenfibile ut ritum,idefl quod propria auribus accidit Et p efl prior definitio ii fubfhtntia fiumpta, Altera nero d notione quam graa ivvotav dicunt Jnoc efl ab accidentibus Accidit enimuod auditus quantum in ipfia efl Vedi autem differentia fiunt IV: articulato, inarticulata, literata, illiterata. Articulata est qua coarguta, hoc est copulata cum aliquo fienfiu mentis eius qui loquitur, profertur. INARTICULATA est contraria, qua a nui lo proficifettur affccfht mentis. Litterata est qua ficribipotefl. IJ-literafa qua ficnbi nbpot. r nuenimtur igitur quadam voces articulata, qua et feribi poffitnt et intellig, ut Arma uirtemq; cano Quadam qua no peffunt feribi, intelligiinturth, ut fibili heminu et GEMITVS, ha enm voces quamus sensium alique SIGNIFICENT proferentis eas, feribi tn no poffiint Ali vero sunt qua quantus feribantur, tn inarticulata dicuntur, cum nihil significent, ut coax, cr a baseni voces quanquam intelliginuis de qua fint noluere proferte, tamen in articulata dicutur, qma vox fut superius dixi){marticulata est, qua a Milio affvfhe profiafdtur. Alia sunt inarticulata et illitterdta, qua nec feribi possunt nec intelligj, ut fl repitus, mugitur, et his similia. Scire autem debemus, quod has IV pecies vocum p- fidunt IV superiores differentia generaliter voct æddentes, bina per singulas inuictm coeuntes. Vox autem didht est vel d Uo* cctndo, ut “dux”, “ducendo”, Uel ccto rojfioxco jsoco, ut quibufda placet bE Lr fl pars minima uods composita, hoc efi l uods qua conflant compositione litterarii, minima autem quantum ad totam comprehensionem uoas litterata, ad hanc enim etiam produrtauoctiles hreuiffima partes inveniuntur, vel quod omnium est brevissimum eorum quzdiuidi possunt, id quod dividi non potefl Vcffumus et fic definire Littera e nox qua feribi potest mdiuiduauicitur autem littera vel qudfi. 5 lenter d, eo quod U<gndi iter prabeat, ue[atuaris (ut quilufda pia cet) qubdplerunq>in caratis tabulis antiqui fcrilerc [oletans et pojha delere-Litteras aut, etiam elementorum vocabulo nuncu pauerunt, ad simlitutem mundi elementorum- Sicut enim illa coeutia omne cor fu perficiunt, fic etia ha conimfia litterale vocem quafi corpus aliquod componunt yuel magis nere corpus na fi acr corpus eji, et nox qua ex ære icdo confiat, corpus ejfie cflenditur, quippe cum et tangit aurem, et tripartito dividitur, quod eji finit corporis hoc eji tu altitudinem, latitudinem, longitudine myunde ex omni parte potefi audiri- Vraterea tamen singula syllabe altitudine quidem habent m tenore, craffimdinem nero et latitudinem in spiritus longitudinem in tempore- Littera igtut eji ricta elementi et uclut imagp quadam vocis litterata, qua cogmfidtur ex qualitate et fti tute figura linearu-Hoc ergo mterefl inter elementa, et litteras, quod elementa proprie dicuntur ipfie pronundationes nota autem carit littera- Abufiue tamen et elementa pro litteris, et littera pro elementis vocantur. Cum enim dicimus non poffie conflare m eadem fiyl labd-K, ante V, no de litteris dicimus, fid de pronuntiatione earum- nam quantum ad scripturam possunt coninng, non tamen etia enuciari, nifi ipojl pofitR, ut princeps, sunt igitur figura litterarum quibus nos utimur- XXUI- ipfie vero promnciationes earu multo ampliores. Quippe cum singula vocules denos mueniantur habentes fionosyuel plures, ut putaa, littera brevis IV halet fimi differentias, cum habet afrirationem, acuitur vel gravatur et rurfus cum fime aft iratio e acuitur vel graudtur – ut: “habeo”, “habemus”, “abeo”, “abimus”- Longt vero eadem fex modis fionat, cum habet ASPIRATIONEM et acuitur vel gravatur, vel drcunfleCHtur – ut: “hamis” hdmoru hamus Et rurfits cum SINE ASPIRATIONE acuitur vel gravatur vel ctr cunflecntur, ut dra ararum dra Similiter ali uoatles pofjimt proferri- Vraterea tatnen-i, &. u, uoatles quando media; fiunt alternos inter fie fionosuidetur confundere ytefk bonatofiut vir. u, ut optumus, Eti, quidem quando poft-u, confortantem loco digamma-V,fi<n<fhm Æolia ponitur brevis y sequcnte. d, vel. m, vel. r, ucl.t, Uel x, fonum-y, graca videtur habere – ut: “video”,um, “virtus”, “vitium”, uix-v, autem qudnuts contrastum eundem tamen fimum, hoc efi y, habet, inter q} &-efueLiyHela, DIPHTHONGUM pofltum, ut que quis qua- tenon inter. gt& ea fidem uoatles, cmi in una siyllaba fic imenitur, ut pingte sanguis fiingtta . In confortantibus etiam fiunt differentia plures, trdnfeuntmm in alias consonantes et non tran femtium, quippe diversie firmi potefiatis. L tL a iij Ccidit igitur litteræ nomen figura,poteffas- Uomen uefo a ti. a. b. c. Et fiunt mdechna ilia, tam apud græcos elemetorum nomina, qudm APVD LATINOS sive p a barbaris inventa dicuntur, sive p simplicra hæc Z7‘ fktlilia esse debent, qudfi fundamentum omnis do firmæ nnmvbile, sine p nec aliter apud iatmos poterat esse, cum a fias uoabus uocztles nominen tur, Saniuocales vero in se definant, Mutæ autem a fi incipientes uo- atli terminetur, quas fiflefkts SIGNIFICATIO quocp nominum una eud- nefcit vocales igitur ut difhtm efi per fi prolatæ nomen fuuofien dunt. Semivocales vero ab.e, incipientes, &in je terminantes. A bfip x, que sola ab. i, incipit per anafirophen gracct nominis. xi. quia necesse fuit, cum fit fiemt uocalts, d uoath vnapere, Zjin fe terminare. quæ. x, nou\ ffimcd LATINIS afjumptaypofi omnes ponitur litteras, qbus, LATINA dichones egent p autem ab. i, incipit eius nomen, ofhmdit eti, am SERGIO in commento quod scripfitm DONATO kisuer bis. Sunt, VII semivocales, qu<e ita proferuntur, ut inchoent ab. e, littera, et definant innatur ale sonum, ut f l. m-n. r. s. x- Sed. x, ab. i, inchoat. \d > etiam Eutropius confirmat dicens. Una duplex. x, quæ ideo ab.i,m cipit, quia apud græcos in eandem definit. Mutæ autem d fiincipientes, Z^m-e, uoculem definentes ^x cæptis. K^t. quarum alteram a, altera in. u finitur, fua confiant nomina. H, enim aspirationis magis est nota. Figuræ acadunt quas videmus in singulis litteris Tote jhs vero ipsa pronuciatio, propter qua, et figura ZTiwia fiunt ficht . Quidam ena a dunt ordinem fied efi pars pote fiatis litterarum. Ex his uocules dicuntur, quæ per fe noces perficiunt uel fi ne quibus uox litteralis profirn non pote fi, unde et nomen hoc præcipue fibi defe dunt. Cæteræ enim quæ cum his proferuntur confortantes appellantur. Sunt igitur voaules numero V: A E I O U utimur etia. y, grgeorum cuufia nominum. Q onfonantiu aliæ fiunt fi mino cedes, aliæ mutat. Semiuocales fint ut plerisp LATINORUM placuit fiptemfil- m n- r- s. x. Sed-f. multis cfienditur modis muta mazis, de quatpofi docebimus Z, quoque utimur ingruas dcthonibushæ ergo, hoc efi fi- miuo cules, quantum uincuntur d uoculibus, tantum fi p erant mutas, ideo apud græcos quidem omnes dichones, uel in uocules uel in fimi- t:ocUlcs, quæ fecundam habent euphoniam, defiment, quam nos SONORITATEM onoritatem pofjimus dhere, APUD LATINOS autem, ex maxima parte, no tamen omnes. Inveniuntur enim quædam etiam m mutas definetes. Semivocales autem furit appellata, qua plenam vocem non habent f ut fetnideos et femiuiros appellamus, non qui dimidiam partem habent deorum, vel uirorwmfed qui pleni dij uel uiri non fmt Reliquæ funt muta, ut quibufdam u\detur, numero IX: B C D G H K P R S T. Et fnrvt: W1 wn bene hoc nomen putant easaccapi[fy cumba quoq; partes fintuoctsqui nefiunt,<p ad comparationem ue ne sonantiwmita funt nominata, uelut informis dicitur mulier, non qua atret forma, sed qua male est formata y et frigidum dia mus eumynon qui penitus expers efl atlons, sed qm minimo hoc utitur. Sic igitur mutas, non qua omnino noce atrcnt fed qua exiguam parte muods habent. Vocales autem APUUD LATINOS omnes fmt anapites, vel LIQUIDA liquida hoc est qua fialemodo produci f modo corripi pojfunt, Sicut etiam apud antiquiffimos erant gr acor uni ante muentionem quibus inuentis. t, &o, qua ante anapites erant reman, ferunt perpetua breues, aim earum produdhtrum loca poffcfft fint d fupradiths uoatlibus semper longis. Sunt etiam in confonantibus lo ga, ut puta duplices. xy&.Zr Slrut enim longa vocalesy ficha qucq; longam fidunt jy liabam. Sunt similiter in confonantibus anapites vel liquida ut. L y &-r y qua modo longam modo breuem pofl mutas pofita m eadem syllaba fidunt syllabam his quidam addunt non irrationabiliter m, &my quia ipfe quoq; communes fidunt syllabas pofl mutas pofita yquod diuerforu confirmatur aufhritate tamgra eorum, q latinorum . ouidius in deamo Metamorphofeos. Vifcofimq; gnidon.gr auidamq, ; Amathunta metallis. Euripides iit Vphoemffis . /Wr#i tro c/t hoc pidjuov tio'punr. In cifdem . xxax ojuitrSot.Jdco hocmo cmtofeis tihvov, apud gracos fnnenitur tamen. myante.n,pofita nec producens ante fe uoctilem mo re mutarum -Callimachus rcofjutv o juvturx pætos ialiud habet nrec littera femiuoctihs,nifi nominis prolatione, epire duo(yili incipit. Sed h.ec pote flatem mutare Iit ter re non deluit, fi enim effet femiuoculis yneaffario terminalis nomlnu inucniretur quodminime repencs.nec anted, uel.r, m eadem fyllaba poni poffet, qui locus mutarum efr duntaxat.nec communem ante eafdem pofita faceret fy liabam. Vofiremo grrect (quibus in omni dottrina auflvnbus utimur) hic quoq; error d quibus *= dam antiquis græcor um grammaticis inna fit latinos, qui. fi alia ideo littera efl exifhmanda q>c,debet.gyqncq; cum fimiliter pr reponitur. u, amittenti uim litterre alia putari y et aha cum id non facit rdicimus enim anguis ficuti quis, O4 ruignr fi cuti cur. v nde fi uelimus cu, ueritate contemplari(ut diximus ) non plus quam decem &ofh litteras, in latino farmene habemus, hoc eflfadeam antiquas gr re eorum &.fy&.x,pefka additas eas quoque; ab eisdem famptas.nam y y&.^grrecvrum afufia nominum afamimus.H, æro affirationis efr nota y et nihil aliud o.tbct litterre nifii fgurdm/j" q> in versa firibitur inter alia litteras. Quod si fa faceret ut elementum putaretur, nihilominus quo rundam enam numerorum figuræ, quia in versiu inter alias litteras feribuntur, quanuis eis d familes sint, elementa fiunt habenda fadmis nime hoc efi adhibend-ctn, nec aliud aliquid ex accidentibus pro f prutatem ostendit Umufcuiufq; elementi, quomodo potefh, qua. Uret affirationeqenim uoaths nec confotum ejfe poteflnoculi$ non e fi. b^quia dfieuocem non fit, nec fiemiuocuhs cum mlla fyllaba latinauel grceafper integras dittioes in eamdefnat, nec muta cum n eadem fyllaba, cum duabus mutis bis ponitur, ut phthius, Erichtho = tiius-nulla enim fyllaba plus duabus mutis poteftbabere iuxta fe po fitts,nec plus tribus confonantibus continuare authritus quoq; tam Varronis q Macri, teflv Cenforino,ncc-K,necq,neq;.h, in numro adhibet litterarum -Videntur tamen i,gy-u,cum in conlonantes tra fiunt quantum ad pote flatem, quod maxrmum efiin elementis, alite litterte ejfe pr teter fifpradidkts -multum enm inter efi utrum uoctiles fint an confonantes-ficut enm, qnanuis in uaria figura, g? uario fwmine fint-K,gy.q,gj*-c, tamen quia u/nam um halent tam in metro q in fono, pro una littera accipi debent, fle. i, &-u, qnanuis unum twmcn,g? unam habeant figuram, tam uocules q con^onan tes, tamen quia diuerfum j'onum,gj* dmerfim umhabent in metris, g? in pronuntiatione fy liabar um, non fiunt in ei fidem, meo iudicio, (lententis acapiendte-quanuis et Cenjbri/w dothfjlmo artis grammaticæ idem placuit. multa enim cjl differentia inter confortantes, ut diximus, gruocttlcstantum enmflre interefi inter uoculcs gj* confionantes, quantum inter animas g? corpora, anim.e enim per fi mouentur,ut philofophis uidetur,gj* corpora monent, corpora uero nec per fe fime anima moneri poffunt, nec animas monent, fid ab il Its moucntur. Vocales fi militer g? per fi mouentur, ad perficienda fyllabam,g? confionantes mouent fecum, confionantes uero fime uoculu bus immobiles fintEt-J, quidem modo pro fi mp lici, modo pro duplici accipitur confonante-pro fimplici, quando ab eo incipit syllaba in principio dithonis pofita, fiubfiquente uocztliin eadem syllaba, ut luno Juppiter . pro duplici autem quando in medio diflioms ab eo incipit fyllaba pofiuoatlcm ante fi pofifom, fu fiquente quoq; uocttli in eadem fyUab a, ut maius, peius, eius, in quo loco antiqui folebant geminare eandem-i,l\tteram,gT maijus,peijus,eijus feribere,quod non aliter prominctari poffet quam fi cum fitperiore syllaba prior I,cum fiquente altera proferretur, ut peijus,cijus,tnaijus, gy duo. ij, pro duabus conjonantibus accipiebant. nam quantusT,fit confonans incadcm syllaba geminatninngi non poffet. ergo non aliter quam tellus, mannus proferri debuit. unde Pompeiij quoque genitiuum per tria-i, antiqui feribeb aut, quorum duo fiperioraloco confonatium accipiebant jit fi diats Pompeiij, nam tribus ili, iunchs qua^ lis poffet fyllaba pronuntiari ? nam poftremum -l, pro uocttli efi atcipienc lum . quod Ci ^vuorotv Fouiv.Ep enim h exametr u/m heroicum, apud latinas quoq; hoc idem-u,inuenitur pro nihilo inmtris,& maximo apud uetufb.fpmos comicorum, ut Terentius in Andria M sine muidia laudem inuenias,Et amicos pares. eft.niamicum trimetrii, quod nifi,pne mui,pro tribracho accipiatur, fhtre uerfus non potejl.jciendu tamen q> hcc ipptm Æoles quidem, ubiq; loco ajpirationis ponebant effligentes ffnritus affcritatem.nos dutmmultis qui dem,non tamen m omnibus illos faquimur, ut cum dicimus ueffera, uis,uejhs. hiatus quoq ; atupt plebant illi mterponer e -F, digama, quod ojhndunt et Poetæ Æolidæ up,AlcmanxsH X" yocrrJ pn Mio/ et 'Epigrammata, qu£ egmctleg m tripode uetujhfprrw Apollinis qui pat in Xerolopho Byzatq pc pripta/nyoan fubiungi^nde Æoles loco(ut diximus) afpirationis digamma ponentes in dictionibus ab -p Rapientibus j olent loco digam ma-B fcnbere /ududntes debere præponi diyrtmma qua.fi uoathfeA rurfis quafi confonanti digamma in eadem fyllaba preepenere re cu j, 'antes,comutxoant id in-Bfiparcop fcpo Condicentes Sed apud grte cos hxc littera /idzji,p -multis modu fungitur loco uoculif,ut in decli natione nondnum in,pcc,& in a puram dcfmentum,qut luxus pro w i os, et publicus pro TouvMHor, trismphus pro dpfocyfros, gubernator pro HvfitpvSx rnr, gobius pro inofcio, Cære *Vj' toJ %oupi puniceus c. quduis m trilus folis mueniantur nominibus quæpoffint declinari,hoc idem firuant,ut caput rapitis, &ab eo copojita, Ut finciput fi 'napitis, occiput occipitis, alec alecis, lac l albis, in quoetia t. additur quare quibufdam non irrationabiliter nominatum hoc lath prolatus inuenitur. Reliquæ uero cojonantes mutantur, uel ab ij cimtur-d-ut aliquid alicuius an. ut templum, templi, peliumpelij-f Ut magnus magni-x-rex regis, nix niuis-ln uerborum qucqipræte *= ritis p er fettis jolent omnes modo mutari modo manere, cxcæptis-L p.fx Mæ enim nunq mutantur, ut habeohabui, iubeo iuffi,compefco compefcHi,dico dixi, afcendo a fiendi, lædo Ufi, lego legi, pingo pinxi, demo dempfi, pr emo presfi, moneo monui, fi no fui, nequeo nequi ui, torqueo tor fi, differo differui,uro uffi,uertouertiftedv flexi. \llæ au tem quattuor ut fiupra diximus nuquam mutantur, mpræterito per fiflv.l. ut cælo cælaui,doleo dolui,uolo uolui, mollio molhui.p .turpo turpaui,ftupeoftupui,fadpo fiulpfi, lippio lippiui.fiquaffo quaffik ui, cenfio cenfiti-arcefjo arceffim-x-nexo nexui. Voatles quoqiin eifde præteritis perfiflis quæm principalibus fy liabis mueniwntur uerborum, modo ex correptis producuntur, modo mutantur in alias uo cales, modo manent eæde-Troducuntur plemnq omnes, ut fiiueo fani, ctiueo cdui, fedeo sedi, /ego' legi,uideo nidi, moueo mom, fbueo fo ui, fugio fugi . Mutantur. a, et. e-a. quidem in. e. medo produ&tm modo correptam.Vrodu(fhim,uta^p egi capio cepi facio faa.fi ango fregi. correpta, tango tetigi, cado cecidi, parco peperci . E. uero tranfitm.i.ut eo m,ueUij.Solinus in colledhtneis uel polyhijhre. Tatius in arce ubi nuc ædes efl xunonis Monetæ, qui anno qntv q mgrefptsurbem fuerat a lauretibus inter e p tus efl,/eptima &uiqvffinia olmpiade hominem exiuit.Qjteo quiui uel quij. Hæc eadem uoculis penultima muerbis fi eundæ coniu^tiois fepe mutatur in-u.ut doceo docuiynoneo monui, doleo doluuquod fimiliter efl quado in tertia uel quarta coniuqntione patitur aut rapio rapui, aperio aperui M.&.o>manet in principalibus fy liabis pofitæ immutabiles,tempo Yimquoq ; m quibufdam.ut ruo rui, domo domui, doceo docui. Hoc queep olfirnandu efl p mnq in fupradifiv tempore poteft qeminari m ] i i! - n VK UBER Wf M principio ncq; in fine fyllaba ni fi qucedtmte incipit ut tondeo totondi, pendeo uel pendo pependi, difco didici f pofcv popofii, tundo tutudi, pedo pepedi, iungy tetigi, c&do eradi, atdo evadi, pello pepuli, fxllofifilii^rodo prodidi, nendo uendidi-ex quo etiam ap* paret . f . uvm magis mutce obtinere d quaincipiens eft geminata fyllaba- Santvmutem pofita muenimtur duo uerba epice qeminant fy liabam m prcetvrito.jb ficti, fiondeo fiepondi Antiquiffnni etiam, fcindo fdadi dicebant,q> innior er fddi dx erunt, ut mpr&terit* perfitfv uerbi ofiendemus nec fine ratione • 9. ante mutam pofita vnuemtur qvminatum uerbum, c/m samittit unn fiiamplcnmcp, fic pofita ante mutam, wndenec in fecunda fyllaba repetiturM -quocf ge minatur, mordeo momordi, quee loco nuttee in multis fungitur, nam ante-n pofitx communem fiat fyllabam, ut r amnes ramnetis, fieut Cremes Cremetislamlicti enim fiunt quee fic declinantur, quod Callimachi quoque au thr itato con fi r ma tu r in A ct ijs,ficu t i am t :f radicium cfl hocucrfiu 7w; juiv o uvv ante-s .pofita in finali fyllaba nominis, more ma tce interpofita i. fiat genihuu hyems hycmls,ucl uti inops inopis, eoe leis ccehbis- Apparet igitur, imuicvm pro fe pofitee inucniim tur,ut breucs,CT longce quee habent afiirationem, et quee atrent ea A lice autem per coiuqationem, uel cognationem cognatee littorce, 0*jg feinuicem pofitee, ut. b.p.f.necnon-g &-c-cim afiiratione fiue fine ea-x»quoq; duplex, fitnilitor-d.&.t. cum afiiratione uel fine ea, et cum his-z-duplcs-unde fiepe-d feribentos latini hanc exprimunt fi no, ut medidics,hcdie, antiqui (fimi qucq;Medentius dicebant, pro tnt fentius. Qjxinenam fifimplexhabet aliquam cum fipr adi flis cognationem, unde fiepe pro-z-eam folemus geminatam ponere, ut patrifjo pro -jri{w pitiffo pro tnaffil pro juoc(oc-&do, es tj pro V . g quoq; frut affines, e. correpta fiue produdht cum ei dipthongy,qHojr ehur, robur, pro ehor robor, et platanus pro 'TAocTx/or.A.quoq; cwn-c.&.i-arceo g? coerceo. facio infido, nec, ion alue cum alqs.g? quia frequenter he m omnibus pene litteris mutationes non filum perafus,ucl tempora, frd etiam per figurarum compofitxones, uel denuationes gj* tranjlationes d grreco in latinum fieri filent, neceffarium efi e arum po nere exempla. A. correpta conuertitur in productam, faueofdui, In. e . correptam parco peperci, armatus mermis. I n e. produ {ktm facio feci, apio cepi producta quoque- a. im. e .produ pleraq; nomina qu^e cum uer^is fiue partiapijs componuntur, uel nomiruttiui mutant extremam fy liabam in-i.cor reptam, ut arma armipotens, homo homicida, cornu cor niger, fivlla fhlliger, arcus araten es fatum fatidicus, nurum nunfrx, aiifa ctiufidicus fadhts lucificus, cornu cornicen, tuba tubicen, fidis fidicvnfi^ des plurale, cuius ftngulare fidis eft, unJe etiam diminutiuum fidi = cula-tibia tibicen, pro tibfan, tibia enim, a-md-debuithmitare, ut fit praditfhtm eft,unde pro duabus- vj.breuibus una logafadla ep\c[Uod in alia huiufremodi compofihone non muenies . uulnus uulm ficus, magnus magnificus, amplus amplificus, fruflas fruflificus, opus opifrx uel gemtna. ut uir uiri, umpotens, par paris parrict =da quod uel a pari componitur, uel ut alij dicunt d patre . ergo fi efi d pari-r-euphoni£ dufa additur, find patre .tdn r. convertitur, quilufdam tamen d parente uidetur cffc compofitum, g? pro JLIBER farentidda per fyncopen, et commutationem -t.fn.r.fadbitn parn eida frater fratris,fr atruida foror for oris, foror icida, lux quoqj lu * ets lucifer, flo; floris florifer, fdcer facri facnficus,ars artis artifix • p aucti fwit quce hanc non [eruant: regiam, ut auceps, anes atpiens0 mtnceps,mcnteatptus,municeps munera cupiens, au^his augufius [milia &qute ex duobus nominanuis componuntur, ut puta tufiu randum,refpu.non tnutant extremam fy liabam, fid ea cum defigu* ris dicemus latius traifhtbimus. O, aliquot Italia? ciuitates tefce P linio, non habebant, fed loco eius ponebant. u . et maxime, Vmbri, ojs bos. modo pro . u .loga, ut probus mus, modo pro correpta to' pepv pa purpura. In plerisfy tamen £oles ficuti hoc faarrns. I Ui enim OQvycin? dicunt pro Suyxrvp.oj.cor?/ M »3 5) PRIMVS ripientes,Uel magif.v fino-u. jbliti pronuntiare, ideoq; afcribunt e . rwn ut dipbthongum faciant ibifid ut fo iumu. colicum ofiendanf Ut Callimachus HX\hi%tafv %6oviF,ojpi'xs SouyxTup. Qjsod nos fi cuti u, modo correptam modo productem halemus, qua usis uidcatur-oJ -diphtkoYKg fanmi habere . Pro .0, cpiocp.au, joletrt frequenter ponere greeti oj pos oj aos pro 5 poto hos, voj iantemytero trimfiro feui.in.n, ancus pro areus-S-in metro apud uetufhffitrws yubn fiam frequenter amittit . VIRGILIO (si veda) in ENEIDE, Ponite fies fibi quiscpidem in-xiu ^ inter fe eoijjfe uirosymmmetur tibi terebrum, mn - mittiturspinguis fangninis. in . r. flos floris, ius iuris,curfts amiculus, «e/ curriculum -inx aiax pro ausgr pi flrix propiftris-in quo fequimur dores.ilh enim o pvtE pro opvis. mdcujks cujbdis, pes pedis,prafes pr a fidis, palus paludis . in . t- nepos nepotis, uirtus uirtutis,famnis famnitis . in-u. condonantem bosbouts . /ape pro afbiratione ponitur m his dictionibus quas d gracis fump fimus, ut /emis, fex,-feptem,fefal. nam ijulv. eA/. t vtd . e . «Ar . rfjwd illos aspirationem habent m principio . adeo autem cognatio ejl huic littera idefi-s, cum afbiratione }quoa pro ea in quibufdam dicionibus [olebant bceoti idefi pro-s-h-fcnbere, nudi a. pro mu fi, dicentes -huic- s.prapcnitur-p. et loco. ‘b-grace fungitur, pro qua claudius Cafar antifigma X hac fiqaira fcnbi noluit fed nulli susfi funt antiquam feripturam mutare, quamuis non fine ratione kacpuoq; duplex d graas addita uideatur, nam multo meliorem, et uclubiliorem fonitum habet-^.qudm-ps.uelds-ha tamen ideft.bs non alias debent poni pro ^ -hoc ep in eadem fyllaba coniunfla,mfi m fine nominatiui, cuius gimtiuus m bis definit, ut urbs urbis, coelebs coelibis,araps arabis -Sicut ergo-^. melius fonat quam ps-uel.bs.fic . x-etiam quam- gsuel.es -&-x- quidem affump fimus -i- autem non • fed quantum expeditior eft-^-qudm- ps. tantum ps-qudm bsideoq ; twn irrationabiliter plerisqsloco uidetur .^.ps -debere feribi, quod de ordine litterarum docentes plenius traChtb imus -xduplex modo pro es.mvdo pro-gs. accipitur, ut apex apicis, grex gr e gps, tranfit tamen etiam m-u-confonantem,ut nix niuispiecmn in. 61. ut nox no5hs, fu pellex fupellefUhsSedhac contra regulam declinari nide ntur-fubit etiam-x. littera loco aflpirationisfut uehouexi traho traxi-x-uertitur in-f. ut efficio effero. et /ciendum cp quoticfuncp . ex prapositio, Konitur compofita didonibus duocahbus incipientibus,uel ab peattuor confonantibus, hoc eft.c -p.t.sintegra manet, ut exaro, exeo, exigo, exoleo, exuro, excutio, expeto f extraho, exe= quor,exfpes,in quo uidenmr contra gracormn facere conflatu = dinem-illi enim. a . sequente nunquam præponunt, fcd-n pro ea tuttK$ot!ri! . melius ergo nos quoq;. x . solam ponimus, que locum obtinet, es- cuius rationem nonfolum ipfefonus auriu iudido pof fit reddere, fed etu hoc f qemituiru s-Jifta confonante a madente b ij LIBER. minime potefl -geminari autem indetur pofr confortantem -s-x* antecedente,qu£ loco-c.&.sfrinqjttcr fi tyfia consequatuT,ut exfrquia ex [e^uor -quod fi liceret, licebat etiam pejt -bs, uel- ps. quas loco dupli as acapnnus adderes, ut dicer enm objfiffus, abjfichts, quod minime licet -nunquam ennn necs, riec aha conjonans geminari potest, ut diximus, alia antecedente confionante-nunc de mutis dicrmus-B tranfit in egit occurro fiuccnrro,m f,ut opfido,fifficto,fiffio,in-g,ut fuggro, in-myut fivmmitto, globus glomus, in-p, ut fiuppo/io, nj-r, ut fitrnpio, ar rtyio, ms,ut luleo iufp-nam fiifdpio et fijluli d fitfrum uel fiurfium aduerbio compofiite fiunt, wnde fiubtinnio et fihbcumlo non mutauem runt-b-ins fijpicor quoque fiffido d frufim uel fiurfibm cvmponantur, fed abqdum urnam s -non enm didamus fufjjnao fedfiujpU do,quia non potejl duplicar i conjonans alia fu pquente conjonante, quomodo nec antecedente,nifi fit mutuante liquidam, ut fiupplex ptf* fr agor fi\\fifio,€ffiuo,efifirmts,fed notam afeirationis, quam gr æcorum antiqulffe.m fimiliter ut latmi in uerfe fer ibebant, nunc autem diuiferunt, t dextram eius p artem fefra litteram p onente;, pfilen notam habent, quam Remnius Palcerrwn exilem uocut. Griliuis nero ad vir gtium de accentibus fcriben;, lenem nominat, finijlram autem con * trarix illi afpirationi; da fiam, quam Grillus flatilem uocrtt-K-fef ertutata eft,ut fefra diximus, qu^e quatmis feribatur nullam aliam uimhabet quam- c. De-q- quoq ; feffidenter fefra traflntum efl, binos phthongosyhocefi,uoces comprehendunt. nam finqul d, ut [ScPihv po ? bdellium genus lapidis,abdir, aldomcnfmygdonides.C, uero Zr-p, proponuntur fequcnte.t }ut a{htsylc£hisyaptusydiphthon gus. Semiuoczths nulla proponitur mutis nifi.s, fequete.b, ut afbejhfs ajbufivs cfuelqyut fcutii fquallor .p yut [pes /phatra tjhtfusfihenni- us-Ante alum autem nullam nuitur um. Mutby magis fiuperio ns ejl jyilaba:. cnyc nidus. dnyadnus ariadne. gnygneusanyatna. pn, therapnefpnus. brybrennusyumbra.crycreber-drydrances.^rygratusfr, frater- prfratum.trsracfhts. Ante. mydutmuetiiutur-c.d.g.t* ut py r a cmony alcrneneydragmaydmoistadmetusyagmeytmolus, ifi mos. T res aut confio nates no aliter pcjjimt iungi in principio fiyllabce nifii fit prima. syucl.cyuel py fecunda pofi.syquidcm.cyuel.tyuel.p. Tofit.ct aute aut- p,prma pales fiainda.tytertialHchrfd.lyin fiohs illis quee ab.symapiunt.ut A fclepicdotus, fiyiba fitlopus fylendidus, fretus . Ingratas etiam. debcthahere0 Utpfitacns, pfiudolus, ipje,mbo quccp mp fi, scribo scnpfi faciunt, quanuis analogia per -b, cogat scribere,/edeuphonia fuperat, qua etiam nuptam non nubtam, et scriptum non scribtum compellitper-p,non-b,dicere et scriberePROBI INSTITVTA ARTIVM. M R. PV. Vox sive soDus est ær ictus, id est percussus, sensibilis auditu, quanlUDi io ipso es(, hoc est quam diu resonat. nunc omnis vox sive sonus aul articulata est aut confusa. articulata esl, qua homines locuntur et 5 lilteris conprehendi potest, t puta ^scribe CICERONE (vedasi)', VIRGILIO (vedasi) lege' et cetera UHa. confusa vero aut animalium aut inanimalium est, quæ litteris conprehendi non potest. animalium est ut puta equorum hinnitus, rabies €3Dum, rugitus ferarum, serpenlum sibiius, avium cantus et cetera talia; inaDimalium autem est ut puta cymbalorum tinnitus, flageilorum strepitus, uodarum pulsus, ruinæ casus, fistulæ auditus et cetera talia. est et confusa vox sive sonus homiiium, quæ litteris conprehendi non potest, ut puta oris risus vel sibilatus, pectoris mugitus et cetera talia. de voce sive sono, quaDtum ratio poscebat, tractavimus. Ars est unius cuiusque rei scientia summa subtilitate adprehensa. Dam el Græci aico TtjgciQSTijg, a virlute, censebant artem esse dicendam. uDde et veleres artem pro vlrtute frequenter usurpant. nunc huius artis, id est grammalicæ, omnis dumtaxat Latinitas ex duabus partibus constat, hoc esl ex analogia et anomaiia, et ideo utriusque parlis rationem sub20 iriiDus. Analogia est ratio recta perseverans per integram declinationis disciplioam, ut puta hic Catilina, hæc lupa, hoc scrijnium et cetera talia; $cilicet (|uoniam hæc nomina sic per omnes casus secundum sua genera in derlinalione perseverant, sic uli est analogiæ rccta declinationis disriplina. PROBI GRAMHATICI DB VIII 0RATI0NI8 MBMBRI8 ARS MINOR. DB VOCE V Ci COdtParisinus incipit tractatosprobi granmatici de uocb codex Parisinus DE TocB fi: cf. PrUeian. conl. Prob. ed, Find., Pompei. ed, lixd. conl. Prob. ed. f^ind. 4 omnis R communis r ruditus corr, ragitus R rndttus rv serpentum R serpentium rv scrioium rv scriptam R analogiæ recta R analogia recia r analogia e recta v. Anomalia est misrcns vel inmutans aut deficiens ratio per declinationem. De miscente. miscens anomaliæ per declinalionem ratio esl ut puta ab hoc altero, huic aiteri; scilicet quoniam quæcumque nomina ablativo casu numeri singularis o littera terminanlur, hæc secundum analogiæ rectam rationis disciplinam dativo casu numeri singularis o iittera definiun- tur. item ab hac mula, his et ab his mulabus; scilicet quoniam quæcum- que nomina ablalivo casu nueri singularis a littera terminantur, hæc secundum analogiæ rectam ralionis disciplinam dativo et ablativo casu numeri pluralis is litteris definiuntur. item ab hoc iugero, horum iugerum; scilicet quoniam quæcumque nomina ablativo casu numeri singularis o liitera terminantur, hæc secundum analogiæ rectam ralionis disciplinam genetivo casu numeri pluralis orum litteris definiuntur. sic et cetera talia, quæ contra anaiogiæ rectam rationis^disciplinam miscent per casus declinatiouuro formas, anomala sunt appellanda. De inmutante. inmutans anomaliæ per declinationem est ratio, ut puta hic luppiter, huius lovis.' sic et cetera talia, quæ conlra analoglæ rectam rationis discipfinam inmutant per casus declinalionum formas, anomala sunl appeilanda. De deficienle. deficiens anomaliæ per declinalionem est ratio, ut puta hoc nefas et cetera (alla; scilicet quoniam hæc contra analogiæ rectam rationis disciplinam non per omnes casus in declinatione perseveranSic iam et per ceteras partes orationis analogia vel anomalia comsideranda est, hoc est ut, quæcumque pars oralionis neque miscet neque inmutat aut deficil per deciinalionis disciplinam, ad analogiam pertineat, quæ vero miscet vel inmutat aut deficit per declinationis discipllnam, anomala sit appellanda. nunc etiam hoc monemus, quod analogia maximam partem oralionis contineat, anomalia vero aliqnam. de anomalia et analogia, quantum ratio poscebat, tractavimus. Liltera est elementum vocis articulatæ. eleroen{|tum autem est unius cuiusqi.ie rei initium, a quo sumitur incrementum et in quod resolvltur. accidit uni cuique lilteræ nomen figura polestas. nomen lilteræ est quo appellatur. sane nomen unius cuiusque litteræ omnes artis latores, præcipuequc Varro, neutro genere appellari iudicaverunt et aptote decllnari iusserunt. aploton est autem, quando nomen per omnes casus uno schemate declinatur, ut puta hoc a, huius a, huic a, hoc a, o a, ab hoc a. sic et ceterarum lillerarum nomina genere neulro aptote et numero tantu esi inmiscens liv neqne inmiscd Rv sit] sunt Rv orationis o rationis R in quod v et Diomedes in quo R p. 1U. R. V. siflgulari declinanda suBt. figura litteræ est qua notatur et qua scribitur. polestas litteræ est qua valet, hoc est qua sonat. nunc omnes Latinæ litteræ dumtaxat sunt numero XXIII. hæ nominantur Tocales semivocales el mutæ. sed semivocales et mutæ appellantur consonantes. sane qnærilor, qua de causa semivocales et mutæ consonantes appellanlur. hac de et causa, quoniam coniunctis iliis vocalibus sic nomina earundem consonanl. sed cum ad ipsas litteras pervenerimus, iliic quem ad modum coniunctis illi.s Tocalibus nomina earundem consonent conpetenter tractabimus. Vocales litteræ sunt numero quinqu. hæ per se proferuntur, hocio est ad vocabula sua nuliius consonantium egent societate, ut puta a e i o u, et per se syKabam facere possunt, hoc esl ut ipsæ inter se tantum modo misceantur et syilabæ sonus efficialur, ut puta ua ue oe au ui ia et cetera lalia. Iiarum, id est vocalium, hæ duæ, i et u, transeunt in consonantium poteslatem tunc, cum aut ipsæ inter se geminantur, ut luno viator 15 rultus, vei quando cum aliis vocalibus iunguntur, ut vates vecors iam vos maiestas maior et cetera talia. nunc quæritur, quando i vel u litteræ loco consonantissint positæ, vel quando inter vocales accipi debent quare hoc monemus, ut tunc i vel u loco consonantis accipiantur, quaudo præpositæ vocalibus in syllaba scilicet sua inveniuntur; quando vero subiectæ, et ipsæ vocales iudicenlur: ut puta iu, utique i nunc loco consooaDtis et u loco vocalis accipitur; item ui, utiqueu nunc loco consonantis et I loco II vocalis consideratur. sic et iuxta vocales alias, si i vel u litteræ in syitaba sua præponuntur, vim consonantium habere iudicantur; si vero subiciuntur, vocalium loco funguntur. Semi-vocales consonantium litteræ sunt numero septem. hæ secundum musicam rationem per se proferuntur, hoc est ut ad vocabula sua nullius vocalium egeant societate, ut f 1 m n r s x. at vero secundum metra Latina et structurarum rationem subiectæ vocalibus nomina sua ao elficiunt, ut ef el em en er es ex. sed per se syllabam facere non possunt, sciiicet quoniam semivocales litteræ, si inter se misceantur, sonum syllabæ facere non reperiuntur, ut puta fl ms rx ns; et ideo, ut diximus, per se semivocales syllabam facere non possunt. ex his autem, id est ex semi vacuæ R misceat r miscel corr. misceat R. R. 34V.sonum contiDeaDt, necesse est ut et in ratione roetri vel musicæ plus facultatis raUoGræca quam LATINA obtioeaL sed boc in metris vel rousicis conpetenter traclabimUs. dudc et boc moDemus, quod pauci sciuDty siquidero ood semper x littera duplex sit accipieuda; sed tUDC duplex accipieDda, quaudo subiecta syllabam coDfirmat, ut puta dox et 6 Docs, lex et legs, felix et felics. et celera talia, siquidem tuDc et soDum duaruffi litterarum coutiDeat.at vero qqaDdo præposita syllabæ existat, noD duplex sed simplex est accipicDda, ut puta maximus auxius: Dumquiduam macsimus aut aocsius? Et cetera talia; et ideo, ut diximus, quotieos X [[ littera præpositasyllabæ existat, simplex est supputaada, sciiicet loquoDiaro cs et gs litteræ geroinatæ, si vocalibus præpooaDtur, numquam sonum syllabæ suscitabuDt de litteris, quaoluro ratio poscebat, tractafimus. Etiaro de syllabis, quouiaro dod brevis ratio est, ideo alio loco cod- i6 petenter cum roetris tractabimus. Partes orationis sunt VIII: nomen, pronomen, participium, adverbium, coniuctio, præpositio, interiectio, et verbum. Grice: “Italians speak of ‘parola’ easier than they analise it. I play with ‘word’ and ‘sentence’. ‘Sentence’ of course comes from Cicero, ‘sententia.’ I admit that it may not be possible to provide a formula ‘Expression means …’ unless you specify the ‘syntactic type’ to which E belongs. I tried for adjectival ‘shaggy’. And even there I got into problems with the idea of a correlation, where the utterer is asked to provide a correlation of the type he has just provided!” -- Grice: “La voce e la parola”. Nome compiuto: Nicola Chiaromonte. Keywords: parola, parabola, Donatus, Priscianus, definizione di voce, vox, verbum, word, Grice on ‘word’ – Corleo on ‘parola’ --. Refs.: Luigi Speranza, “Grice e Chiaromonte” – The Swimming-Pool Library.

 

Luigi Speranza – GRICE ITALO!; ossia, Grice e Chiaramonti – Luigi Speranza (Cesena). Abstract. Grice: “When I gave my lecture for the Oxford Philosophical Society on ‘Meaning,’ I KNEW none in the audience would have ever HEARD of Chiaramonti; so I could easily pour scorn on any attempt to provide a taxonomy of signs, and propose my ideas on ‘meaning’ as superior!” -- Filosofo italiano. Cesena, Emilia-Romagna, Forlì-Cesena.   Opuscula varia mathematica, Scipione Chiaramonti, m. Cesena -- è stato un astronomo e filosofo italiano. Fu avversario di Tycho Brahe, Galileo Galilei e Giovanni Keplero.   De universo Nacque da una famiglia aristocratica. Il padre, Chiaramonte Chiaramonti, era un noto medico. Si laureò in filosofia a Ferrara. Fu chiamato ad insegnare filosofia naturale all'università di Perugia con lo stipendio di 340 scudi ma dopo un anno lascia la cattedra. Fu per qualche tempo consigliere e matematico alla corte di Modena. Appartenne all'Accademia scientifica istituita a Modena dal Principe Alfonso, figlio del Duca Cesare, nel 1609 e rinnovata nel 1618. Nel 1627 Ferdinando II de' Medici lo chiamò a insegnare filosofia naturale all'università di Pisa, incarico che detenne fino al 1636. Lasciata Pisa e sfumata l'ipotesi di una cattedra a Padova, egli trascorse i suoi ultimi anni a Cesena, dedicandosi a studi di storia cittadina e alle vicende interne dell'Accademia degli Offuscati, da lui fondata nel 1631. Rimasto vedovo nel 1644, in quell'anno entrò nell'Ordine dei frati minori cappuccini. Chiaramonti fondò la congregazione dell’Oratorio dei Filippini a Cesena (1644). Morì a Cesena il 3 ottobre 1652.  Tenacemente aristotelico, Chiaramonti difese la cosmologia tolemaica dalle critiche di Orazio Grassi, Galileo Galilei, Giovanni Camillo Glorioso e Giovanni Keplero.[2]  Chiaramoni è autore di uno scritto De Methodo ad doctrinam spectante: Libri quattror, Cæsenæ, stamp. Carolus Nerius, 1639; in questo testo, l'autore discute dall'interno le problematiche concernenti il dibattito logico contemporaneo, incentrato sull'opposizione tra le diverse interpretazioni delle teorie di Zabarella e Piccolomini. Nel 1621 Chiaramonti pubblicò a Venezia l'Antitycho, in cui criticava il sistema cosmologico di Tycho Brahe. Galileo espresse, nel Saggiatore, un giudizio molto positivo sull'opera, che fu invece attacca duramente da Keplero nel Tychonis Brahei [...] Hyperaspistes (Il difensore di Tycho Brahe), pubblicato a Francoforte nel 1625. Chiaramonti rispose alle critiche dell'astronomo tedesco nell'Apologia pro Antitychone (1626).  Opere Discorso della cometa pogonare dell'anno MDCXVIII, Venezia, Pietro Farri, 1619. (LA) De tribus novis stellis quae annis 1572, 1600, 1604 comparuere, Cesena, Giuseppe Neri, 1628. Difesa di Scipione Chiaramonti da Cesena al suo Antiticone, e Libro delle tre nuove Stelle, Firenze, Landini, 1633. (LA) De universo, Köln, Jost Kalckhoven, 1644. (LA) De sede cometarum et novorum phaenomenorum, Forlì, Cimatti, 1648. (LA) Opuscula varia mathematica, Bologna, Caroli Zeneri, 1653. (LA) In Aristotelem de iride, de corona, de pareliis, et virgis commentaria, Venezia, Scipione Banca, 1668. (LA) In quartum metheorum commentaria, Venezia, Scipione Banca, 1668. Note ^ Chiaramonti, Scipione, su thesaurus.cerl.org. URL consultato il 23 marzo 2022. ^ DBI. AChiaramónti, Scipione, su Treccani.it – Enciclopedie on line, Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana. Modifica su Wikidata Gino Benzoni, CHIARAMONTI, Scipione, in Dizionario biografico degli italiani, vol. 24, Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana, 1980. Modifica su Wikidata Opere di Scipione Chiaramonti, su MLOL, Horizons Unlimited. Modifica su Wikidata (EN) Opere di Scipione Chiaramonti, su Open Library, Internet Archive. Portale Astronomia   Portale Biografie   Portale Filosofia Categorie: Astronomi italianiFilosofi italiani del XVII secoloNati nel 1565Morti nel 1652Nati il 21 giugnoMorti il 3 ottobreNati a CesenaMorti a Cesena[altre] Nasce da Chiaramonte C. e Polissena.  Nobile e ricca famiglia quella paterna, originaria, si dice, di Clermont e trasferitasi di lì, essa da alla chiesa, con Pio VII, un papa. Medico il padre, C. lo vante di gran celebrità, in tutte le parti di medicina grande, ma nel prognostico mirabile. Quanto a C., le favorevoli condizioni familiari gli permetteno di dedicarsi con agio a studi pacati, lontani dall'urgenza d'un'immediata utilizzazione pratica. Ego sum autodidactos - così un’autopresentazione non priva di civetteria -, praeterquam in grammatica, in omni scientia. Distintosi nel pubblico studio di Cesena come l'"eruditissimus et doctissimus iuvenis" che fornì al concittadino Mazzoni -- la cui morte gli ispira delle commosse Lacrymae in esametri latini -- un'ammirata "Aristotelis defensionem" l'esordio, alla luce delle successive vicende, pare già collocarlo nel solco dell'aristotelismo più intransigente e chiuso. E, in effetti, C. ne è un ostinato assertore, traendone stimolo per la sua lunga battaglia culturale di retro-guardia, nella quale sciupa – lamenta Favaro che lo definisce il più accanito ed il più molesto oppositore di BONAIUTO (vedasi) - "le belle doti" d'ingegno di cui "è largamente fornito". Ancor più severo con lui Tozzetti: non manca di contribuire quanto poté alla rovina di BONAIUTO (vedasi), non con altro fine che di sfogare la sua invidia professorale. E Montucla, lo storico delle matematiche, addirittura lo bolla come ingombrante pietra d'inciampo al luminoso cammino della scienza tout court: opprobre des siècles philosophiques et qui semble n'avoir joui d'une vie très longue que pour retarder, autant qu'il étoit en lui, le progrès des nouvelles découvertes. Sposatosi con Virginia degli Abbati, che gli darà ben dodici figli -- di cui almeno sette maschi --, e conclusi, senza fretta, gli studi con la laurea in filosofia a Ferrara, C. ha la ventura di farsi apprezzare come molto intendente delle matematiche da BONAITUO (vedasi), di passaggio per Cesena alla volta di Pesaro. A Faenza per breve tempo, vi ultima una scrittura relativa al Quesito proposto da Colonna, come da una data balla si venghi in cognitione del pezzo a cui serva sì nelle colubrine come nei cannoni. E indubbiamente comincia a godere d'un certo credito, ché viene assunto, con lo stipendio annuo di 340 scudi, quale interpres naturalis philosophiae ad peruginam academiam dai tre moderatores vulgo sapientes appellati. Alle dipendenze quindi, colla retribuzione annua di 400 ducatoni, del cardinale d'Este, è per C. trascorsi due anni, cocente umiliazione il negato rinnovo dell’entratura libera nella camera; irremovibile il cardinale nel sostenere che anda concessa ai servitori quando e quanto le paresse. Miglior stima di lui ha, invece, il duca Cesare di cui è matematico e consigliere e che volle presso di sé come paggi due suoi figli, Virginio e Niccolò. Accolge inoltre il suggerimento di C. d'istituire a Modena un'accademia, della quale desidera è membro tra i più illustri. E C. - che nel frattempo pare sia stato anche al servizio del cardinale Aldobrandini e che compone un trattato Delle scene e teatri -- uscito, postumo, a Cesena, costituisce una sorta di summa divulgativa in fatto di prospettiva e scenografia teatrale, quasi sussidio integrativo rispetto ai Perspectivae libri sex, Pisauri, di Monte --, uno dei testi più interessanti, nel suo oscillare tra ambizioni teoriche e intenti operativi, della sceno-tecnica barocca - espresse al duca la sua riconoscenza dedicandogli il Discorso della cometa pogonare, Venetia.  In questo, che è la sua prima opera a stampa, espone l'opinione, alla quale rimane pervicacemente avvinghiato e che ribadirà con accanimento, essere le comete di sostanza elementare. Non v'è, contra quelli che la fanno di celeste, altra soluzione accettabile per chi, come C., non è disposto a deroghe sull'ingenerabilità e incorruttibilità dei cieli; donde la deduzione, di cui C. volle essere, con accigliata sicumera, intransigente enunciatore e rumoroso banditore, che le cosiddette stelle nuove e le comete sono fenomeni SUB-lunari. Nimio ardore tuendae aristoteleae antiquaeque de caeli incorruptibilitato sententiae invectus, dirà Gassendi di C., che, peraltro, riverirà come virum illustrem dichiarandosi imparem nel suoi confronti. Né si tratta solo di difendere dagli oltraggi la purezza virginea del cielo aristotelico; anda sventata l'aggressione al sistema tolemaico che poteva muovere proprio da un'utilizzazione delle comete quale ulteriore puntello del moto annuo della terra attorno al sole. Abbattutasi sul copernicanesimo la condanna ecclesiastica, resta, pericoloso cavallo di Troia di visioni eversive, il sistema ticonico, proposta subdolamente compromissoria all'ombra della quale parevano occultarsi i transfughi coatti del primo.  Perciò C., restauratore dell'ortodossia tolemaica, scende ancora una volta in campo con l'Antitycho... in quo contra Tychonem Brahe et nonnullos alios - e tra questi Grassi è uno dei bersagli principali essendo dedicati ben 10 capitoli dei 65 dell'opera alla sua confutazione - rationibus eorum ex opticis et geometricis principis solutis,demonstratur cometas esse SUB-LUNARES, non coelestes -- Venetiis. Un argomentare vigoroso, dice il Simplicio galileiano, grazie al quale i moderni astronomi inclini a far celesti le comete venivano convinti con le loro medesime armi per via di paralassi - da ricordare che Brahe proprio dal rapporto tra parallasse lunare e cometaria deduce essere le comete superiori al cielo lunare - e di calcoli rigirati in cento modi, concludendo finalmente a favor d'Aristotele che tutte sono elementari.  Lo scritto non spiacque in un primo momento a BONAIUTO (vedasi) -- questi dove avere una buona opinione di C. se aveva suggerito di ricorrere a lui in merito all'opportunità dell'acquisto d'un orologio sferico colle hore in ogni parte del mondo proposto al granduca da un canonico cesenate, che, pur rilevandone con Guiducci le debolezze, lo ricorda positivamente nel Saggiatore, probabilmente fuorviato da una troppo rapida e distratta scorsa - ammesso ci sia stata, ché non è da escludere non abbia potuto avere subito il testo tra le mani - che l'aveva indotto a ritenere trattarsi d'una non inutile confutazione di Brahe mossa da premesse copernicane. Immediatamente drastico, invece, nella serrata demolizione è Keplero, la cui amicizia con BONAIUTO (vedasi) è momentaneamente turbata dall'eccessiva benevolenza accordata, sia pure per poco, da questo all'opinione di C., sulle comete. Certat audacia cum futilitate asserisce deciso in una lettera, quasi a sintesi del severo Tychonis Brahei Hyperaspites adversus Claramontii Anti-Tychonem – Francofurti --, ove impietosamente sono evidenziati i grossolani errori di C. Solo che, mentre BONAIUTO (vedasi), una volta letta l'opera, la tratta con sarcasmo nel Dialogo sopra i sistemi, Keplero parrà pentirsi della sua aggressività quando apprende che C. è persona d'un certo prestigio sociale: nescivi - quasi si scusa in una lettera  - ...senatorem, legatum, legislatorem esse, putavi iuvenculum esse hominem.  Nel frattempo C. pubblica una sua incursione nel mondo della fisiognomica col trattato De coniectandis cuiusque moribus et latitantibus animi affectibus σημειωτικὴ moralis seu de signis -- che esce a Venezia e, godendo evidentemente di qualche stima, di nuovo, a Helmstadt, a cura di Conring che riporta l'elogio di C. contenuto in una lettera di ZUCCOLO (vedasi) all'arcivescovo di Palermo e vice-ré di Sicilia cardinale Doria, a Lipsia e a Lione, d'un certo interesse pel nesso tra indole degl’abitanti e clima -- San Marino, ad esempio, è locus saluberrimus che ad iustam mediocritatem adducit; lo scritto, che non sfugge al La Chambre, l'autore de l'Art de connoistre les hommes... e de Les charactères des passions, voleva essere la prima parte d'una sistematica ampia trattazione De morali disciplina, peraltro non realizzata, ché è seguito soltanto da un opuscolo complementare De atra bile quod mores attinet libri tres, uscito a Parigi per interessamento di Naudè, amico ed entusiasta ammiratore di C., al quale, facendogli credito d'una maxima prorsus incredibilis doctrina, si rivolge come a philosopho ac mathematico celeberrimo. Non per questo lascia cadere il polemico attacco di Keplero, donde la replica, saccente e prolissa, dell'Apologia pro Antitychone suo adversus Hyperaspitem. Confirmatur rationibus ex parallaxi praesertim ductis, contrariisque omnibus reiectis, cometas sublunares esse, non coelestes -- Venetiis. E ribadisce la sua ridicolosa ed impossibile opinione, a detta di Castelli, che BONAIUTO (vedasi) vanifica in una lettera a Marsili -- snerva tutto quello che egli scrive in materia delle comete e delle stelle -- concorda quest'ultimo --, coi De tribusnovis stellis quae comparuere libri tres, in quibus demonstratur, rationibus ex parallaxi praesertim ductis, stellas eas fuisse sublunares et non caelestes adversus Tychonem, Gemmam, Mestlinum, Digesseum, Santucium, Keplerum aliosque plures quorum rationes in contrarium solvuntur -- Caesenae.  È troppo: peripateticuccio freddo e scipito meritevole d'una buona ripassata esplode, sprezzante, Guiducci. Ciò non toglie che C., ammanigliatissimo col mondo ecclesiastico -- e risulta addirittura consultore del S. Uffizio di Cesena, quando approva la stampa dei Discorsi politici, Cesenam di Salice --, potesse giocare una parte d'un certo rilievo. Ben accetto negl’ambienti più chiusi ai nuovi indirizzi e più preoccupati delle loro conseguenze, sono molti, a Roma, tra i suoi fautori, i personaggi principalissimi; e, tra i suoi più fervidi parziali, più di tutti si sbraccia il cardinal Cobellucci, convinto d'aver trovato in C. il più qualificato restauratore delle minacciate certezze. Anda dicendo, riferisce Guiducci a BONAIUTO (vedasi), che forse C. potrebbe deciferare questo negozio del moto della terra in favore di Tolomeo, rabberciando la scricchiolante impalcatura aristotelica. Spera, infatti, d'aver per suo mezzo a veder Aristotele rimesso nel suo primo ius di definire a suo modo le questioni naturali, senza che nessuno ha d’ardire di opporsi alle sue sentenze. Eloquenti suoneranno in tal senso i roboanti versi di Minozzi, che conferisce a C., Aristotele de' nostri tempi, una statura gigantesca: Aquila più lincea d'occhio linceo / vinse la luce, e de la terra il moto / fermò con l'invincibile Liceo. / E sol per meraviglia il sole immoto / del Chiaramonti a lo splendor cedeo / e divenne d'un huomo il ciel devoto. Buon filosofo et buon mathematico et anco ornato di varia et bella eruditione l'aveva definito, con maggior senso della misura, monsignor Sommaja, provveditor generale dello studio pisano, nel proporlo pella lettura primaria di filosofia, alla quale C. veniva eletto collo stipendio di 700 ducati annui. Docente, suo malgrado -- avrebbe voluto passare, nella più prestigiosa Bologna ad insegnarvi matematica, ma incontra forti opposizioni specie da parte di Marsili venendo giudicato tanto nemico degli astronomi --, a Pisa, salvo l'interruzione quando preferì, per la peste, rimanere a Cesena -- e qui fonda, in casa sua, l'accademia degl’offuscati, della quale è principe e legisiatore --, le sue lezioni non suscitarono grande eco. Nella relazione nella quale il provveditor generale propone la sua ricondotta, che gli è concessa con l'aumento di 50 scudi, si insiste sulla sua indicibile bontà, si ribadisce la sua molta e varia eruditione, si ricorda il suo gran nome nella filosofia e matematica; ma si deve riconoscere che nelle attioni pubbliche, le dispute circolari, cioè, allora in uso nelle università, "ha poca attitudine".  L'uscita, intanto, del Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi, nel 1632 in italiano e nel 1635 in latino, reca un duro colpo alla credibilità scientifica del C., nella quale solo uno "scempio" (tale lo dirà lo stesso C.) come Simplicio può confidare. "Gran filosofo e matematico insieme" lo esalta infatti questi, garbatamente ma fermamente rimbeccato da Salviati che accusa di scarsa serietà l'Antitycho -- C. vi accomoda a suo modo e spaccia per fallaci l’osservazioni restie al suo disegno -- e gl’oppone l'incontrovertibile presenza delle macchie solari, giunte, del tutto importune, ad intorbidare il cielo e, peggio ancora, la peripatetica filosofia. Certo C. esce malconcio dal Dialogo, vi appare ridicolo e presuntuoso: con troppo scarsa provisione d'arme - così ancora Salviati - s'è legato questo autore contro a gl'impugnatori della inalterabilità del cielo e con troppo fragili catene ha tentato di ritirar dalle regioni altissime la stella nuova di Cassiopea in queste basse e elementari. Immediata, e anch'essa in italiano e in forma dialogica, la replica di C., con la Difesa al suo Antiticone e libro delle tre stelle dall'oppositioni dell'autore de' due massimi sistemi, nella quale si sostiene che la nuova stella non è celeste, si difende Aristotile ne' suoi principali dogmi del cielo, si rifiutano i principii della nuova filosofia e l'addotto in difesa e prova del sistema copernicano -- Firenze. Screditata ancor prima di circolare - C., dice Castelli, è un povero vecchio, dal cui cervello non possono uscire che vanità e debolezze; è escremento di humor melancolico aggiunge Aggiunti -, lo diventa ancor di più una volta conosciuta: materia di riso e di sdegno per Nardi; insipida pedanteria per Guiducci; balordaggine, palpabil castroneria, porcheriola per Aggiunti; presontione per Micanzio; è tale, secondo Magiotti, che dall'ugna si conosce la gran bestia. Ma, tuttavia, il momento particolarmente critico per BONAIUTO (vedasi) - in cui, corazzata dalla dedica al cardinale Barberini, vede la luce l'opera diC. - rende la Difesa insidiosa: "alcuni - rilevava Galilei, impossibilitato ad una controreplica pubblica, in una lettera del 25 luglio 1634 ad Elia Diodoti - vedendosi un larghissimo campo di potere, senza pericolo, prevalersi dell'adulazione per augumento de' propri interessi, si sono lasciati tirare a scrivere cose che, fuori dalle presenti occasioni, sarebbono facilmente reputate... esorbitanti... temerarie".  Pedante e borioso polemista di retroguardia, rimasticatore attardato dei cascami d'una plurisecolare e ormai esangue rilettura d'Aristotele funzionalizzata al bisogno di ribadite certezze, puntellate di citazioni e rinvii testuali, abbarbicato ad un ordine cosmico messo in crisi dall'approccio d'una indagine prescindente dalle spesse cortine delle incrostazioni bibliografiche, il C. ha avuto la sfortuna d'essere un contemporaneo di Galilei; e rispetto alle esigenze espresse e realizzate dalla fulgida figura di questo, appare sprovveduto e plumbeo epigono d'una cultura pateticamente riluttante a staccarsi dai vecchi testi per affrontare, con altri strumenti, l'avventurosa lettura del "libro della filosofia... che perpetuamente ci sta aperto innanzi a gli occhi". Egli nega, per dirla col Salviati galileiano, cocciuto, "tutte l'esperienze e tutte l'osservazioni del mondo"; questo è "come scrisse Aristotele e non come vuole la natura". Illusioni del telescopio, pertanto, per lui, le macchie solari: "senza dubbio - ebbe, infatti, a scrivere - a volere... trattare delle macchie solari" e, anche, di Saturno tricorporeo, dei satelliti di Giove e delle gibbosità lunari, "bisognerebbe trattar del canocchiale e dimostrar la cagione delle apparenze... da lui somministrate". Ma sarebbe ingiusto infierire sul C., uscito distrutto (non al punto però che anche nel tardo Seicento non ci sia chi, come il Garuffi, non si ostini e chiamarlo "principe de' matematici de' suoi tempi") dallo schiacciante raffronto - da lui peraltro voluto - con Galilei e con Keplero, dimenticando i suoi meriti di trattatista politico cui probabilmente alludeva lo Zuccolo, che al C. intitola un suo dialogo, dicendosi incerto "se... sia vivuto... tra i libri e con le muse o pure nelle corti regie".  In effetti la sua opera Della ragion di Stato..., nel qual trattato da' primi principii dedotto si scuoprono appieno la natura,le massime e le specie de' governi buoni e de' cattivi e mascherati (Fiorenza 1635), stesa, forse, durante gli anni del soporifero magistero pisano, in tre libri dedicati, rispettivamente, al "giusto di Stato", all'"utile di Stato" e a precisazioni definitorie in polemica con Botero Ammirato Bonaventura e Frachetta, ha un indubbio rilievo nella fitta trattatistica, avviata e stimolata da Botero, da un lato preoccupata di superare, in qualche modo, la frattura tra politica e morale, dall'altro attenta a cogliere la complessa realtà dello Stato in una considerazione allargata ai problemi specifici connessi col suo funzionamento e sensibile, altresì, all'esigenza di delimitare l'ambito del potere opponendo ai suoi paventati arbitri il necessario rispetto del "vivere civile".  Agevolato dall'abitudine e dall'attitudine alla diligente consultazione e interpretazione dei testi (l'argomento lo salva, diversamente che nelle polemiche astronomiche, dalla chiosa cavillosa), il C. argomenta non senza sottigliezza e con acuta sensibilità terminologica, percepibile anzitutto nella discussione delle varie accezioni di "Stato", nella cui polivalenza ed equivocità s'addentra con sicurezza, scartando subito l'equivalenza boteriana fra "Stato" e "dominio". Al solito Aristotele gli è di bussola, ma non esclusiva; si colgono pure gli echi d'una meditata lettura, peraltro non dichiarata, dello Zuccolo e del Settala. Tesi centrale del libro il rifiuto d'un'unica ragion di Stato, laddove invece ne esistono di molteplici, non racchiudibili in una definizione onnicomprensiva. E, assieme, v'è tutta una serie di spunti (la distinzione dei tributi in reali personali e misti; la differenza tra ricchezze naturali e artificiali; i benefici del commercio; le asserzioni antiassolutistiche, come la ripulsa del "pestifero fondamento" del concetto di "princeps legibus solutus", indicativo d'un'adesione al dottrinarismo politico della Controriforma) e di prese di posizione (l'esistenza dei governi misti di contro alle negazioni bodiniane; le molte e autonome critiche al Botero) che lo fanno non solo il meno meritevole di dimenticanza fra i tanti troppi scritti del C., ma anche uno dei più individuati nell'eccessivamente prolifico filone postboteriano.  Lasciata Pisa nel 1636 e sfumata l'ipotesi d'una cattedra a Padova (il C. avrebbe voluto ottenerla senza mettersi "in concorso con altri" e con lo stipendio superiore a 600 zecchini annui), egli trascorre i suoi ultimi anni nella natia Cesena. "Scipio siderei Clarus cognomine Montis /in propria mavult delituisse domo", commenta Agostino Coltellini. Lo assorbe, dapprima, l'illustrazione degli "illustria facta" della città, già ultimata, forse, alla fine del 1638 ché, il 17 novembre, il municipio l'omaggia con un pubblico e solenne encomio per questa sua ponderosa fatica. Si tratta della Caesenae historia... ab initio civitatis ad haec tempora in qua totius interdum Italiae universae fere semper provinciae communis status describitur, che esce a Cesena nel 1641 (e ne esiste alla Malatestiana una traduzione italiana, incompleta, manoscritta, dovuta a Gioseff'Antonio Aldini), ristampata, in un'"editio... ab innumeris naevis purgata indiceque meliori aucta" nel Thesaurus antiquitatum et historiarum Italiae (a cura di I. G. Graeve, VII, 2, Lugduni Batavorum 1722).  Viziata da un poco controllato orgoglio municipale, per cui, ad esempio, la città è data come capitale dei Senoni e da una troppo credula e indiscriminata accettazione di leggende e miracoli, l'opera ha, tuttavia, il pregio d'una gran ricchezza di dati e notizie tratti, sia pure alla rinfusa, da varie cronache locali, alcune delle quali sono andate poi smarrite. Un'eccessiva fretta di stesura e il troppo spazio dedicato alle origini e ai primi tempi hanno, purtroppo, sacrificato la parte di per sé più sostanziosa, quella dell'epoca malatestiana e del Valentino.Tuttavia le ricerche di storia cittadina, le incombenze attinenti alla prediletta Accademia degli Offuscati, la partecipazione alla vita pubblica coi relativi incarichi e missioni a Ravenna, a Roma e in altri luoghi, gli acciacchi derivanti dall'età ormai avanzata non indussero il C. a desistere dal riproporsi come scienziato - "grand philosophe et mathématicien" lo lusinga il Naudé, usando, inconsapevole, della stessa definizione di Simplicio - e dal ribadire il suo credo peripatetico, prendendosela, pure, con peripatetici devianti, a suo avviso, dalla completa ortodossia. Non pago d'aver aggredito lo scomparso Ticone, d'aver battagliato con Keplero e Galilei, s'impelaga in un'acida disputa con Giovanni Camillo Gloriosi, il quale, a proposito della "differentia" tra loro intercorrente, aveva lapidariamente rilevato come il C. "Aristoteli est addictus, ego autem, nemini".  Offesissimo il C. gli scagliò contro l'Examen censurae Gloriosi in librum de tribus novis stellis... Claramontii (Florentiae 1636), venendo immediatamente rintuzzato dall'avversario colla Castigatio examinis... Claramontii in secundam decadem... Gloriosi -- Neapoli. Riattacca, a sua volta, con la Castigatio... Gloriosi... castigata... (Caesenae 1638), senza per questo chiudere la controversia ché il Gloriosi la ravvivò con una Responsio... (Neapoli 1641), rispetto alla quale il C., pur essendo morto l'autore, volle avere l'ultima parola tornando sull'oggetto del dibattito - la determinazione della nuova stella del 1572 e le conclusioni del Gloriosi sulle comete del 1618 - in una quindicina di pagine dell'Opus... de universo (Coloniae Agrippinae 1644), riepilogo dei suoi argomenti contro i novatori e trattazione riassuntiva attorno al cielo, i corpi celesti, i quattro elementi.  Del pari prolungato e acrimonioso il dissenso tra il C. e Fortunio Liceti, di cui rimane traccia anche nel carteggio di Galilei che, richiesto dal secondo, dovette esprimere un parere; ed egli, pur riconoscendo al Liceti un'estesa conoscenza d'Aristotele, non riuscì a celare la sua diffidenza nei confronti di dispute condotte a suon d'Aristotele, mentre, ribadiva, "il libro della filosofia" è "perpetuamente aperto", "scritto in caratteri diversi da quelli del nostro alfabeto".  Aveva mosso l'attacco per primo il C. (sarcastico Bonaventura Cavalieri osserva, in una lettera del 28 dic. 1638 a Galilei, che, "doppo credere di havere abbatuti tutti gl'astronomi, non avanzandoli altri viene hora alle mani con i peripatetici; onde aspetto che presto, non havendo con chi combattere, venga, qual valoroso Ruzante, anco alle mani con se stesso"), quando, nel Libellus apologeticus (che risale al 1624 e che figura come terzo nei De sede sublunari cometarum opuscula tria in supplementum Anti-Tychonis cedentia..., Amstelodami 1636), rimproverò il Liceti d'essersi "indegnamente" - così il Cavalieri nella citata lettera a Galilei - accinto "a voler conciliare gl'astronomi che mettono le comete sopra la luna con Aristotele o a difendere le parti di Aristotele in... astronomia e matematica, là dove, non essendo... matematico, non havea da farlo". Il redarguito ribatte con un'operetta in forma di dialogo, De regulari motu minimaque parallaxi cometarum coelestium... (Utini 1640), ove il C. stesso è uno dei tre interlocutori, e più polemicamente con un'altra De Terra unico centro motus singularum coeli particularum... (ibid. 1640); risponde il C. con la Defensio... ab oppugnationibus... Liceti (Caesenae 1644), subito criticata dal Liceti nel De anulis antiquis... (Utini 1644), cui il C. replica nei De sede cometarum et novorum phaenomenorum libri duo... (Forolivii 1648), il primo contro il gesuita Nicolò Cabeo reo d'essersi espresso diversamente dal C. nel suo In quatuor libros meteorologicorum Aristotelis commentaria et quaestiones (Romae 1646), il secondo, appunto, contro il Liceto. E nella contesa tra i due dirà la sua anche il figlio del C. Simone (l'autore del poema eroico Li santi martiri d'Egea Cosmo e Damiano, Cesena 1648 e del De Rubicone antiquo, Caesenae 1643, riprodotto anche in Thesaurus antiquitatum... Italiae, VII, 2) con Cesena trionfante. Tenzone apologetica per le contradizioni di... Liceto..., uscita postuma a Cesena nel 1661 e in veste latina nel Thesaurus... (VII, 2), nella quale difende l'opera storica paterna, ché il Liceti se n'era discostato compilando una Prourbis Caesenae antiquitate apologia (pure questa in Thesaurus..., VII, 2).  Prolifico, prolisso il C. non si esaurisce nelle occasioni di scrittura offertegli dalle polemiche dirette. Si cimenta anche in trattazioni sistematiche come i De methodo ad doctrinam spectante libri quattuor,in quibus tum controversiae omnes de ordine et methodis inter graves philosophos cogitatae singillatim discutiantur,tum novae praxes traduntur ex Aristotelis penetralibus erutae,quae certum exhibent inventarum doctrinarum iudicium et additum aperiunt ad novas inveniendas (Caesenae 1639) riaffermanti la validità dell'indisturbato procedere del sillogismo non scalfito dagli stimoli dell'investigazione diretta, e la Philosophia naturalis methodo resolutiva tradita de principiis et communibus affectionibus rerum naturalium... (Caesenae 1652, e, di nuovo, Venetiis 1668), analitica esposizione del moto e delle sue specie, soprattutto di quella locale, placidamente sorda rispetto alle pagine galileiane "intorno a due nuove scienze". E il C. volle nuovamente e ingenerosamente - cogliendo il pretesto dell'uscita in veste anonima (l'autore, comunque, è Ismael Boulliau) di Philolai sive dissertationes de vero systemate mundi libri quattuor (Amstelodami 1639) - attaccare Galilei coll'Antiphilolaus ..., in quo Philolao redivivo de motu Terrae et Solis ac fixarum repugnatur,rationesque eius,quas ipse pro demonstrationibus affert, fallaces deteguntur. Insuper positio eadem de re Copernici confutatur et Galilaei defensiones reiiciuntur (Caesenae 1643).  Balza, tra i tanti argomenti, quello decisivo della impossibilità d'assegnare alla Terra la qualifica di primo mobile ché, in tal caso, si preoccupa di spiegare il C., "herebit illi primus motus et, sicut anima praesertim in corde animalis residet, primus motor residebit in Terrae centro", proprio laddove la "comunissima piorum ac fidelium sententia" situa, invece, l'inferno. Quanto al Boulliau scrisse al Marsenne il 19 dic. 1644: "i'ay esté estonné de ce qu'il allegue contre moi une bulle dont iamais on n'a ouy parler en France, que... les nonces... n'ont point signifiée a... nos prelats ny a la faculté de theologie".  Cavillosissimo nell'esposizione, iperbolico nella conclusione il De altitudine Caucasi liber unus, consegnato al Naudé nel 1646 e da questo pubblicato a Parigi nel 1649, servì pure, assieme ad altri quattro scritti del C., De phasibus Lunae,De horizonte..., De usu speculi pro libella..., Ex inspectione imaginis subiecti per reflexionem ex aqua quiescente in vase investigare quanta sit diameter Terrae a formare la raccolta postuma d'Opuscula varia mathematica... (Bononiae 1653). Atto d'omaggio all'idolatrato Aristotele, infine, i due Commentaria, rispettivamente in Aristotelem de iride,de corona,de pareliis et virgis (Caesenae 1654 e Venetiis 1668) e in quartum metheorum... (Venetiis 1668), già inseriti entrambi nella raccolta di Opera varia del C. (s. l. né d., ma Colonia, senz'altro prima del 1644) che comprendeva pure i De universo libri XVI e i De tribus novis stellis libri III.  Rimasto vedovo nel 1644, il Naudè, che incontrò C., ne tracciò un piccante schizzo: un C. ottantenne risposato "à une jeune... femme dont il se sent encore fort bien car il est de complexion fort amoureuse; est enim libidinosus et salacissimus". Ritratto d'un vecchio eroticamente attivo che malamente si concilia (a meno che non si supponga sia rimasto rapidamente vedovo una seconda volta; il che comporterebbe, peraltro, un problema di date) con la notizia d'un C. smanioso d'indossare, appena morta la moglie, il saio cappuccino ad imitazione di ben quattro dei suoi figli Chiaramonte, Gregorio, Francesco, Niccolò, tutti, appunto, cappuccini e predicatori. Vivamente sconsigliato dal figlio Niccolò perché i disagi della regola cappuccina erano eccessivi per la sua tarda età, il C. volle comunque lasciare egualmente lo stato laicale: abbandonate le incombenze pratiche, ceduto il seggio senatorio al figlio Giacinto (dottore in legge e lettore nello studio cesenate), si fece, sempre nel 1644, sacerdote, fondando, così il Villarosa, l'istituto dell'Oratorio ed erigendo a proprie spese una chiesa, dedicata a s. Filippo e a s. Cecilia, per gli "esercizi" dell'avviata "congregazione" filippina. "Scelti... pochi compagni", visse con essi in una casa a questa contigua, sempre a detta del Villarosa, "perfettamente a tutti gli obblighi dell'istituto filippino, esercitando il sacramento della penitenza... colla gente più rozza, insegnando i primi rudimenti della fede a' poveri contadini; né sdegnava con le proprie mani spazzar la chiesa". Un C., dunque, immerso in pratiche di devozione e di carità; tale la sua ultimissima immagine.  Muore a Cesena.  Dei suoi molti figli, oltre a quelli menzionati, si ricorda pure Virginio, morto, appena ventottenne, che fu uomo d'arme e appassionato di studi matematici. Ma il più noto resta Niccolò divenuto cappuccino col nome di Stefano, commissario apostolico in Svizzera, generale dell'Ordine e grande di Spagna.  Fonti e Bibl.: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Urb. lat. 1629 (lettera del C., del 12 aprile 1639, a Paganino Gaudenzi); Ibid., Barb. lat. 3244, c. 322 (lettera del C., dell'11 marzo 1640, a Ferdinando Ughelli); Venezia, Bibl. del Civico Museo Correr, Cod. Cic. 2522/25 (lettera del C., del 17 sett. 1636, a Mario Ginami); il C. è uno dei due interlocutori del dialogo, a lui intitolato, Del Chiaramonte overo de' terrori panici, in L. Zuccolo, Dialoghi, Venetia 1625, pp. 199-209; J. Kepler, Opera omnia, a cura di C. Frisch, Francofurti 1868, pp. 161-292; Id., Gesammelte Werke, München 1953-1959, VIII, a cura di F. Hammer, pp. 265-506 passim; XVIII, a cura di M. Caspar, pp. 211, 229, 261, 264, 270, 295, 331, 510, 511, 513, 519, 525, 532, 541; Id., Dissertatio cum nuncio sidereo..., a cura di E. Pasoli-G. Tabarroni, Torino 1972, p. 114 n. 37; G. Gablei, Le opere, Firenze; Id., La prosa, a c. di A. Favaro-I. Del Lungo, Firenze 1957, pp. 260, 340; Id., Dal carteggio e dai docc. ..., a c. di A. Favaro-I. Del Lungo, ibid. 1968, pp. 237, 241, 242, 249; Id., Dial. sui mass. sistemi, a cura di F. Brunetti, Bari 1963, pp. 67, 274; Id., Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi..., a cura di L. Sosio, Torino 1970, ad Indicem; P. F. Minozzi, Delle libidini dell'ingegno..., Venetia 1636, pp. 237-303 con una lettera al C. del 24 apr. 1636 ad accompagnamento di versi in suo omaggio e d'un "discorso" a lui indirizzato; Lettere d'uomini illustri... nel principio del sec. XVII..., Venezia 1744, pp. 383-384; P. Gassendi, Opera omnia, Lugduni 1658, V, pp. 475-476; VI, pp. 74-75, 417, 424, 427; M. Mersenne, Correspondance, a cura di P. Tannery - C. de Ward, Paris; R. Descartes. Oeuvres, a cura di C. Adam-P. Tannery, Correspondance, I, Paris 1969, pp. 290-291, 579; Naudé, Epigrammata in... literatorum imagines quas... Cassianus a Puteo sua in bibliotheca dicavit..., Romae 1641, pp. n. num.; Id., Epistolae, Genevae; Id., Bibliographia polit. et arcana status..., Halae Magdeburg 1712, pp. 41, 91-92, 162, 235; B. Cavalieri, Geometria degli invisibili, a cura di L. Lombardo Radice, Torino 1966, p. 740; G. F. Tomasini, Elogia virorum... illustrium..., Patavii 1644, p. 313; G. B. Riccioli, Alma gestum novum..., Bononiae 1651, I, 1, p. XLV; 2, pp. 71-75, 81-82, 93-95, 114-119, 160-164, 630-634; G. D. Rossini, Oratio in parentalibus S. C., Caesenae 1653; C. Berigardo, Circulus pisanus..., Patavii 1661, pp. 268, 270, 282, 352-353; Lett. ined. di uomini ill., a c. di A. Fabroni, Firenze 1773-1775, I, pp. 119, 123, 155; II, p. 272; Antivigilmi [A. Aprosiol, La bibl. aprosiana..., Bologna 1673, p. 270; G. M. Garuffi, L'Italia accademica..., Rimino 1688, pp. 103-108; H. Conring, Epistolarum syntagmata duo..., Helmstadii 1694, nell'elenco degli scritti del Conring; Conringiana epistolica sive animadversiones... ex Conrigii... epistolis... libatae..., a cura di C. H. Ritmeier, Helmstadii 1719, p. 310; Id., De scriptoribus... commentarius..., Wratislaviae 1727, p. 203; V. Parracini, Singularia de viris eruditione claris..., Basileae 1711, pp. 198-199; P. G. Morhof, Polyhistor..., Lubecae 1732, I, p. 167; II, pp. 383, 487-488; G. B. Braschi, De vero Rubicone..., Romae 1733, pp. 56, 90; Id., Memoriae caesenates..., Romae 1738, pp. 412-413; Niceron, Memoires pour... l'histoire des hommes illustres..., XXX, Paris 1734, pp. 157-165; G. V. Marchesi, La galeria dell'onore ove sono descrite le... memorie del... ordine... di S. Stefano..., I, Forlì 1735, pp. 173-174; F. S. Quadrio, Della storia e... ragione d'ogni poesia..., I, Bologna 1739, p. 64; Fabricius, Conspectus thesauri litterarii Italiae, Hamburgi;  Montucla, Histoire des mathématiques..., I, Paris 1758, pp. 569-570; N. F. Haym, Bibl. it. o sia... libri rari..., Milano 1771-1773, p. 56 n. 9, 500 n. 13; G. Targioni Tozzetti, Notizie... delle scienze fisiche... in Toscana..., I, Firenze 1780, pp. 111-112, 347-349; G. M. Muccioli, Catal. codicum... Malatestianae ..., I, Caesenae 1780, pp. 17, 113-115, 117-119; G. Tiraboschi, Biblioteca modenese..., I, Modena 1781, pp. 23-24; G. Marini, Degli archiatri pontifici..., I, Roma 1784, pp. 95-96; G. I. Chiaramonti, De maiorum suorum laudibus carmen, Caesenae 1785, passim; P. A.Serassi, Vita di I. Mazzoni..., Roma 1790, pp. 19 n. 1, 65, 121 n. 1, 124 n. 1, 154-156 (coi versi del C. in obitum... Mazonii);[L. Rangiaschi], Bibliografia... dello Stato pontificio..., Roma 1792, pp. 55 s., 249 n. c; G. B. C. de' Nelli, Vita e commercio letter. di Galileo..., Losanna 1793, pp. 422, 517, 524, 557, 757, 809; A. Fabroni, Hist. academiae pisanae, III, Pisis1795, pp. 369-379, 686; Nuovo diz. istorico..., IV, Bassano 1796, p. 300; F. Cancellieri, Storia de'... possessi de'... pontefici..., Roma 1802, p. 434 n. 6; Biblioteca Pisanorum veneta..., Venetiis 1807, I, p. 87; II, p. 42; E. Pistolesi, Vita del... pontefice Pio VII, Roma 1824, pp. 6-8; F. Colangelo, Storia dei filosofi e matematici napoletani..., III, Napoli 1834, p. 242; A.Marsand, I mss. it. della R. Bibl. parigina..., I, Parigi 1835, n. 7749; [C. A.] Villarosa, Memorie degli scrittori filippini, Napoli 1837, pp. 104-108; M. Delfico, Memorie... di San Marino..., Capolago 1842, pp. 334 s.; L. Ilari, La bibl. pubblica di Siena..., Siena 1845-1847, III, pp. 119, 121; IV, 1, pp. 83, 257; VI, p. 116; G. Giucci, Storia... di Pio VII, I, Roma 1857, p. 6; P. Riccardi, Bibl. matematica it. ..., Modena 1870-1880, I, coll. 347-350, 614, e App., col. 44; S. Pieralisi, Urbano VIII e Galileo ..., Roma 1875, p. 100; A. Favaro, La libreria di .. Galilei..., in Bull. di bibl. e storia delle sc. mat. e fis., maggio-giugno 1896, pp. 30, 33, 35, 38 ai nn. 91, 109, 118, 141, 142; Id., ... G. Ciampoli, in Atti del R. Ist. ven. di sc., lett. e arti, LXII (1902-1903), 2, p. 99; Id., ... Giovanni Camillo Gloriosi,ibid., LXIII (1903-1904), 2, pp. 32-33; Id., ... Niccolò Aggiunti,ibid., LXXIII(1913-1914), 2, p. 33; Id., ... Mario Guiducci,ibid., LXXV (1915-1916), 2, p. 1386; Id., Oppositori di Galileo. S. C. da Cesena, in Atti e mem. della R. Dep. di st. patria per le prov. di Romagna, s. 4, X (1920), pp. 42-108; Id., Saggio di bibl. dello Studio di Padova..., I, Venezia 1922, p. 32 n. 169; Id., G. Galilei e lo Studio di Padova, I, Padova 1966, pp. 218-219; Id., G. Galilei a Padova..., Padova 1968, p. 30; R. Zazzeri, Sui codici e libri della... Malatestiana..., Cesena 1887, pp. 28-33, 39, 41, 43; Id., Storia di Cesena..., Cesena 1890, pp. 60 n. 1, 167 n. 1, 179 n. 1, 224; L. Rava, Celso Mancini..., Bologna 1888, p. 150; C. Supino, La scienza economica in Italia dalla seconda metà del sec. XVI alla prima... del XVII, Torino 1888, pp. 10-11, 21, 32 s., 45 s., 92, 121-123; A. Carli-A. Favaro, Bibliogr. galileiano, Roma 1896, nn. 87, 103, 113, 135, 153 s., 165, 172, 191, 196-198, 224; A. Müller, ... Galilei..., Roma 1911, pp. 61, 368-73; D. Barzocchi, in G. Fantaguzzi, "Caos". Cronache cesenati..., Cesena 1915, p. V; A. Scarpellini, Un antenato di Pio VII avversato dagli spagnoli. P. S. C. da Cesena, Savignano di Romagna 1925, pp. 9-10; [M. T. Dazzi], Biblioteca Malatestiana. Relaz. per l'anno 1925..., Cesena 1926, pp. 53, 69, 91; E. Wohlwill, Galilei und sein Kampf..., II, Leipzig 1926, pp. 63-68 passim, 162, 405; L. Olschki, Gesch. der neusprachlichen Wissenschaftlichen,Literatur, III, Halle 1927, pp. 377, 381; Cat. gén. ... de la Bibl. nat., XXVIII, Paris 1928, coll. 539-542; M. Maylender, Storia delle Acc. d'It., IV, Bologna 1929, pp. 52, 101-103, 449, 451; B. Croce, Storia dell'età barocca in Italia, Bari 1929, pp. 75 n. 4, 88, 92-93; Id., Nuovi saggi sulla lett. it. del Seicento, Bari 1931, p. 220 n. 4; Id., Varietà di storia lett. e civ., I, Bari 1935, p. 274 n. 1; C. Ricci, La scenografia it., Milano 1930, p. 40; L. Alpago Novello, La vita e le opere di... Lollino..., in Arch. ven., s. 5, XV (1934), p. 295; C. Calcaterra, Il Parnaso in rivolta, Milano 1940, pp. 190-191; R. De Mattei, Critiche secentesche alla "Ragion di Stato" del Botero, in Studi in on. di A. Solmi, II, Milano 1941, pp. 337-338; Id., L'idea democratica e contrattualista negli scrittori pol. it. del Seicento, in Riv. stor. it., LX (1948), p. 33 n. 2; Id., Il problema della "Ragion di Stato" nel Seicento, in Riv. internazionale di fil. del diritto, XXVI (1949), pp. 192, 195 s., 205-206; XXVIII (1951), pp. 348-350; XXIX (1952), pp. 417-418; XXXI (1954), pp. 377-378; XXXIII (1956), pp. 439-449; XXXIV (1957), pp. 167; XXXVII (1960), p. 565;  (1961), p. 188; Id., La celebraz. della politica nel dottrinarismo it. del Seicento, in Giorn. critico della fil. it., XXXI (1952), pp. 205-206; Id., La forma aristocratica di governo nel dottrinarismo politico it. del Seicento, in Studi... in on. di E. Rota, a cura di P. Vaccari - P. F. Palumbo, Roma 1958, p. 262; Id., La concezione monocratica negli scrittori polit. ital. del Seicento, in Studi storici in on. di G. Volpe, Firenze 1958, pp. 322 n. 1, 350-351; Id., Difese italiane del "governo misto" contro la critica... del Bodin, in Studi in on. di E. Crosa, I, Milano 1960, pp. 750-752, 755; Id., Il pensiero polit. di S. Ammirato..., Milano 1963, pp. 128 n., 136 n. 42, 145-146, 148, 177, 205, 220; Id., Sulla fortuna del Bodin in Italia..., in Studi in on. di A. Segni, II, Milano 1967, pp. 16-17; Id., Dal premachiavellismo all'antimachiavellismo, Firenze 1969, p. 34 n.; Id., Verifiche di termini politici nel dottrinarismo it. del Cinque e del Seicento, in Scritti in on. di G. Ambrosini, I, Milano 1970, pp. 574-575; D. Fava, La bibl. ... di... Pio VII, in Acc. e Bibl. d'It., XVI (1941-1942), p. 259; General Catatogue of British Museum..., XXXVI, London-Beccles 1943, coll. 992-994; Autori italiani del 600, a cura di S. Piantanida-L. Diotallevi-G. C. Livraghi, Milano 1948-1951, nn. 733, 2172; T. Bozza, Scrittori politici italiani..., Roma 1949, pp. 14, 157, 178-179; E. Povoledo, N. Sabbatini e la corte di Pesaro, in N. Sabbatini, Pratica di... scene e machine..., Roma 1955, pp. 155-157; D. Cinti, Bibl. galileiana..., Firenze 1957, pp. 147-150, 161-162, 191-193; La coll. galileiana della Bibl. naz. di Firenze, I, a c. di A. Procissi, Roma 1959, pp. 185, 195, 196, 198, 257, 268-270; L. Moranti, Bibliografia urbinate, Firenze 1959, n. 3102; G. de Santillana, Processo a Galileo..., Milano 1960, pp. 327, 365, 603; G. Ricca Salerno, Storia delle dottrine finanz. in It., a cura di S. Guccione, Padova 1960, p. 125; E. Balzani Maltoni, La famiglia degli Ordelaffi..., in Studi romagnoli, XI(1960), pp. 257 n. 51, 259 n. 58; A catalogue of books... by Library of Congress..., XXVIII, Paterson 1963, p. 148; N. W. Gilbert, Renaiss. concepts of method, New York-London 1963, pp. 181, 194-196, 238; Mostra di docc. e cimeli galileiani, a c. di M. L. Bonelli, Firenze 1964, p. 13; L. Thorndike, A history of magic and experim. science, New York-London 1964-1966, VI, p. 510 n. 165; VII, pp. 450-451, 465, 504; J. Robertson, The return of Cesena to... dominion of the Church..., in Studi romagnoli, XVI (1965), pp. 127 n. 14, 137 n.47, 154 n. 111, 155 n. 114, 158 nn.130 e 131; S. K. Heininger jr., Phythagorean cosmology and the triumph of heliocentrisme, in Le soleil à la Renaissance, Bruxelles-Paris 1965, p. 35; P. Paschini, ... Galilei, Roma1965, pp. 405-406, 434-472 passim, 498 n. 60, 506, 511, 535, 563-566; C. Rizza, Peiresc e l'Italia, Torino 1966, pp. 148, 302; Rép. des ouvrages... en langue italienne au XVIIe siècle... dans les bibliothèques de France, a cura di S. P. e P.-H. Michel, II, Paris 1968, p. 89; C. Costantini, Baliam e i gesuiti..., Firenze 1969, pp. 41 s., 67; F. Meinecke, L'idea della ragion di Stato ..., Firenze 1970, pp. 47 n. 1, 120 n. 2, 121 s., 126-128, 193 n. 4; I. L. E. Dreyer, Storia dell'astronomia..., Milano 1970, pp. 379, 382-384; A. Vasina, Romagna medievale, Ravenna 1970, pp. 161, 194 n. 88; A. Mombelli, La cultura in Romagna nella prima metà del Settecento..., Ravenna 1971, pp. 62, 64 s., 73 n. 68, 76 n. 173, 208, 229; I. Larner, Signorie di Romagna, Bologna1972, pp. 56 n. 26, 81 n. 57, 356; Cesena. Il volto della città, a cura di B. Dradi Maraldi - A. Emiliani, Cesena 1973, pp. 321, 325, 326; A. Bevilacqua, Una controversia settecentesca... il mausoleo di Teodorico, in Studi romagnoli, XXIV(1973), p. 172; S. Sozzi, Breve storia... di Cesena, Cesena1973, pp. 10-64 passim; Diz. crit. della lett. it., a cura di V. Branca, I, Torino 1973, p. 401; M. Marangio, I problemi della scienza nel carteggio Galileo-Liceti, in Boll. di storia della fil. dell'univ. ... di Lecce, I (1973), p. 343; Id., La disputa sul centro dell'universo nel "De terra" di... Liceti,ibid., II (1974), pp. 337-346; A. Asor Rosa, Il Seicento, in La lett. it. Storia e testi, a cura di C. Muscetta, V, 1, Bari 1974, p. 269; M. L. Soppelsa, Genesi del metodo galileiano e tramonto dell'aristotelismo nella scuola di Padova, Padova 1974, pp. 26-27, 40, 56-57, 73 s., 78, 95 s., 120; W. R. Shea, La rivoluzione intellett. di Galileo, Firenze 1974, pp. 116 n. 20, 118 n. 25, 186; F. Marotti, Lo spazio scenico, Roma 1974, pp. 7, 51-56, 58 s., 63, tav. VII; Id., Structure de l'espace... dans les représentations... d'après les traités italiens..., in Les fêtes de la Renaissance, III, Paris 1975, pp. 231, 234, 238; Id., Lo spazio... del melodramma, in Venezia e il melodramma nel Seicento, a cura di M. T. Muraro, Firenze 1976, p. 353; Illusione e pratica teatrale... Catalogo della mostra, Vicenza 1975, p. 171; E. Gamba, L'attività scientif. nel ducato di Urbino ..., in Studi urbinati, n. s., XLIX (1975), 2, p. 167; V. Titone, La storiografia dell'illuminismo in Italia, Milano1975, pp. 70-71; G. Benzoni, Gli affanni della cultura, Milano1978, pp. 88, 179; G. Moroni, Dizionario di erudizione storico-ecclesiastica..., XI, pp. 135, 165 s.; J. C. Poggendorff, Biogr.-lit. Handwöterbuch zur Geschichte der... Wissenschaften..., I, col. 435; G. Mazzatinti, Inventario dei manoscritti delle biblioteche d'Italia, XXIX, p. 37 n. 8 (dev'essere senz'altro il C. l'autore del Discorso politico sopra le scritture ... a favore dei ... Venetiani ... contro ... Paolo Quinto, e, allora il "card." va corretto in "cav."); LV, p. 125; P. O. Kristeller, Iter Italicum..., I, pp. 147, 291, 366, 376, 385; II, pp. 455, 456, 561, 563; Enc. dello Spettacolo, III, coll.628-629.  Per l'attribuzione al figlio del C. Simone del De Rubicone... uscito come Dissertatio "Vincentii civis Caesenatis", vedi G. Melzi, Dizionariodi opere anonime e pseudonime..., III, Milano 1859, pp. 224, 401. Su Niccolò, altro figlio del C., divenuto cappuccino col nome di Stefano, oltre alla monografia di Scarpellini sopra ricordata, Bernardo da Bologna, Bibliotheca scriptorum... capuccinorum, Venetiis 1747, p. 234; G. Melzi, Dizionario, I, Milano 1848, p. 200; Sigismondo da Venezia, Biografia serafica..., Venezia 1856, p. 706; Melchor de Pobladura, Los generales de la orden capuchina grandes de España..., in Collectanea franciscana, XIII (1943), pp. 281-284; Salvatore da Sasso Marconi, La provincia cappuccina di Bologna..., Budrio; Donato da San Giovanni in Persiceto, Biblioteca dei... cappuccini della provincia di Bologna..., Budrio; P. Carlini, F. M. Casini..., Roma. DE CONIECTANDIS CVIVSQVE MORIBVS ET LATITANTIBUS ANIMI AFFECTIBVS σημείωτικη moralis, seu de signis SCIPIONIS CLARAMONTII CASENATIS. Ad illustriss. et reverendiss. principem cardinalem Auriam, Panormi Archiepiscopum, Sicilia Pro-regem, missioms ac Genezalem Capitaneumatis Fehu. DEO M S Permissu superiorum, et privilegijs. EST VENETIIS, Anno Magni Iubilei Ex Officina Marci Ginammi. 10.C.3 . : amesco Emetipfumnosse, etqui, qua Illme ac R.me Princeps. S lisquefit, hominem præclarem intelligere arduum in primis, atque; difficile apud veteres fem per est habitum, Ill.me et R.me Princeps, verum longem ihi difficiliori negotio eorum versari videturres, quibus aliorum hominum capere cognitione animo est propositum. Vnus tantum inſitus, atque in nobis ingenitus nostri amormētisoculosprę stringuit, acpræpedit, quo minus in nos in tuētes nostri affequi possimus cognitionem: in alijs verò dignofcēdisitamulta passim occurrunt perturbationes, amor, odium, misericordia, ira, et aliæ, quibus quasi ventorum flabris agitati huc, et illuc impellimur; vtàre Etorationis cursu, veroque sensu longem abscedere, atque aberrarecogamur. Accedithuc, quod hominū animi totſinus, totanfractus, totmeandros, ac diverticula habent; vt nulla mentisacies, nulla perapicacis ingenijvis, aut folertia ſittanta, quem adeorú perfectam notitiam pervadere, ac penetrarequeat: quin homines ipfiita simulationis, et dissimulationis ARTIFICIOSE se obtegunt, et occulunt; vt nemini -- nisi excellentiori quadam sit pręditus NATURA – adeorum cognitionem liceat ad spirare. Infinitæ igitur doctrinæ, summæ difficultatis, ac laboris aliorum NATURAM, animorum propensiones, sensus, et impetus callere exi Itimandum est; nequetamen minus eam rem in se vtilitatis continere dicemus, quam obscuræ difficultatis. Si quidem quæ possetesse bene educandis, ad rectamqueviuendiratio nemtra ducendisliberis parentum cura?quę magistrorum ad pueritiam optimis ARTIBUS, ac disciplinis informandam bona institutio; quæ summorum principum populis regendis, in officioque continendis prudens auctoritas; nisi indolis, NATURÆ, animi propensionis, motuum, morumque ad sit cognitio? Quo circaiure quidem à mortalibus omnibusim mortales habendæ sunt gratiæ Scipioni Claramontio Equiti omni virtutis laude prestanti, quod in tanta, ac tam varia corporum, animorum, morumque dissimilitudine, simili tudinequadaè multiplici observatione comparata vnus quasi præclusosaditus, ad homines cognoscendos primus aperuerit, et recta, certamque viam, ac rationé breui præceptione monstrarit: neque verò minor deberi vi deturlaus Ill.mo Catanenſi Antiſtiti -- queho noris, et religionis causa nomino -- Innocen tio Maximo, nonminusverèmoruminno centia, vitęqueſanctitate,quàmgente,&no mineMaximoRomano,cuiusfingularieffe Etűeftliberalitate;vtimpreſsi hilibriin ma nushominumprodirent.Hosego,cuieden difactaeſtpoteftas, cummultumfrugis, at quevtilitatishominumgeneriallaturosvide rim;eximioaliquo,pręſtantiſsimoquePrin cipevirohaudindignűmunusforeexiftima ui. ItaquetibiPrinceps,&CardinalisAm plifsime, qui omnibus,&animi,&fortunæ bonisitaabundas,vtnontàmclarifsiműPa triæ, gentisque tuędecus,nontàmdignitatis, ac perfonæ tuæ ſplendor te ornet,quàm tu morumintegritate,religione,rebusgerendis prudentia, omniüliberaliumartiumdoctri na,atqueomniumvirtutumorbedignitatem ipfam,gentemtuam,Patriam,atqueadeoor 3 bem bemornes,&illuſtresvniuersű,hoſcelibros intuonomineinſcriptosmitto,atquevnàcũ animomeodico,vtperpetuűadomnesgen tes , omnemquepofteritateextentargumen tum,etteftimoniűnonminusfingularis mei in teſtudij,atqueobferuantiæ,quàmpreſtan tis ingenij, præclaręeruditionis,&doctrinæ ScipionisClaramontij,etpropenſę Innocen tij MaximiReligiofifsimi,etDoctifsimiEpi ſcopideartibus ingenuis,ingenijsqueelegan tioribusbene merendivoluntatis. Amplitu dinistuęmanusſacrasdeoſculatus,Clemen tiſsiműDeumrogo, vtdiuincolumisviuas, vteotealtifsimodignitatis, maeſtatisquegra duvideamusconftitutum,quòomniumbo norumdefiderijsesexſpectatus. Vale. Fauentia Kal. A. T. R.me Addict.mus servus Ludovicus Zuccolus – ZUCCOLO (vedasi). Propofitio, & commendatioOperis. Cap. 2 Definitur,&defcribiturfignum. Cap. 3 Arstotarepresentatur. pag. 2 6 Cap. 4 Repetuntur,queanteademorumextemperamen to dictafunt , &aliqua latius aliquanto confir mantur. 12 Cap. 5 Variacordistemperamenta, &differentia. IS Cap. 6 Quimoresſequanturvariascordis differentias. Despiritibus, &humoribus , idesteorumtempe ramentis, acmoribus conſequentibus. 31 Cap. 8 Deconformationepartium. LiberSecundus. Cap. I DeClimatibus. DeTriangulis, t) Stellis, &de Demonuminfpi ratione, ac afflatu . Cap. 3 DeSolo. Cap. 4 DeAere, &Ventis. Cap. 5 DeSitu. 43 45 54 58 Cap. 6 Denationum,acgentium moribus,feupropenfio nibus. Demoribusnaturalibus,feupropenfionibusnatio numagiturexcaufisnaturalibus, earumquecom 4 bina IndexCapitum. binatione. Cap. 8 Deatatummoribus. Cap. 9 Depuerorummoribus. Cap. 10 Deadolefcentiæ,iuuentutisque moribus . Cap. I I DeSenectute. Cap. 12 Devirilisætatismoribus. LiberTertius. Cap. I DeNobilitato. Cap. 2 DeNobiliummoribus. Cap. 3 Demoribusdiuitum. IOS Demoribuspotentum,&fortunatorum Demoribuscontrariarum conditionum expofitis. pag. 114 Cap. 6 Tranfiturad vitainſtituta,ac studia. 116 Cap. 7 Deartibusliberalibus,quæ motumultoutuntur. pag. 118 Cap. 8 DeMusicapracticanempevocata. Cap. 9 Defaltatione,&chorea. Cap. 10 DePhilofophia. Cap. I I Delurisprudentia. 122 125 DeRetorica,feuOratoriafacultatisprofeffione , eiusquemoribus DeDifciplina Propoſitionem continetrerum, &methodi, buiuf que distinctionem . 142 Cap. IndexCapitum. Cap. 2 Primummethodicaputcontinet. Cap. 3 Subdiuiditurfecundum methodicaput cum caufa diffident .  Comparationemfecundumgeneracontinet. 146 Cap. 5 Comparationesfecundumgraduscontinet Quæpropofitionesfintinter memorata momenta. Mistionismoditraduntur,quibuscontrariamorū momentacommiſcentur . 158 Cap. 8 Comparatiocompoſitamomentorum,fcilicetfecun dumgenera, & gradus. 161 Cap. 9 Differentiaannotaturinterfummammomentorum acceſſoriorum , &principalium . Cap. 10 Peroratioprimæpartis methodi . 171 172 LiberQuintus. Cap. I Connectit, &proponitqueagendafunt. Quot,&quepartesPhiſiognomia . Cap. 3 Signacordiscalidiaggreditur . 174 179 Cap. 4 Signacordiscalidi,&ficci, idestexnostranomi natione calidi,&duri. 187 Cap. 5 Signacordiscalidi, &humidi,&primocordishu midiipfiusperſe. 190 Cap. 6 Signacordisfrigidi. 194 Cap. 7 Signacordisfrigidi, &humidi,acfrigidi, ficci. DeCerebriinfluxu. Cap. 9 Dehepatis,iecoris 197 véinfluxu, adeoquehumorum, Spirituum in cor,dequeprocedentibusindemo ribus ribus . IndexCapitum. Cap. 10 206 De ſignis temperamentiiecoris, hepatisvé. Proponitdicenda,fundamentarepetit , actracta Etionemdiftinguit.Departibusgenerationideferuientibus. Departibusadcupediampertinentibus. Quatractandarestantcapita methodi Phiſiogno miamemorat . Cap. 5 DeCapite. DeFronte. DeSupercilijs. Cap. 8 DeAuribus. Cap. 9 DeOculis,eorumqueaſpectibus. De Oculorumcoloribus. Reliquaexoculisfignaconiungit. De Naso De Ore. De Facie. DeVultu. Repetunturdicta,&proponunturdicenda,quęad Phifiognomiamſpectant. RoburadAriftotelis mentemdiftinguiturinrobur ingenuum, acferuile. Descriptiopartium adrobur ingenuum, ac bellicum . Cap. 4 Defingulispartibusinfracaput. Cap. 5 Destaturacorporis. PeroratiodePhiſiognomia. ReuocatiohorumquedePhiſiognomiadictafunt adfuperioremnostram methodum, applicatioque adpraxim Nonfemperactioſequitur propenfionis prædomi nium,quaidcirco methodofuturaactio fit proui denda,æftimandaque. Proponitdicenda, & connectit,etindicatquesüt exfuperius dictis repetenda. De Voce. Cap. 3 Deloquutione. Demotucorporis totius . 287 288 295 297 Cap. 5 Demotueodemvniuerficorporiscumfiguraaliqua itidemcorporis Demotupartiscorporis. CDecorporiscultu. Adprimariafignamorumapofterioritranfit; pri moquedeexterioreactioneagit , quam & mate riale actionis vocat . Exemploactionis Seiani,&errorisTiberij confir maturidem;fcilicetnon neceffario colligi ex ma teriali, exterioriqueactione morem Deformatiactione, fiueformaliparteactionis Methodusdeprehendendiformaleactionis,fiuefi nem IndexCapitum. nemeius,fupponendointerimnullamfubeffefimu lationemfallaciam vé. Exinteriore actione indago moris. Praxis proximemethodiaffertur.Partemmethodicumprecauendaestfictioaggre ditur. Primoquedefictionibus agit,fimulationi busque. Defimulationefinis,feudeprætextu, obtenturvé. Defimulationemorum Methodusdetegendarumfictionum,acfimulatio numinſuacapitadiftinguitur . Primumcaputcontinetdetegendefraudisexqua litateperfonæagentis, cum veteratorfuerit. Secundumcaputdetegendęfimulationisexperſona qui cum agitur. Tertiumcaputmethodi,ſcilicetperfuafioexponitur. Quartummethodicaput. Pæne, &questiones, quaqueadeasreducuntur. Quintummethodi caput. Premia. Canonescontinet. Sextum methodicaputaggreditur, cum velamen tumperſeperlucet. Sextumidemmethodicaputcumerumpit affectus . Cumexeffectuſubſequetefimulatioaperitur Capitafimpliciamethodi, ) combinatainterdum locumhabere inpropofitafimulationis indagine . Ad morum indaginemquacunquediftafuntappli cantur. Connectit,proponit,diuidit,quetractandafuper funt. Deſignisaffectuumincommuni. Cap. 3 Signaaffectus voluptatis. Signaaffectusdoloris Signaamorisergarem,fiuebonumformale,fiueer gafinemcuiusgratia, quiamordemumestipfa metcupiditas. De ſignisamorisergaperfonam,amorisnempecon cupifcentiæ, ac venerei. De signis amoris ergaperſonam,utfinemcui,fiue amorisamicitia Deſignisodij. Deſignisira Deſignistimoris Depudorisfignis Despe,seuſpeifignis Cumpluresaffectus eorumquefignaconcurrunt Deſignisexoratione. 422 Cap. 15 Applicantur difta de fignis affectuum propoſiteaf fectuumindagini. 425 Cap. IndexCapitum. Cap. 16 Cumsignaaffectuumfupprimunturaliquatamen exparteerumpunt. Methodusexcaufis affectuum,quaestfupplemen tumpræcedentis methodiexfignis. Defacultatecognofcente. Cap. 19 Defacultateappetente . Inpraximmethodustraditaadducitur Eandempraxim adamorem amicitia poffedetor queri, acreliquos affectus Galenipraxisadducituraddotegendumdecumben tismulierculeamorem quiinhocoperecitantur. Adamantius . Franc.Guicciardinus. AdouardusGualadus. Franc. Piccolomineus. Paulus Ægyneta. Albertus Magnus. Alexander. Alhazenus. Galenus. HalyAbbas. Heraclitus . Ammianus Marcel Herodianus . linus. Anacreon . Andreas Laurentius . Andreas Nauagerius . Antonius Poffeuinus . Apuleius . Aristoteles . Atheneus . Auerroes. Auicenna. Baldus. Biantes. Boetius. Camillus BaldusBono niensisPhiloſophus . Campanusfcriptorgeſto rumBrachij. Caffiodorus . Catullus. Chilo. Cicero. Claudianus. Conciliator . Cornelius Tacitus. Dantes. ' Diocaffius . Hippocrates. Homerus. ORAZIO (vedasi) PORTA (vedasi) Ioannes Boccaccius. Ioannes Ingenerius . IoannesPetrus Maf feius. Ifidorus Conradus . Julius CesarinCommen tarijs. JuliusClarus . JusCanonicum . lus Ciuile. Iustinus . JustusLipsius. Iuuenalis . Lampridius. Lucanus. Ludouicus Areostus. Lucretius . Marfilius Ficinus. Manilius. Martialis . Maternus. MichaelScotus. EmericusinDirectorio. Niceta. Ennius. OlausMagnus. Euripides. Eustratius. Ouidius . Paterculus. PaulusIouius. Persius. PetrusVictorius. Philostratus . Pittacus. Plato. Plautus. Plinius . Pliniusiunior. Plutarchus. Polemon,fiuePalemon. Propertius . Ptolomeus . Quintilianus. Q. CICERONE (vedasi) Q.Curtius. Rafis. Realdus. Sacra literæ , velSacra fcriptura. Salustius . Seneca. SimonPortius. Simonides. Stobeus. Strabo. Suetonius. Thucydides. Tibullus. Vegetius Veßalius Virgilius Vitruuius.. Xenophon . MARCVS GINAMMVS BibliopolaVenetus Beneuolo Lectori Fœlicitatem P. ९९ Vodnoftrifuitfemperinftituti,ut(quan tuminnobis effet) aliquo nouo opere,et industria noſtralitteratorumhominum ſtudiaiuuaremus,idnuncprofequimur. Scipionis Claramontij praclari Equitis libros deconiectandis Moribus tibi damus nostris Typis excuSos; inquibusnulliplanè opera, labori, autdiligentia pepercimus, utquamemendatißimiintuasmanus peruenirent . Si quodtamenleueirrepferit men dum,quodnostroseffugeritoculos, (nemoenimest, ut aitille, tam lynceus , quinonoffendat) homines nosagnofces,etignoſces nontàmnobis,quàmauctori eruditißimo viro, etderelitterariaoptime merito, fiinlocaquadaminciderisperuerfa,perturbata, aut obfcuriora . Is enimindefcribendoaliena , nec una eadem,ſedmultorumvfusmanuàflagitanti bus amicis, quibus diutiushi libri deberinonpote rant, exempla utinspiceret, &ſuamanufcriptis cumexemplaribusconferret,haudpotuitimpetrare. Benevale, &nostramindustriamtuabenignitate foue. VM multa veteres – benigne lector -- ad rectè viuendum prudentifsimè mo nuerint, non postremum interea locum occupat, quod Seneca notauit. Totamfer mènobis vitamin aliudagendoeffluere . Namcumvelvnumnostrumnegotium, velmaximumeßedebeat animivirtus, probitasqueipſanostra; nosdecorpore, &defortunisprorfus Soliciti, deanimo, eiusquebonis vixcogitarefustinemus. Hinc factumest,utquefcientiæ, &artesadcorporisfortunarum quetutelampertinent,plurimum tractentur, luculentisque,ac numerofis libris tradantur : at Morali, ideft nostriipforum co gnitioni vixfit,qui operamnauet; &fifortèadtamprecla ramfcientiamnosapplicemus,breuiaria,compendiaquetantum admittamus; licètinalijsfacultatibusprolixa voluminatole remusnedum,fedexigamus. Atquantomeliusnobisipfisto ti , ijs verò,quæ extra nosfunt,aliudfermè agendo vacare mus? Præceptumquodaprimis uſque temporibus intonuit, &inDiuinumauthoremrefertur, ut nofmetipfos cognofca mus. Cognitionemhancnoſtriprecipit,nonautemTigniimmi tendi, autagarici temperandi; que cumadhumanosfanè ufus cognofcere expediat, quistamennonſentiat maiore multo studio eacognofcenda, adquæ vtadfinemhorum cognitio, & ufusdirigitur? Hacconfideratioiamdiufecit,ut moralesphi lofophiæ integritatemſummoperedefiderarem, cumquefrustra abalijs expectarim , ipſetandemaggrederer. Remenimdili gentius meditantipatuit,nonpaucioribusexpartibushancani morumcuram, quàmcorporum medicinamcoalefcere. Quin que a quepartes medicina continet, que Gracis vocibus dicuntur, Phisiologia, Igijna, Pathologia, Simiotica SIMIOTICA SEMIOTICA – cf. H. P. Grice: “Words are not signs – but not everything that ‘signifies’ has to be a SIGN”, et Therapeutica . Easomnesmoralisquoqueincludit. Primamquidemdumpar tes animæfubiectasmoribus, borumque &affectuum causas confiderat.Secundamdum animorumoptimamconftitutionem, virtutemfcilicet omnemtradit. Tertiamdum deprauationem animi, vitianempe eiusaperit. Quartamdumfignamorum, &occultoruminterimaffectuumadanimi morbos aut tollen dos, aut mitigandos affert. Quintam,&vltimam dumcura tionemiameiufmodi vitiorum, morborumque animi molitur, primòinftitutionead virtutem tradita . Harumquinquepar tiumfi verafaterilubeatinijsquæ fuperfuntantiquorum fcriptorum monumentis ſolam Iginiamhabemus, ceteraspartes, velnullas, veladeo tenues, utnonfatiseffe uſuipoffint. For tèin curatorijs olim Chriſippi, etPoſſidonij conftabant, necnon inlibris, qui perierunt, Aristotelis, et sequacium Peripateti Sum、 corum . Atinterim iacturarefarciendaerat. D.Thomaspra In2. par. clarifsimafcripfit, verùm Theologicopropofito; adeoque mul ta circumfcripfit , que tamenadmoralem integrandam defide rantur. Egocumiugilaboreinomnibuspartibusinfudauerim, omnesquepro viriliparteabfoluerim,primonunclocohancSi mioticem, feudefignispartememitto: nonquodfitceterisprior, fedquodinplures,quàmrelique ufusdiffundatur, fuaqueno uitate videatur ceterisfactura viam . Verùm enimuero me maximèomniumpermouit Innocentij Maximi Romaniproceris Nobiliffimi, tumque Britonorienfis, nuncCatanienfisEpifcopi auctoritas,qui virexcellentirerum cognitione,acerrimoqueiu dicio preditus cohortatione nedum,fedpropemodum iuſſione in hancedendifententiam adegit:quinimmooperisexemplum ame petijt, &obtinuit, quodipse velſumptusuo (quaestmagnifi centia) centia) imprimendumcuraret. Quadrienniotameninher of que tempora editionemdištulit, dumFlorentiæ primum apud MagnumHetruria Ducem;pofteainHispaniaapudMaxi mumillumRegem OratorisPontificij munusſumma cumfui gloriaexercuit . Nunciamproditliberexquo Beneuole Lector ceteraspartes æftimarepoteris,quæ (ſituhuiciudiciofaueris) propediem confequentur. Egoquidem meainuentanonlaudo; nequeenimdecet moralemfcriptorem apræconibusludorum gymnicorumalios nonſe voceſua victoresrenuntiantium,mo destia vinci. At certèargumentiutilitatem profiteor, commendo . Nequeenim curiofahecperſeest, actemeraria alienorum morum, etſenſuumindago;fedmultiserga multos tumhonesta, tumneceßaria . Parentesfiliorum, &in uni uerfuminſtitutores alumnorum,propensiones, &moresficun debonos, aut maloscontraxerint, multodebent conatuinuefti gare: nifidominiferuos, Principesfamiliares & miniftros ex plorauerint; illifibi,bifibi, & Reipublicæ magnodamnoerunt. Quefitoresetiamfcelerum in precedentesperſonarum moresin quirere, proque eorumdifferentia multofecius exeodemfacto procederedebent . 'Resfurtiuapenes virumprobatum reperta nullam illifurtisuspicionem allinit, neque ulli obnoxiumin quifitioni reddit : at contrà,sipenes malè moratumbominem reperiatur. Baldus, &Imolainlegefin. ff. deheredib. insti tuend. Hocidemin communi hominum vitafaciendumComi cusmonuit. multainhominedemea Signafuntexquibusconiecturafacilèfit Duocumidemfaciunt,fæpeutpoſſisdicere Hoclicetimpunefacerehuic, illinon licet, Nonquoddiffimilisresfit,fedquodquifacit. 1 Cafar Cafarin militeeligendo militarem eoruminclinationem , aptitudinemexPhiſiognomia (aßerenteVegetio) coniecta bat. Interdum ex præcedentibus aftionibus hominum virtu tem, velcontrà, moresquequipræfertimfuffragiorumiusha bentindemandandis Magistratibus conijciunt : Eaqueratione Livius lib.24. Fabius Maximus Otacilium minorem Ducem,quàmvtAn nibaliopponipoſſet,effe iudicauit,atque Romano Populofuafit. Arsergo, methodusquealiorum propenfiones moresqueinda gandi,quamnuncadornamus,cumabillis, &inillosadhibetur aquibus & inquosoportet, utilis, &honeftaest,interdum que neceffaria . Quodfialieno tempore,indebitisquemodis furpata, malaac temerariaeuadat , eandemcumreliquishu manis actionibus aleamſubit; quę licètſuoptegenerebonæfint, Statim tamenatque adebitacircunstantiarum harmonia exci derint , male redduntur . Indigosiuuareopibusestipsa perſe actio dignissimalaudibus ; attamenfiadturpemfinem incon gruové loco,actemporeefficiatur, in malam,interdumque infceleftamdegenerat. Hec, antequamadremaccederempra fandaduxi. Propofitio, &commendatio Operis. Cap. Primum . VxTapreſcriptumalibi ordinem partem , que Grace σημειωτική. Latine de SIGNIS dicitur, aggredimur. Prestat veròprimofignumde fcribere,deindedistinguere, vt tractatio quo quedistingui, &ordinaripoffit. Prospicie musita, veluti exedito loco,fubiectum ,quodperacturifu mus,iternon vulgareillud,actritum,ſedtumnouitatis,tum vtilitatis , tumiocunditatis, atque dignitatisplenum. Non me latetcorhominumimperfcrutabile,acfoliDeo peruium: tamenconiecturisaccederead tamgrandeſecretumestprecla ra imitatio diuinitatis. Hancmodonos artemaggredimur, quam, fihucusqueintractatamdixero, dumintegrareiexpli catio refpiciatur , nonequidem mentiar . Solius enimPhiſio gnomiecurafuit,queparsartiseft, nontotaars; præterquam quodipfaquoquePhisiognomia, ut hancmorumcognitionem A moli Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. 2 molitur, eget distinctione , &refolutioneinſuaprincipia,qua veluticonformetur , &conftituatur; neque tamen eiusmodi perfectionem eſt aſſequuta; quodspero, resipſamonftrabit . Nosautem,cumpriusfignumdefinierimus, &diftinxerimus, totamdeincepsartemrepræfentabimus. Definitur, etdefcribiturfignum. Describitur signum morum. SIGNVM, fi exactissime sumatur, est tum senssibile quippiam, tumpofteriusre INDICATA. Lacnempeeſtſignumpartus,non partuslactis, cuiuspotiuseft caufa. Undedemonstratiofigni Ondedemonstratio dicitur,quæ àposterioriprocedit: quæ contra,demonftratio cau Signűquot ſe,nonfigni appellatur. Latius tamenfumptumfignumea tur. modisfumi- conditionecontentumest,utfitſenſibusobuium,fiuepriusfit, fiuepofterius . Ariftoteles 2.PriorumAnalyt. inhacfecunda, fignificationefignumdefiniuit; quoexistenteest,autquofacto prius, autpofterius, factaresest. Cumautempofteriusfacta reseſt,ſignumtumnonpofteriuseft,fedprius. Medici hanc quoquefolamſenſibilitatisconditionemexigunt. Definiuntfi quidem nonnullifignum eſſeſenſibile,quodſenſuiſeofferens, intellectuialiquid relinquit : &infuper interfignacausaspro catarticas vocatasreponunt; exillisenim coniecturant Medici internoscorporisaffectus,quiſaneprotemperamentis,provi figni . Etu,proqualitateregionis, &anni,praquehuiufmodi alijsva Deſcriptio riant. Egoquoqueinbacamplitudinefignanunc morumacci piam,quæcunquefcilicetobuia cumfintfenfui,intimos animi mores, vellatentes indicant affectus,fiuè rationemhabeant adillos cauſe,fiueeffectus ,fiuealiam eiufmodiquampiam . Ita LiberPrimus. 3 Itafitpotiusdefcriptum, quamdefinitumfignummorum: exa Eta verò ſigni definitio aliundepetatur . Poteft verò, et ali terdefcribi;fignumnempèestſenſibilequippiam ,quo exiſten te,velfacto,moscertussubest, velneceffario, velprobabili nexu. Dicoverèneceffario,velprobabili nexu, utàneceffi tate abstraham, que vix unquaminfignis morumreperitur. 9. Secundus. Signadiuidunturtrifariam; cum fi gnumeftcaufaeffectus,cumeffectuseftfignumcau fa,cumeffectuseſtſignumeffectus : QUONIAM ergofignumeft, quoexiftente,autfacto,mos fubeft,confiderandumefttriplicem effenexumrerumſeſeinfe rentium. Primoenimlococaufainfert effectum, utrationa leinfertrifibilitatem. Secundoeffectus infertcaufam,utri fibilitas rationalitatem. Tertio effectusinfert effectum, ut abeademcaufafimulpendent, velutidocilitasfcientiarumin fertrifibilitatem, & viciffim; quippècumamba rationalita temcontinuòconfequantur. Triahocmodoeruntfignorumge- Signorum nera. Primumcumcaufa,fenfibusipfisconfpicua,ſignumerit effectus latentis . Secundum cum effectus contra conspicuus eritfignum cauſelatentis. Tertiumcumeffectusnotusfignum erit coniuncti, & latentiseffectus. Id veròfit,cum ambo ef fectusabeademcaufa neceffario, velnaturali nexupendent, quinexusfilateat,istum emergittacitusrerumconfenfus,qui præfertimfympathiaGræcis dicitur. Verumtertiumhocfigno rumgenus varius est, velfaltem eius ufusrarior est in mo ribus dijudicandis . Notabimus tamen, &præmonebimusfi gnum, quodestcaufa, vel instar cauſeſebabet, &signum quodesteffectus ,vel instar effectusſehabetbicaccipi ,tan quam A 2 tria funtge nera.. 4 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. quam vera caufa,& veruseffectus; nonenimfummailla acriuia adhibebitur verecause,etverieffectusdignoscendorů. 6.Tertius. Signumdiuiditur,vtfyllogifmus eius, quiinprimam,autſecundam, auttertiamfiguram refoluitur . reducit fi- MODO verò fingulahæc generatriplicemeam fufcipient Ariftoteles rurfusdistinctionemſignorum, quammemorat Arist. 2. Prio gnaadtres rumAnalyt. cap.penult. auteniminprimamfiguram reducun figuras fyl- tur, autinſecundam, autintertiam. Cuminprimam,effica logiſmorú. citerconcludunt, cumin reliquas,efficacemhaudconclufionem obtinent ,fed probabilem tantùm. Remexemplismoralibus declaremus,quamalijs explicuit Aristoteles . Siquisergofe proalijs mortiexponit, utPyladespro Oreste,esthocfignum veriamoris , & reduciturfyllogifmusinprimamfiguram bocmodo; Omnis,quiſeexponitmortipreſenti, &certapro alterius Salute,illum verèamat.. : Pyladesſe exponitmortipreſenti, & certæprofalute Orestis . ErgoPylades verèamatOrestem. Unde&penesEuripidemIphigeneexclamat tamicisintegeramicus. Atcumexpalloreconijcimusaliquemtimuiße,infecundam figuram refoluiturfyllogifmus , inefficaxqueexduabus enim affirmatiuis reſultat huncin modum ; Omnis, qui timet,pallet. Vereambe, at non Hicpallets Ergohictimet. conuertiturmaior. Quod, LiberPrimus. 5 Quod,fiexeo,quodHectorbalbusfuit, &fortis, colligatquis omnembalbumfortemeffe, intertiamfiguramrefoluitur. : Hectorestfortis : Hectorestbalbus; Ergoomnisbalbusestfortis . Quiquidemfyllogifmusexpofitorius eft,adeoqueparticularem conclufionemefficaciterconcluditfcilicet ergoaliquis balbus est fortis at uniuerfalenequaque; estenimcontraregulasfigura. .3 S. Vt ſigna quæin ſecundam ,& ter tiamfiguramreſoluuntur,robur ſuſcipiant. ATpostrema duogenera fignorum;fcilicetqueinſe cundam,&intertiamfiguramreſoluuntur, licetneceffariònon concludant,poffunttamenroburſuſcipere,nifi neceffitatisma xima,tamenprobabilitatis,fitertiumquidperplura iteretur fingularia;verbigratiaadcolligendam vniuerfalembanccon clufionem; Omnes,qui vocemmagnamhabent,fortes,quisar gumentetur,quodFranciscus Sfortiamagnambabuit vocem, fuitfortis,Gottifredus Bullioniusitidem,undeTaffius; Conosceilpopolſuo l'altera voce. IoannesquoqueMediceusCoſmifilius Dux , &bellatorfor tis,vocem itidemmagnahabuit. Ergoomnes magnam vocem habentesfortesfunt. Probabilitasitaconclufionis augetur;fi quetota inductio expleri poffèt, neceßaria euaderet. Secun dumautemgenusfignorum, quodpluribus eftcommune, robur fufcipit,fialiquod membrumexcludatur; verbigratia,in eo demexemplopermanendopalloris ,cumfit is communis &ti menti, &amanti; Palleat omnisamans A 3 frigefcenti,&ira Scenti 6 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib &c. fcentiinterdum, ægrotantipræterea ,ſiconcludatur expallore timorfimpliciter , abſoluteque,neque neceffitatem ullambha betconclufio , nequeprobabilitatem , nifi admodumrefractam. Quod,fiostendatur, quipallet,nonamare,gradusaliquis acce ditprobabilitatis . Crefcit autem,ſineque ægrotare monftre tur. Quod, fialiaomniamembra, preterquam timoris tolle rentur, argumentumeuaderetneceffariumexnumerationefuf ficientipartium . Aliundehocfecundumfignorumgenus con firmatur,nempèfiplura congeramus eiuſdemgenerisfigna . Vagarinoctuestfignum communeadulterij,ſed conuenit t) alijs, utfuri. Ornatus veſtiumeſtſignum &ipſum adulte rij commune. Singuladebilemfidemadulterij faciunt , at fi mulcongefta maiorem , quoplura veròconiungimusfigna, ед magisintenditurvis rationis. Vndèqueſitoresſcelerum eiuf modi aggerationemfignorumpro vehementiinditiopeccati, ac facinorisreputantinterdum, indequeinditia ad torturam uf quedefumunt: dequibus Arift.1.Rhet.cap.12. &Cicero, Quintilianus . Verbigratia,apparatus, colloquia,locus,rubor, pallor, titubatio, &cæteraeiufmodiperturbationis signa sunt . Exbisautemfignis,queRhetores communia vocant,refolui turfyllogifmusinfecundamfiguram . Arstota reprafentatur. Cap. Tertium. §. Primus. Viadoctrinæ,&ſectio totiusoperis Aud inſuamembra . RTEM nunctotam repræfentemus,eofactoprincipio, quodabinitio diximus nihilcordehumano obfcurius effe, nibilimperfcrutabilius,facris id afferentibusliteris; Prauum eftcor Liber Primus.. eſt cor hominis , &infcrutabile. Quis cognofcitil 7 lud? EgoDominusſcrutanscor,&probans renes. Sunt tamenprobabiliaaliquaindicia, quibus mores,nedumna turalespropenfiones,fcilicet conijcerepoffimns,quodpaſſim ten tantPhiſiognonimi,ſedmores etiam acquifitos, veldispofitio neadhuc, velhabitu:funt etiam,quibustectos, &compref fos affectusconiectemus . Totamartemhoc egoopere comple Etor . Utinreliquisautem morummedicina corporum medi cinamimitatur,ita inhacquoquedeſignisparte valdèeamex primit. Duplici vialatetes morbos, &affectus corporisinda gantMedici:duplicipariter viaprocedetnoſtrahæcindago,ex caufisfcilicet procatarticis illi inueftigant morbos. Sunt autem cauſeprocatartice, cibus, potus,astus,aeris, autrigor, eiufmo diquealiæ cauſe morbosprecedentesnon neceffariòinferentes, nampro victu, exercitationibus, aeris Statu conijciuntMedi ci , fitnècalidus morbus,anfrigidus; estquehæcprima eorum indago. Inueftigant prætereaex affectibus, ac pofterioribus fignis, expulfibusfcilicet, urinis, excretionibus,respiratione, tidgenusalijs morbiitidemnaturam, ) ideam; estquehac fecunda,fedpræftantiorindago; quetamen,ficum alia coniun gatur,maioremfidem affequitur. Simillimèergòmoruminda goduplexest . Aliaprocedit ex morumcaufisad eosinuesti gandos; aliaexeffectibus , &pofterioribusfignis, quediuifio quoquein latentium affectuum indagine locumhabebit . Se iunximus nos methodi partes; & primam, quæ estex mo rum caufis, inſeptemprioreslibrosdigefſſimus;fecundam , quæ Jeptemprio est exeffectibus, posterioribusqueſignis , inoctauum &no num, atinuestigationemlatentium affectuumdecimo , & rul timolibrocomplexifumus. Heceſtſummadiuifiooperis . A 4 §.Se : 8 Deconiect.cuiuſquemorib.&c.-Subdiuiſioprimæpartis methodi, quæeftexcaufis. PRIOREMpartemnuncfubdistinguamus. Cause mo ruminfuperioribusquoquelibris numerate,aliæfuntnatura Enumeran- les; Temperamentum,conformatiopartium,velpotiuscaufa, rum. : turcauſęmo exquahacpendet, clima,folum, aer, &venti,ſitus,ætates: aliæaduentitiæ,nobilitas,potentia,diuitia,fortuneprosperi tas, contraria,instituta vite, ac Studia,utvita otiofa, &occupata, artes illiberales ,&liberales. Primo ergo loco cauſas eiufmodifingillatimdiſtinctas,qui moresfequantur,ex pofuimus; verbi gratia,temperamentocacimores (naturales ſcilicet)innituntur; eſtautemtemperametumcordis multiplex, utanteatradidi, &hicconfirmabo. Ipſumdistinguo,nedum fecundumactiuasqualitates,caliditatem, &frigiditatem,sed frigiditater fecundum mollitiem etiam,& duritiem,necnon craffitiem, denfitatem, atquehiscontrarias: pretereafecundum magnitu dinem, &paruitatem: deinceps,quimoresfingulascrafes tum fimplices, tum complicatasfequantur, expono . Deconforma tionepartiumpariterin 1.hoclib.quiexreliquiscaufis natura libus mores oriantur,in 2.lib. declaro ; quifcilicet ex climati bus,ſolo, aere, ac ventis (proindeque omniumnationummo res defcribo) necnonetiam,quiex ætatibus. At aduentitia rumcaufarum moresin3. lib. explico; Nobilitatis,diuitiarum, potentie ,bone fortune, ) contrariarumconditionum:item artium illiberalium , & liberaliumfingillatim; venationis, exercitationis ludicræ armorú,mufice,faltatorie,Philoſofiein ſpectricis,Philoſofie actiue,Iurisprudētie,Rhetorica,acPoe tice,demum difciplina,feueducationispublica, ac priuata . Acopor LiberPrimus. 9 Acoportetdeinceps conferre totvariarum caufarumfequaces moresfimul,in unumquecomponere,quecomparatioduplex . Velenimomnescauſeadeofdemmoresconspirant; verbigra tiatemperamentum,atas,fortuna, Studium, educatioadmo remvenereum, velincontrarios mores diſtrahuntur. Prior collatiofacilis,feufacilèestex eamorumiudicium. Atfecun dacollatiodifficillima, tamententauiexhiberelancem,quacon traria caufarum momenta,&feorfumperpendi, &interseli braripoffentadmutuamfubductionem, utquipreualeantmo res, &quotoingradufupputaripoffit . Totamrem,&pra ximinquartumlibrumconieci. Quoniam veròtemperamen tum,cuimoresnaturalesinnituntur,&potiffimum cordis, la tet, estqueexapertis,acincorporeconfpicuis notiseruendum, instinctusitidemexconformatione partiumfingillatim defcri bendi, que Phiſognomia præſtat; nositaque Phiſognomiam in tres libros, quintum, fextum, feptimum digeſſimus,cumbac distinctionein quinto libropofuimusfigna temperamentorum cordis, cerebri, &hepatispeculiaria ,propriaque exipfisſcili cettemperamentum confequentes moreseliciuntur. Infexto, &feptimo,confirmationemexteriorumpartium,ac moreseam confequentes primariodeclarauimus, interdumtamen,quodex apparente decentia, velaliter colliguntur,licet minus efficaci indagine, adiecimus. Infextoquidemlibro,quæpartesinstru mentarie,acexteriores moribus concupifcibilifacultatiinſiden 1 tibusfcaturiginempræstant,primolocoexponuntur,fignaque exillis morumeorumdem eliciuntur . Deindèadalias partes tranfitur, adſignaqueexillisprodeuntia, initioducto àcapite. Atquein reliqualibri parte caput, &facies,omnesque eius particule,acfignaexillispendentia pertractantur. Inſepti molibroomnesinframentumpartes,actusque,&noteexillis morum 10 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. morumdefcribuntur. Incalcequerò librieiufdemcanonesPhi fiognomicosadmethodum naturæreuocamus,inpraximquedu cimus, necnonfubijciturpremonitio ,quodnequefemperactio fequiturmorem,qui cæterisinoblatohominepræftat. §. Tertius . Pars methodi,quæexpoſte rioribus ſignis . riori SECVNDAE modopartis, que expofterioribusfignis Signa mo- ducitur,constitutionemprefiguremus. Signa morumàposte romapofterioriinduplicifuntdifcrimine, aliaprimariafunt,aliafecunda mine. duplicidifcri ria, &annexa. Secundaria, ut abhis exordiamur,ſumun tur ex voce, ex motucorporis, exmotupartium,ex corporis quecultu. Atfignaprimaria exactione ipfa petuntur,tum fcilicetexteriore,tumexinteriore appetitusfentientis: atpre tereaelectio, quæpræfertim eft morisindicium . Verumtamen femperinactionediftinguere oportet , materiale , &formale. Materiale autem nonefficaciter moremfimilem actioni ipfi.de monstrat; hocque ex moralitrutina: atexlegali,ſecus ; exhac enim,quifuratur,fur exiftimabiturcertus,&manifestus. At tamen exterioripfafurandiactiofurem penes moralem Philo Sophum,furacemquemoremnonfignantindiciocerto. Dauid enimfame, extremaqueadedneceffitatecompulfus,panesſacros propofitionisabstulit, neque tamenfur, nequefacrilegusfuit. Oportet ergònonſiſtereindaginemin materialiactionis,fed ad formaleconniti. In octauo libro hecomnia explicantur;pri mofignafecundaria, &annexa uſque adoctauumcaput; in dèdefignisprimarijs uſquepertotumlibrum. Adcalcempra xis methodiCiceronis exemplum,exEpiſtolisadAtticumlon gaferiepetito, exponitur. Omnia veròin octauo librocircum- Scripta, LiberPrimus. II fcripta,fallacie, acfimulationis confideratione traduntur : at quoniamfallacia,fictiovéfrequentiſſima estinhomine,ideòde eaintotononolibroagitur; ubiprimodistinguitur multismo dis , interquecætera membra eaest, quepeculiari nomineob tentus,pretextusvédicitur. Secundopoftealocoquotmodisde tegipoffit, velfaltemtentandumfitdetegere in reliqua parte libri diferitur . Sunt autem undecim capitamethodi,quead retegendamfallaciam conducit, experſona,queagit, exea, qua cumagitur. Duo hecfunt. Atsexalia pendent exmodis, quibusadducipoteſtfimulator , dißimulatorvé ad veritatem aperiendam. Interdum veròisallicitur, interdumimpellitur. Triaaliafunt ex velamentoipſofictionis, acfallacia; cumfci licet perlucet ipfumperfe, cumexprodeunte affectudifrumpi tur; cumexfuperuenienteſcinditur, acdisijcitur. Itametho dus morumindagandarum,atque vtraque eiuspars abſolui tur. Restatindago affectuumlatitantium . §.Quartus. Indagolatitantiumaffectuum. POSTREMAparseftmethodusdetegendi latitantesaf fectus; interdumenimquispremitamorem,odium,iram,dolo rem,voluptatemvé,aut affectumaliumquempiam. ItaAn tiochus premebatamoremergaStratonicam. Methodusaffe Etuumeiufmodidetegendorumpoftremoloco, &librotraditur, fcilicetdecimo,in quoprimumfingulorum affectuumfignade Scribunturfeorfum:fecundoloco canonesprecedentis methodi adhancindaginem contrabuntur: tertio,utex caufis affectus ipfielici,ac eruipoffint, ratiotraditur, que methodusinſupple mentumeius,queexfignisest, cedit. Poftremòmethodus,ac indagototainpraximexemplo Tiberijex Tacito adducitur, nec non 1 Deconiect. cuiuſquemorib.&c. 12 nonexemplo Porfenaex Liuio:quibus exemplis ,acpraxibus fubijciunturea,quibus Galenusrefertſedepræhendißemulier culamamorecorreptam,&progreffus eiusinexamereuocatur. Repetuntur,quaanteademorumextemperamento 1 : dictafunt, &aliqualatiusaliquanto con firmantur. PRO Similitudointermores,&affectus . RIMO itaquelocode temperamentisagendumeft;dispi ciendumest,quimores quod temperamentumfequantur. Idemanteainlibriscommunibusdeaffectibusexpofuimus,tum departiumfolidarumtemperamento agendo,tumdetempera mentohumorum,tumdetemperamentoſpirituum . Quorum illis, quæ deſpiritibus, noneftquicquamnuncadijciendum: il lis, quæ dehumoribusparum quid; atijs, quedepartibusfoli dis, distinctio amplior eft neceffario adiungenda,quaminſe cundapartepollicitiſumus:antequam veròeamtradamus,ani maduertendumest inlibrisde affectibusin communi, inqui busdetemperamentisfanguinis,&fpirituum egimus, deque confequentibus moribus, nosquidemcaufas affectuum,nonmo rumpræcipuè quafiuiſſe,attamen obnexumrerumfermonern tum quoqueadmores delapſum; etenim nihilaliudest mos, quàm velpropenfioadaliquemaffectum,qui moseft natura lis, veldispositioadaffectumaliquem aßuetudine contracta, quiestmos moralis, & acquifitus . Hoc veròfubiunxi, ne cummododemoribus, tuncdeaffectibus argumentumfuerit, alieno exlocoeorum, quenunc tractantur,causapeticredere tur. Reftat,utquodanteàfumpfi, unicaque ratione stri ८ ٤٠ Etim ! LiberPrimus. ! 13 Etimprobaui ,latiusdemonſtrem, &confirmem,fcilicetexſolo cordistemperamentoperſe, & primo mores naturalesprocede re,exeiuſque varietate variari; naturales, inquam,quoniam demorali,&acquiſito moreeafemperestretinendalibertatis nostra hypoteſis, quamfupra, nedumattestatifumus, fedetiam demonstravimus. Soliuscordistemperamentumadmo res per ſe, ac primoſpectare. SOLIVS ergo cordis temperamentumadmores verè, ac persespectareprobatum anteàfuit, eoquod corestsubiectum affectuum,&propenfionum, acdifpofitionumadeffectus ,in Strumentumqueprimum. Rationemnuncexplico,ac dilato . Primo autem repetendum est ex fuperioribus temperamentum cordis, quodnuncdicitureffefecundum partes eiusfolidas,ac Spirituscomplantatos,namfecundumeiusmodipartes,acfpiri tus erat corfubiectum, acprimumſenſiterium,instrumentum que appetitusfentientis,functio autemquæque animalisnon Functiocor perturbatur , nec permutatur ob corporis alterationem, nifi poris quo- exvariationeſuimetinſtrumentiperſe ,ac primo ,quodindu- betur. Etionepatet. Nonalteraturſenſus viſus obalterationemcor poris, eiusquetemperamentiperſe, &primo, nifi extempera mento oculi mutato , velquoquomodoſenſorioipſo viſusalte rato,necſenſusauditus,nifiexauditorij, ſenſitorijque permuta tione, idedegustu,odoratu, tactuquedixeris; nonperturbatur autemoperatio alicuiusfenfus ex alterius partis , corporisque Senſorijperturbatione, niſiobconfenfum, &fecundario,quate nusnempèexlaſione eiufmodipartis confenfuquopiamſenſo riumipfum vitiatur,aut laditur. Pariter ergo mores, م ن pr ptur o Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. 12 nonexemplo Porſena ex Liuio:quibus exemplis , acpraxibus fubijciunturea, quibus Galenus refertſedeprahendißemulier culamamore correptam,&progreffuseiusinexamereuocatur. Repetuntur,quaanteademorumextemperamento dictafunt, &aliqualatius aliquanto con : firmantur. Cap. Quartum. §. Primus. Similitudointermores,&affectus . 3 PRIMO itaquelocodetemperamentisagendumeft;dispi ciendumest,quimores quod temperamentumfequantur. Idemanteainlibriscommunibusdeaffectibusexpofuimus,tum departiumfolidarum temperamento agendo, tumde tempera mentobumorum,tumdetemperamentoſpirituum . Quorum illis, quæ deſpiritibus,noneftquicquamnuncadijciendum : il lis,que dehumoribusparum quid; at ijs, quadepartib dis, distinctio amplior eft neceffario adiungenda,quam infe cundapartepollicitifumus:antequàm veròeamtradamus, animaduertendumest inlibrisde affectibusin communi, inqui busdetemperamentisſanguinis,&fpirituum egimus, deque confequentibusmoribus, nosquidemcaufas affectuum,nonmo rumpræcipuè queſiniſſe,attamen obnexumrerumfermonem tum quoque ad mores delapſum; etenim nihilaliudest mos, quàm velpropenfioadaliquemaffectum,qui mosest natura lis, veldispofitio ad affectum aliquem aßuetudinecontracta, qui est mos moralis, & acquifitus . Hoc veròfubiunxi, ne cummododemoribus, tuncdeaffectibus argumentumfuerit, alienoex locoeorum, quenunc tractantur,cauſapeticredere tur. Reftat,utquodanteàfumpfi, unicaque ratione stri Etim LiberPrimus. 13 Etimprobaui,latiusdemonſtrem, &confirmem,fcilicetexfolo cordistemperamentoperſe, & primo mores naturalesprocede re,exeiuſque varietate variari; naturales, inquam,quoniam demorali,&acquiſito moreeafemperestretinendalibertatis nostrahypoteſis,quamfupra,nedumattestatifumus , fedetiam demonstravimus. §. Secundus. Solius cordistemperamentumadmo res per ſe, ac primoſpectare. SOLIVS ergo cordis temperamentumadmores verè,ac perse spectareprobatum anteàfuit, eoquod corestsubiectum affectuum,&propenfionum, acdiſpoſitionum adeffectus,in Strumentumqueprimum. Rationem nunc explico,ac dilato . Primoautemrepetendumestexfuperioribustemperamentum cordis, quodnunc dicitureffefecundum partes eiusfolidas, ac Spirituscomplantatos,namfecundumeiufmodipartes,acfpiri tus erat corfubiectum, acprimumſenſiterium,instrumentum que appetitusfentientis,functio autem quæque animalisnon Functiocor perturbatur , nec permutatur ob corporis alterationem, nifi poris quo- exvariationeſuimetinſtrumentiperſe , ac primo ,quodindu- betur . Etionepatet . Nonalteraturſenſus viſus obalterationemcor poris, eiusquetemperamentiperfe, &primo, nifi extempera mento oculi mutato , velquoquomodoſenſorioipſo viſusalte rato,necfenfusauditus, nifiex auditorij , fenfitorijquepermuta tione,idedegustu,odoratu, tactuquedixeris; nonperturbatur autemoperatio alicuiusfenfus ex alteriuspartis, corporisque Senſorijperturbatione, nifiob confenfum,&fecundario,quate nusnempèexlafione eiufmodipartis confenfu quopiamſenſo rium ipfum vitiatur,aut laditur. Pariter ergo mores, pro ptur 14 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. propenfionesnon variantobalterationem corporis,nifiobalte rationemcordisprimo,etperſe,exaccidentitamen,fecunda rioque etiamaliarumpartium temperamentummorum varie tatemfacit,utadcordis alterationempertingit, exempligra tia,thoraxcarnofus adaudaciaminclinat,quatenus caroenus lo ci calorefuo calorem cordis obauget. Atfi nibilindetempera mentumcordispermutaretur , alterareturque, nullam quoque morumdifferentiamfaceret. ; 1 §. Tertius . Variarumartuumtemperamentumſepè nonſpectareadmores. L Expoſitofundamento, &exillis, queanteaquoquedixi mus,fit,uttemperamentum artuum(deinfito loquor,quod confpicuum eft)ad moresnonſpectet,utplurimum; etenim ne queadcordis temperamentumpertingit,utplurimum,cum ne queilliplerumquerefpondeat, &aßimiletur,nequeenimtem peramentorefpondetinfluenti,quodexcordeprafertimemanat. Probauimusexemplo ,feùexpofitione Antonij , t) Dolobella, Nortmanus Rogerius nucconfirmoidemex Rogerio NortmanorūsApuliędomino, ex Alphonius AlphonsoAragonioRegeNeapolitano, &Carolo Emanuelenüc Carolus E Aragonius , Subaudia Duce, quidiſparislīgècorporature,permultutamen manuelfimi funtfimiles, omnesenim acutoingenio, benignoque,&fortes, lesmoribus, &bellicofi illifuerunt, &bic eft. Attamen Rogerius fuital corporatura to, &craffo corpore,Alphonsus Statura mediocri,Carolus Ema nuelestinfra mediocritatem ,&gibbofitate nonnibillaborat. Artusergofuo infitotemperamentononpertinguntfuaptena tura, ac reflexu adcor uſque. Quomodotamenexillismorum indiciumfumaturaPhiſiognomis,ſumiquepoffit;fumi autem àconformationepotius, quamàtemperamento,intelligemusin fra 15 fracapitulofeptimo, quidquidfitconformatiofimul,inparte Phisiognomica,ſcilicetlibroquinto,&fextohuiusquartapar tistradam uberius... §. Quartus. Quæpartesſuo temperamentocordis temperamentumexconſenſuafficiant .- VTautemartusnonfuaptènaturaadcordis usque tempe ramentumpertingunt, ita vifcera, cerebrum præfertim, t ) heparillucusqueinfluunt,refluuntové,heparquidem, utfan guinemſuotemperamentofrigidum, calidum végignit,quipo ſteainfluensincor,ipſum afficit, & materiam quoque spiri tuumgenerandorumfrigidioremiusto , autcalidioremfuppedi tat,undespirituspariterfrigidiores, calidioresvéfatticordis aut incendunt calorem, autrefrangunt . Coles, coleique ma- Quæ partes gnumcumcordeconfenfumobtinent, utAristotelesfateturde corporisha magnú Part.animal. cap. ult. texperientiaipſadocet. Exectienim cumcorde bomines valdèeffeminantur &voce,&ore, plerunque confenfum. animo, ac moribus. VndèNarſetis virtuseòadmirabiliorfuit, C quoeratEunuchus. Varia cordis temperamenta, &differentia. Incordeconfideranturprimæ,&fe A cundæqualitates, & figura. TEMPERAMENTA variacordis, wariamqueeiusconfti tutionemdiftinguamus,quiquemoresfingillatim eamfe quantur varietatem,declaremus. Verum remanteaindica uimus 1 16 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. uimuslibrofecundo deaffectibus: idinpræfentiafolùmexigi tur, utplaniusſeparemus,quetumconiunximus,atquecon fudimus. Incordeergoconfiderareprimòpoffumus qualitates primas,prefertim actiuas , caliditatem , & frigiditatem: he auteminduplicifuntdifcrimine; aliæenimex quatuorelemen torumcommixtioneprodeunt,quafcilicetſubſtantia cordisest mixtumquodpiam ; aliæeiufmodimixtoſuperueniunt,utiam constituiturcorpus, acprincipium animale,estquecalor inna tus, quidicitur;præcipuumque,acprimariuminstrumentumeft. anime,fecundoloco confiderande occurrunt qualitatesfecun dadenfitas raritas,durities, mollities, craffities, tenuitas; ter tiolocofigura, acmagnitudo,paruitasques beenimfingulędif ferentia, ac complicate differentias varias morumfaciunt. Galenustamenfolùmprimas qualitatespropofuit, ac confi. derauit. §. Secundus. Corſempercalidum,licetaliquando frigidum vocetur. CORDISfubstantiaestcaroduraexmultiplicibusfibris conflata, mufculisquidem perſimilis,atdifferens tamenperſpi cuis differentijs . ItaGalen.cap.8.lib.6. deVfupartium. Eft quidemdifferentiafibrarum,quamibiprofequitur, atestetiam differentia carnis; minusfiquidem rubra videtur,quamcaro musculorum . Caroitaque,cumfitſubstantiacordis,erittem peramentiperfeipfamcalidi. Caroenimſuapte naturacalida, utafſferit Galenuslib.1. deTemp.cap. ult. Caro,inquit, multi fanguinis,&calida. Hacitaquerationecorfemperestcalidum, calidiuscere Corfemper undeGalenusin Arte Medic. dicitcor, vtcunquefueritna bro. turafrigidiffimum, calidioremtamenſempertemperaturamha bere LiberPrimus. 17 bere calidiſſimocerebro , nempècum cor,nuncfrigidum, nunc calidumdicitur, nonfimpliciterid intelligamus ,fedcollatum cumseipso,atquein generecordis; eo modoenimcoreft,hocfri gidum,illudcalidum,ſcilicet minus,magisvécalidum, quam feratnaturacordis . Quorum itaquetemperamentum vniuer ſum,adeoqueetiammaſſaſanguineaabinitioconceptus eftfan guineum,autbiliofumcordis,in illismixtio, accrafiseritcali dior; namfanguis, autbilisexcelletin mixtione. Quod,fime lancholicum,autpituitofumtemperamentumfueritcordis,tum crafisfrigidior; etenimfucciillifrigidi mixtioneminfuaspar tesproportionetrabent . Sitergo hacprimaexmixtionecordis caliditas,cumfubstantia cordis exmaſſaconcreuerit,inquafan guis, autbilispræstiterit. Contra verò, cum excefferintpitui ta,&melancholia , itempro humoreeorumdem dominio, aut ficcum,authumidumcorerit. Secundacaliditas estinnata priorifcilicetmixtioniſuperinducta,quemaior, minorové eſſe potest:fiplurima,corcalidumdicitur,fi mediocriscortempera tum,fiinframediocritatem,frigidum vocatur. Haccaliditas innata, cumintemperamentumexmixtione calidumincidit , magisintenditur, præfertimfificcumquoquefuerit; cuminfri gidum,remittitur. Quide cordis temperamentodifputantnon nulli, ut Andreas Laurentiuslib.9. Anotom.. non di Stinguentes temperamentumcordis,quàmixtumest,atempe ramentocordis,queparsanimalis,imòprincipiumanimaleest, omniaconfundunt. De qualitatibusſpiritus complantati. SECVNDAS cordisqualitatesiamenumerauimus,adij qualita ciamus folumqualitates refpectu spirituscomplantati; cum B enim : : 100 :  Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. fpiritus . enimcalorinnatusfit velilleipſeſpiritus, velarctißimèiun Differentiæ gantur, differentiafpiritusfunt differentijspartisfolidæfub texenda. Spiritusergo veleftperfpicuus, velopacus,denfus, velrarus,clarus, aut obfcurus,purus, autimpurus. De figura, &magnitudine,paruita teque cordis. FIGVRA cordisconicaeft,rationemAnathomiciafferre nituntur , quamtamennon videtur mihi pænitus aßequutus Galenus. Verumdiſcußioreinonpertinetadhunclocum.Fa Etumtamenadcontinendum caloremnatiuum,nèexpiret , cre dis conica. dereoportet, unde &coni vertexdenfißimusest, velutietia Figura cor. oportuit , cumcraffities cordisin arctioremfitumcontrabatur. Eftetiameafiguraexpeditioradmotum , quotolliturcor, F fubindeconcidit; minusenimlaboratparsattollens, cumminus inest ponderis partifublata,itaetiam venticulorum cauitas cogitur, queangustiaadmaioremcordiscaliditatem pertinet; Paruocordi idemenim calor,ut dicitAristoteles, magiscalefacit minorem , caliditas. maiorineft quam maioremlocum, ) beceadem ratio (utadmagnitudi nemcordis, &paruitatemtranfeamus)facit,ut cormaius frigidiusfit, &corminuscalidius, utexAriftotele antea retulimus, ubietiampauidioraeffeani Quæ auda ciora&quę timidiora fint anima lia . malia,queexcordemagno, audaciora queexcordeparuo conſtant, vidi mus. Hisita distinctis,iam fingillatim,quimoresſe quantur,fubij ciamus. Qui LiberPrimus. 19 Quimoresfequanturvariascordisdifferentias. Dicta Galeni. : Отnumeratisincordedifferentijs,nuc moresexillispen dentes confideremus . Galenusfolumcaliditatem,frigidi tatem, humiditatem, &ficcitatemcomplexus, mores,easfin gulas, complicatascomplectentes, profequutus eft in bunc modum. Sicorcalidumingenerecordisfit,audaciaconfequitur, ſequaturva cipitatio,&furibundatemeritas adfunt. Quibus corfrigidum peramenta Qui mores actuoſitas; quodfimultùmcaliditateexcefferit corsirepre riacordiste est,funttimidinatura, &fine audacia, /ſegnes. Corficcius habetiram,nonpromptamquidem,fedferam,&quænonfa cilèfedariqueat. Corhumidumprocliuesadiramfacit,fedqui facilèſedantur.Hæcdefimplicibusqualitatibuscordis,decom plicatis autem hæcfubiungit. Quibus corcalidum,&ficcum est, illifuntfcilicet actuoſi,promptiadagendum, iracundi, ce leres,impudentes, & morumtyrrannicorum; etenimfuntin irampræcipites, necfacilèplacantur. Quibuscor calidum, & humidum,nonfuntilliferi,fediniramtantùmprocliues. Quibusautemcorfrigidum, & humidum, non funtilli audaces ,fedtimidi, &ſegnes. Qui bus corfrigidum, & ficcum, minimè illi apti, ac promptiadiram; atfi fuerint coacti, iram reti nent , & fer uant. B 2 1 §. Se exGaleno. i : 20 Deconiect. cuiuſquemorib.&c. §. Secundus. Quiddeeademrequidamexrecen tioribus dicat . QUIDAM exrecetioribusita diftinguit;ficordistempe ramentüfueritcalidum,infactisestaudax,in verbisafper, in dando tenax, obstinatus ,ſuperbus,iracundus,luxuriofus: fi frigidum,homoest quafipigerinfactis, in verbis nonbenè placidus,leuiterpauidus,raròluxuriatur,niſiſitperaccidens : Hæceftopi-ficorhumidum,est multumtimidus,pauidus, hebes, nio cuiufda Michaelis Scoti. debi lisinlaborando:ficorficcum, &calidumfuerit, citò mouetur adiram, iracundus manet,&obstinatus:fifuerithumidum, frigidum,nonfacilèirafcitur,&citòiramremittit. §. Tertius . Cor eſſeſiccum,ſiſiccitatem ſpecte mus, quæeſtprima qualitas , ateſſepoſſe humidum ratione humiditatisalicuius ,quæfit ſecundaquali tas, qualis eſt mollitics . PLACET mihicumAriftotelepluresattenderecordisdif ferentias, acdifcriminapluraexquatuorprimarumqualitatum ualetincor complicatione, ut anteafecide affect. in comm. Verumnon totamibiremfumprofequutus,nuncitaquepleniuspertracte Humiditas mus. Idautemprecedat,intemperatura cordisnonpoffèhu nunquapre miditatem unquampræualere,dicohumiditatem,quæeftpri de. maqualitas , etenimdefinitur humidum eiufmodi,quodfacilè alienoterminoterminatur,difficilefuo : at veròcor,utcorpus compactum,&terminatum,fuamubique figuram retinet , proindequeficcumearatione eft,fecundumtamenhumidi spe cies,ideftfecundasqualitates,quæ adhumiditatemrediguntur, fecundum LiberPrimus. 21 Secundumquafdamhumidumquidemestſempercor,ſecundum alias veròestmodòficcum, modò humidum. Udumefthumi dispecies , &corest udumfuaptenaturaob influentemſan guinem . At estdifferentia aliaduri , &mollis,quorumillud estficci , hochumidi exAriftot. corautem durumquidem ,ſi cumalijscarneispartibus conferatur, estattamenaliuddurius, aliud mollius,utingenerecordis. Quodergocoreft mollius,ea rationeesthumidum,quoddurius,ficcumeft, &hancprefer timficcitatem, & humiditatemforſanrespexitGalenus,quas Ariftoteles aptißimèproprijs nominibus duritiem, &molli tiem pro communibus vocauit , quam ego appellationem fequar . §.Quartus. Qui moresſequanturcaliditatem cordis. COR calidum,dumcaloremipſumperſeconfideramus,ab ftrahendoaqualitatibuspaßiuis , mollitie, acduritie , importat intentionemcupiditatis, ac vehementiam, utexillis, que de amoreantea, &cupiditatediximus, conftat . Cupiditas verò cumferaturinbonum,feuinid,quodcupiens,bonumreputat, pro varietateiudicijin varia etiamobiectafertur. Undè tem peramentumhuiufmodicordisnon determinat animaladhoc , illudvédefiderium,fedaddefiderium vehemenstantùm,obie Etafanènaturalia,quippè,quebonainstinctuipſonaturæiudi cantur,defideranturſemperab huiufmodihominibusplus, mi nusvé,tamenproinstrumentorumadeapertinentiumſtructu ra,& aptitudine maiore,minorevé;nempèſiinſtrumenta ge nerationis vehementerfintineamconcitata, calorcordis ve hementiam tùm cupiditatis venereafouet. Si delicatusſen fusfit instrumentum comeftionis, eiusparitercupiditatis ve B 3 hemen Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c.  hementiamincitabit, atfipro confuetudine, &locidifciplinain honoresincumbantcommuniterhomines, calorcordisambitio nem promouebit,reddetque vehementem: fiindiuitiasferat difciplina Ciuitatis,ut Ianue nunc, & Florentia,tùm vebe menterinearumacquifitionem inſudabit,acresquevias & mo dostentabit, non æquètamenillisparcet,utfrigidumdeinceps temperamentumfolet. Concludamusitaquecalorcordis vehe mentiamcupiditatuminducit, adhuiustamen,illiusvécupidi tatis vehementiam,aliundèdeterminatur. Secundolocoindu cit calorcordisaudaciam,nonquidemperſeprimò,fedquatenus operando,ſenſoriumipſumintendit. Intenſione veròcordisto } nus, actenoranimi, qui spes eft,&audacia, utanteadeclara uimus, confiftit . Quodfitantaeſſet mollitudo cordis , utca lor tenfionemnullam eius operaripoßet,nonetiam adduceret audaciam . Vtrumautemtantaeffèpoßitmollitudocordis,nec né, nondisputo,atſi eſſetnulla,inductamiriàcaloreaudaciam affero . Patet veròexnaturaaudaciæ, quæesttenfioanimi, ac tenor,nempètenſio, queest coniunctiſcilicetfenfiterij, utani mam unàcumparte corporeacontinet . At qui fieri potest, utfittenfio abſquetenfione? Quimoresſequanturcordis caliditatem cumduritie . Cor veròcalidum, t)durumcupiditates habet vehe mentes ratione caliditatis ipfiusperſe,&rationepreterea,qua induriore eacordisſubſtantiamagiscogitur, adeoqueintendi tur . Habetquoque permanentescupiditates rationeduritiei, nempècalorineaimpenfiusfuumretinet gradum, &intenſio nem, Minushiceftinblandas, acemollentium voluptatum cupiditates propenfus,attamenfiquis huiufmodicrafis amore cuiuspiamincendatur, diutius, &firmiusamoremferuat; non iseniminfuſumamorempropendit, vagum,fedin vnicӣ, )constantem. Noniniuriaitaque Fabulatores,& Poetano ftrifuisHeroibus, ) erroribus unicum uniusfemine,acHe roine amoremtribuere, ut Amadiſio Oriana,Rotolando,An gelice,uthos ex multisfolosmemorem. Ateademcrafisha betinfupertenorem, actonumanimi infractum; namdurities ipsaperſetonus ,actenorquidamest,undè vixinhisanimus collabitur maximis,& urgentibuspericulis.Talem animiha bitumrepræfentatinVlyffè Homerus,dumbærensilleficui,ex pectauit,quousque charybdis rurfus vomeret absorptam nauim Perpetuo-autem herebam,doneceuomuitcontra Malum,&carinamiterum Ira eidem viro &prompta,&pertinaxadest, quamireduri tiem, &pertinaciamobijcitpenes HomerumHectorAchillis Certeenimtibiferreusintus animus . Huiccrafiimmites moresaccommodantur, &obftinatio. H.Sextus . Qui moresſequanturcrafimeandem ca lidi cordis , & duri , accedentevarietateſequentium qualitatum . QVOD,fihuictemperamento calidicordis,& duri ac cefferit denfitas cordis, craffitiesque , & porofitas, tuminex tremo exceſſuſunt mores , quosillitribuimus. Denfitas enim accedensduritiei magiscohibet, &continet calorem,ne difflet, quamduritiesſola; fiquidemduraeßepoffuntporosa,utmul ta ligna. Licet verò in animalibecrenonæquefeiungantur, B 4 fuapte Poetæ cur tribuatHe roibus vni cum amo rem. 24 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. Suaptetamennaturapoffuntfeiungi: &articulatio ea cordis, Cap.4.lib.2 cuiusmeminitAristot. videturadraritatempertinere, &po de partibus rofitatemincommiſſuris ipfis,quæ representantur . Verba funtPhilofophi ; Sane articulatiora corda, quæ ſenſu meliusvalent,inarticulatiora eorum,queſenſuhebe tiori, vtfuum . Rurfusdenfumcor,acdurumpotesteffe craßum, &tenueinparietibus,tumambiente,tum mediaſtino cordis . Craffitiestamenadtenoremfacit;feipfumenim magis fustinebit,quodcraffumest,acdurumingenerecarnis,quam , quoddurumest, &fubtile. Faciliushocinterdumcollabitur , etiamfidenfumfuerit . Plus etiamcalorisinamplioremole , qualiscraffa eft,quamin minore,qualisesttenuis,dispergetur, acradicabitur . Acce Acceditpoftremò remoparuitas cordis,fcilicetpro portioneanimalis,queparuitasin cauitate ventriculorum cor dis attenditur. Cumenim conceptaculum eiusmodieſt magnum, calorcordis minuitur, eò quodinmagno, &paruodomicilio, utdicitAriftot. tantundemignisnonæquecalefacit,ſed minus inmagno. Inquoergohomineomneseiufdemconditionesagge rantur,is eft audacißimus,irefera, cupiditatumquoque exar dentium: fuaptetarmennatura mollium voluptatumhaudfe Etator vehemens. Dico non vehementemſectatorem, nam aliquatenusſectari est natura : & efferatißima animantes in Veneremfatis temporibusferuntur. Incommiferationisaffe Etumnonadmodumprocliuis: atpronusinferitatem, fi fpiri tuscomplantatiturbulentia,acimpuritasaccefferit, dequa po Stea. Quod,ficum calore,acduritieiungaturraritas, acfubti litasparietumcordis, acamplitudoconceptaculorum, remitten turcumcordis calore, ac tenorisperfeuerantiaproportionequo que vehementiacupiditatis, & audacia. Cumveromnia cumcalore, &duritie confpirant,fittandem eorumcrafis, qui corhirfutumhabent, ut Simonille Bononienfis,dequoantea Simon Bo LiberPrimus. &AriftomenesMeſſeniusexPliniolib.11.hift.cap.37. §. Septimus. Qui moresſequanturcorcalidum, &molle. Cor calidum, &molleſequunturcupiditatesblande,ac venerceprefertim; mollisenimeſt Venus , &mollem exigit animum. AptèTibullusadamantem amicam. Nontuafuntduro precordia ferro, Vinctanecintenero stattibicordefilex. Veneriomnes aptum, accommodatumquetemperamentum diuinanteffe calidum,& humidum: ratio veròetiaminprom ptuest, eaquenon una. Primaautemeft,quodcupiditasve nereaillipræfertim inſidet, qui maximèfactusestadvolupta temeandempercipiendam : atvoluptasea refoluensanimum , potiffimumpercipiturabhabentibus cormolle, etenim eiufmodi corpræfertim, & maximèreſoluitur,dilataturquecötraquam cordurum . Procorellario veròexeaipfarationefit, utcupi ditates quoquecupedioſa eidemtemperamento quadrent, nam temperamětumidipſummaximèperciperenatum voluptatem eandemobrationemeandem. Secundaratioeft,quoniamſper macalidumest, & humidum,adeiusitaquegenerationeval dèconducet temperamentumfimilein principio. Qui veròco piofifuntſpermatis, in Venerem etiamprocliuesfuntperſe, impetunature; ex accidenti enimaliatemperamēta eadempro penfioneferripoffe, ) ante vidimus, &posteadicemus. Hocidemtemperamentumincurarumomniumabiectionem propensos redditeumenim curaintenfionemſentiterij exigat , mollities cordis intenfioninonipfaperſeaccommodatur; cum tamen noniéfisha buitcorhir futum . 26 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. tamennonfuerittanta mollitudo ex calorecoacta, quitefionem gignerepoteft,utdiximus: potesttumhoctemperamentumco ſequi actuoſitas, in occafionibusfaltem alicuius momenti.Affe Etuscommiferationiseidemtemperamentocongruitobmollitië, utlaxaturin commiferationeanimus , atque emollitur uſque inlacrymas. Effeverò moreshuiustemperamenti,qualesdefcri pfimus, fuadetfimilitudo ætatisadolefcentia . Cumenimfitil la calida,&humida,licetnon æquehumida,acpueritia, ineof demmores propendit, ut poftea intelligemuscumdeætatibus agemus. Imberbis iuuenis tandem custode remoto Gaudetequis, canibusque, &apricigraminecampi: i Careusin vitiumflecti, monitoribusafper: Vtiliumtardusprouiſor,prodigus aeris , Sublimis, cupidusque, & amatarelinquerepernix. Lib. 3.Eth. Aristotelesprætereaillud deiuueneex Homerofufcipit; appe cap.11. tereipfumflorensque cubile, & valdeconcupifceretribuit,ſed &protinusquiefcere; habereenimacutascupiditates,atnong consistentes, 2.Rhet. cap. deiuuenib. Verumde moribus iuue numinfra,cumdeatatibusagetur.. §. Octauus. Eiufdemtemperamentimores acce dentibus alijs qualitatibus cordis, &magnitudine, acparuitate eiufdem . Cvm acceditautemtemperamento eidem cordis raritas , t) tenuitas , atque magnitudo,ideft laxitas ventriculorum cordis,tumpropenfioin curarumabiectionemcrefcit admodum; namraritas , & tenuitas, &amplitudocummollitie ineptius adhuccor adintenfionemreddunt. Contracraffitudo, &den fitas, LiberPrimus . 27 fitas, &paruitasintenſionideferuiunt. Pariteritaqueveliqui cordis mollis moresaut crefcunt, aut minuuntur; exquibuspa tet dictumGalenieſſedistinguendum , ) declarandum ,dum fimpliciterdicit calorem cordis reddereactuosos; nempefifor maliterloquamur,caloripſeperſeadagendum disponit : atſi, quodreipsa accidit, & uſu venit, ſpectemus; calorcum mol litiecordis iunctus adotiofam, voluptariamque vitamducit, nonadactuofam. §.Nonus. Annectunturſuperioriconſiderationi temperamentorumcalidorum cordis differentięſpi ritus complantati. SVBIICIO demumhiccalidistemperamentisquas diffe rentias morum obtrudantdifferentia spirituscomplantati,non quidemcaliditatis, &frigiditatis ; etenimcalor innatus cordis iam confideratusidemestcumcalore spiritushuius, veleftidë met fpiritus : atdifferentiehicconfiderandefuntclaritas , ob ,puritas,impuritas,turbulentia,nitiditas,craffities,te nuitas . Spiritus obfcurus ,&impurus, ſpeciesrerum conce ptarum,præfertimintentiones,quas vocantnonſenſatas, de tortas , & vitiataspercipit, undeſubinimicitia , &contra rietatisrepresentatione potius,quamcontra percipit: clarus , &purus,utamicus,et gratus,undehicad amorem ,& charitatemcommunemhominumdiſponitur; illeadodium:que inodiumpropenfio , fi cordi calido, &duro iungaturProcu ſtis, & Scinis inditferitatem,præfertimficraffus spiritusfue rit; craffus enim fpiritus diuretinet ſpecieminfixam, attenuis breui. Quocirca,ficraßities cumduro, & calidotemperamen to nectatur, & cumobfcuritate,acimpuritate spirituum,adfe ritatem 28 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. ritatemfummamdifponit. Redditur hicquoque adrerücogni tionemparumaptus. Contraſpiritusclarus, &nitidusadco gnitionemparatanimum, & rerumhonestarum, &pulchra rumpræfertim; undeinſtinctusquoqueadhonores,acdignita tes eſtſedes: quiinſtinctus,ficum calore, duritie cordisiun gatur,nonfacilèparëadmittit,&adtyrannidemadspirat: ac Superbiæ omninòestfundamentum. Tarquinius Superbus(ita credo) eiufmodi erattemperamenti, & uxoreiusTullia,que velper cadauerpatrisadregnumtetendit. Cumcordecalido, mollifpirituum claritas,&nitiditas, actenuitasfacitquide ingenium perspicax, &celer: at intenſionisexigue; ideòque nonaptumad curas , &adnegotia. Quod,fispiritusfuerit crafſus , ob tenaciorem impreſſionem rerum cogiturhomo eas diutius intendere ; &hincquoquefitpræalijscaufis, ut ve restintRei Qui aptio- rumfitilludThucid.lib.3. Hebetiores , quamacutiores , Publ.admi- vt plurimum melius Rempublicam adminiftrant; niſtrandæ. Niceta. namhebetesexcraffitie spirituum,acutiextenuitatefunt. Eademclaritas, &nitiditas spiritus cum calore , & molli tie cordis adliberalitatem inclinat;cumcharitate enim, ) com miferationeeaiungitur : at cum calore, duritiecordisadma gnificentiampotius; eminentia enimquærit. In temperamen to molli maior est propenfio ad iuftitiamſui ipfiuserga alios , quaminduro : atinduro propenfiocontramaioreft adfeuerio remcustodiamiuftitiæ aliorum erga alios,adcoercenda ſcilicet aliorumcrimina. Andronicus,quifuitiniu ſtiſſimus vfurpator,acpredatorpotiusimperij vitaque nepotis , tamen continebat miruminmodumfubiectos , &ministros in officio . Detemperamentocordisfrigido. FRIGIDITAS cordis, contra quamcaliditasipfaperſe refrangit cupiditates,licet ex accidentiaugeat obſenſumegeſta tis,quemindit. Hanc obcauſamſenescupidifuntdiuitiarum, t)auaritiamaugetſenectus,quoniamlapſumviriumidætatis magispercipit : cupiditates præterea,queextimore pendent, intendunturafrigiditate,quippeque timoremauget. Itemque cupiditatesfuntin medelam interioris morſus,qualem melan choliciexperiuntur,ſuſcipiuntexfrigiditateincrementum. Ea rummeminitcupiditatumAristot. 7. Ethic. cap. ult.in melan cholicisque reponit . Ceterumcupiditasipfaperſe,&ratione Lib.r.deA fuimotuscumcaliditate nectitur, utanteadictumfuit. Qua more c. 15. dranthæcillis, qua Ariftotel. deetatibusdicit,iuuenesfcilicet 2.Rhetor. valdeconcupifcere , licet nonconstanter: atſenescontraneque valde amare, neque valdeodiſſe, auarostameneffe, &vite cupidos,inextremispotiffimüdiebus,quiacupiditas eftrei, que abeft, & cuius reiindigentesfunt,eampotiffimumconcupifcut. Ita ibi Philofophus.Ethæcdecupiditate: attimorem, actimi ditatem afrigiditatependerenemoeft,quineget. Facit timor degenerem; undeinliuorem quoquepropenfum; exijs, que anteade liuoreinuidiaquediximus. §. Vndecimus. De temperamento frigido com plicato cum alijsdifferentijs . SI corfueritfrigidum, ) molle,tùmintenditurtimidi tas ; etenim ob mollitudinemfacile corflacefcit, & concidit; maximè verò cum accedit ventriculorum laxitas ; augetur enim 30 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. enim earationefrigiditas,&remiffio, atque laxatiocordis, in quatimorisconsistit motus. In commiferationem eademtem peries vaidepropendit, cum in miferationemducat alienemi feriæfacilisfenfus, cumfibieam acciderepoffecredat,utAri ftotel. docet 2. Rhet. quifenfus cordismollitiei,&quæopinio frigiditaticongruit . Laxaturquoquein commiferationemcor, qui motus mollitiei aptatur: querulum infuperhominem,t Lib.4.Tufc. mæroriobnoxiumfacit, velutidefinitmæroremCiceroagritu dinemflebilem; infletum enim efteacrafisprona. Cupiditates venereas, &ambitiofasnonadmodumacreshabetrationefri goris, ) parumconstantes ratione mollitiei. In auaritiam propenditobfrigiditatem, licetnonadeò tenaxfit in dando ob ? .. commiferationem. Atcorfrigidum , &durumin auaritiam tenacem inclinat : cupiditates babetpermanentioresobduritie, nontamen acres admodumobfrigiditatem. Timidos quoque reddit minustamen, quam cor molle,quia nonadeòflaccefcit cordurum, atque molle , unde aliquemidcircotenorem præ illo feruat . Atdubitatiooccurrit, cumenim in denfiorefubiecto qualitates intenduntur, cordurum , &denſumfrigidius erit , quam molle,ergo maioremquoquetimiditatem concitabit. Re ſpondeotamennoneffècordisfrigiditatempofitiuam,fedpris uatiuam , fcilicet caliditatem minorem , quamferatexquifitus cordis Status: at reipſa corfemperestcalidum; calorſcilicet in eo prestatfrigori,quantumcunquefrigidumponatur . Sub iungo pratereafrigusfaceretimorem ratione cauſe, nonratio neeffentiæ timoris: frigusfcilicetfacit, utmalumpotius,quă bonumexpectethomo : at cafus, &exolutiocordis, animique, inquoconsistit timor,ex mollitie,nonexfrigoreperſependet . Quarationefit, utfrigus , &mollitudofimulfint caufa adequatapropenfionisintimiditatem . Etfatisfithæcdixiffe de LiberPrimus. : 31 de temperamentiscordisexcedentibus, autdeficientibus . Ca teraquisquepotestexfededucerenondifficili negotio .Temperamentumcordis eucra ton&fimpliciter , &fecundumalteramqualitatem . Cvm autemcorfueritincalore, duritie, mollitieque ,t cateris qualitatibus,& conditionibus,acdifferentijs mediocre , &eucraton, estetiamadoptimammorumdifpofitionemfactü, t) accommodatum. Cuminaliquibusqualitatibus , v.g.in calore excefferit , at induritie, ac mollitie moderatum , admo res,quiex calore excedentes,eritpropenfus : atad mores , qui ex duritie , & mollitie mediocresſebenèhabebit. Itemqui cor moderati caloris habet,atduritiei excedentis, is mores excalo re profluenteshabet moderatos, at procedentesexduritie ,in exceſſuſecundumproportionemduritiei. Licet veròfoleat ex moderatoimmoderato, & exrectoobliquumcognofci,utdicit Ariftoteles, tameninconfequutioneaffectuum, utilliamplius elucentin exceffu ,ita quoque ex temperamentis excedentibus eorum illustrior eft nexus, &confequutio. Despiritibus, &humoribus,idesteorumtempera mentis, ac moribus confequentibus . CaputSeptimum. §. Primus . De Spiritibus. Spirituumfcilicet influentium, achumorumcrafesposttem peramentumcordisexplicemus: verumpræmonuimus iam non  Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. noneſſequicquamadijciendumillis , quæ de ſpiritibus antea di ximus,iditaque unumestſubnotandum,fi spiritusin cor in fluentesrespondeant temperamento cordis , mores (naturales fcilicet)egregiètaleserunt, quales cordistemperamentumfua ptenatura promittit , &indit: atfirepugnent, refrangentur mores,&fivis influentium spirituumexcefferitefficaciam temperamenticomplantatorum, &folidæpartiscordis,contra rij erunt mores, atque corinclinetipfumperſe;nempeficorca lidum,atſpiritus influentesfrigidi, adeò utipforumfrigiditas caliditatemexcedat cordis, homopro audaceeritin timiditatem pronus. Contraquefiincorfrigidum fpiritusinfluant calidi , &idemetiamdereliquisdifferentijs,que caduntinfpiritusdi cendum . Atquifieri poteft, ut incor calidum spiritus in fluantfrigidi,fiin cordeipſo,ineiusquefinibus fpiritusgene rantur,nempèinfinuſinistro? Refpondeoexqualitateinfluen tisfanguinisfieripoffe, utlicetcorfit calidum,tamen Spiritus frigidiores cordegenerentur exfrigiditate confluxifanguinis : pariterfifanguisadmodumcalidusincorfrigidiusculumfluat, ſpiritusgenerabunturcalidiores ,quæferatcaliditasipfa perſe cordis . Accedunt ſpiritusanimales,quiex cerebrorefluunt, corfit calidun animalesiamfacti,in cor,adeò utexcerebrifrigiditatecorre frigeretur,feutemperetur . Exqualitate etiaminſpirati aeris Spirituumincordegenerandorumqualitates varieexiftunt. §. Secundus. DeHumoribus. Dehumoribusetiamnoneft,curamplius multòdiſſeramus Ultraea,quæ anteadiximus, lib.2. de affect. cap. s. licet enim ibibilis nonmeminerimus, &pituita,attamenfanguiscalidus, &tenuisbiliofumſanguinemfignificabat, &frigidus ,&te nuis LiberPrimus. 33 1 nuispituitam: de melancholia pofteatotdiximus, utfrustra effetfermonem deearepetere. Vtergo humoreseiufmodiin cor influent, mores alterabuntpro alterationecordis,nempèſi excalfecerintcor, admorescaloris comitesdisponent, &fi re frigerauerint,pariterinclinabuntadmoresfrigoris affeclas:fi queinfluenteshumoreseiufdemfuerintcum cordetmperamen ti, moresirrefractiprodibunt : atfitemperamenti contrarijre frangenturmores, proqueexceſſu aut cordis,authumoris,ipe quoque velcordirefpondebunt, velhumori. Inquibusitaque fuerit cor calidum, acfrigidumhepar, moresnon erunt aque audaces, atque cordiscaliditaspofceret,fedrefrangeturaudacia profrigiditatefanguinis exhepate affluentis: quifiminusfri gidus,fitquecalidum cor,præstabitquidemaudaciatimiditati, tot tamenrefractagradibus,quotinferetinfluxafrigiditas: at fifrigidiorfanguis, quam calidum cor, mores proaudacibus erunttimidi; nempèpræualebittimiditasaudaciæ refracta, ta menprogradibuscaloriscordis. Ethacdetemperamento. An nectiturhuicconfiderationiea,quæ estdeconformationepartiū, licet enimnoningrediaturconformatiocauſasmorum,fedpotius Specteradfigna,tamenex nexu,quemcuminstinctuinditoha bet,eft intercaufas morumreponenda. Eruntitaclara,que an teadehacipfa conformationediximus. Deconformationepartium. Cap. Octauum. §. Primus. Differentia inter conformationem partium,&earumtemperamentum. CONFORMATIO partium edatemperamentodiffert,quod temperamentumpropriefitfimilariumpartium,confor- C matio 34 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. matiodißimilarium; dumenimducituraforma,quæeftfcilicet Jarem con quartaſpecieiqualitatis, diciturque abAriftotelecirca unum quodqueconftansforma,afiguralatèſumptapendet, acduci Figura par- tur: figura verò ipsa perſepartemdiſſimilaremconstituit ex rem diflimi Aristotelisfententia lib. 2. depart. animal. cap. 1. Vbi cor, ce Aituit. tera fimilare,exfolafiguradißimlare pronunciat. Hoc ergo nobis in prafentiafignificet conformatiopartium. Scio equi dem, a Galenoconformationemhanclatiusaccipi lib.dediffinit. morb. cap.3. ut etiamextendituradcompofitionempartiumsi milariumexelementis, atliceatmihiinarctioremhancfignifi cationemcogere, t) maioreforfancumproprietatefignificatio nis . Erititaquein membristemperamentumrespectupartium fimilarium, exproportioneſcilicet, quaelementafimulcommi ſcentur: ateritconformatio reſpettufigura; magnitudinis,nu De diffinit. meri, morb. ſitus, poſitionisvé, utenumeratGalenusindicato proximè lib.cap. 6. §. Secundus. Nonomnemconformationem , æque ſemperatemperamentoeſſe. NEDVM autemconformationonefteademcumtempera mento partium,fednequeperpetuòa temperamentoproficifci tur, quodagnouit,t) falſus estGalen.lib.2.detemperamentis cap. 6.ubi reprehendit eos,qui nafumrefimumexhumiditate, aduncumautemexficcitatededucebant,tùmquòdnonerantea notęindiciumtemperamenti uniuerficorporis,tùm,quòd vir tusformatrix,exquaproculdubioconformatio efficitur,vide tur longèa temperamento differre, quofcilicetdato,neque ex temperamento particularipartis nascetur conformatio: at ce teraprocertoenunciat dedistinctioneformatricis virtutis,a tem 1 LiberPrimus. 35 temperamentofententiamfufpendit,licetinid magispropēdat, quòddiftinguatur. Ineafiquidem verbaconcludit. Rationa bile eſt hæc eſſe organa,formatoremalium. Atquod Galenusfubdubio admittit,nosfimpliciteraccipimus , virtu temformatricem a temperamentoeſſealiam,quodquidem ex Philofophianaturaliſupponimus,vt ibioftenfum,hictamendu plici utemurfignofatis,nifallor,efficaci. Primum,quia,ficum temperamento idem eſſet virtusformatrix, nonpoffetmaior effè differentiainter diuerforumanimalium conformationem partium, quamintertemperamenta: at multo maioreftdifferen tia,quamintertemperamentum;ergo virtusformatrixnonest idemcumtemperamento. Confequentiapatetexpermutatapro portione intereffectus,&caufas,quoniamenim,utcaufaque que adfuumeffectum,ita cauſaalia adfuum: permutatimergo, utcaufaadcaufam,itaeffectusadeffectum: aßumptum autem oftendetur , quia multa animalia accedunt adtemperamentum mediocre, v g. vitulus,homo,quetamenconformationipluri mumdifferunt. Aliudfignumeft; etenimfigura, &effigies hominumfuntpropemoduminfinite,at temperamentorumdif- Signa,qui ferentiæ,etiamfipergradus, &femigradusincedamus, mul- bus oftendi tòpauciores ; ergoconformationesnonextemperamento; adeo- mationem tur partiumdif que nequeformatrix virtuseademcumtemperamento;oporte- ferreatem ret enimdifferentias conformationumfingulasextemperamen- peramento. torumdifferentijs naſci . Inditurenimanatura conformationi partiumfuapropenfiorefluens exmembroin cor, velcordiin ſidensexmembro,inquodinfluit , indeque reflectitur, varia tur, & afficitur; adeò utparcordistemperamentuminhomi ne,cuiusgenitalespartesfuntexactè in Venerem conforma ta,multòmagisinlibidinemconcitatumfiteo,cuiuspartesea dem minusfintfactaadcoitum, velutifipropenduli admo C 2 dum De coniect, cuiuſquemorib.&c. dumteſtes adſtrictiora vaſaſpermaticalaboriofioremfaciunt Seminisconfectionem,&minoremcopiam. §.Tertius . Conformatio externorummembrorum, quarationeperſemoresindicet. QUONIAM ergoconformatiomembrorum ipfaperſe temperamentumcertumnonfignificat,quaratione moresindi cet,inuestigemusprimò, t perſe . Primòautemexlibrisde Lib. 1. cap. vitim. Lib. 1. cap. 2. partib.ani partibus animalium Ariftotelis , &exlib. de ufupartium a Galenorepetendum estpartesactionis, uſusquealicuius gratia effe constitutas. Quoniam veròactiononexfoloinſtrumento effepoteft,fedexigiturprætereafacultasinditaanime, &pro penfio,acbærens inſtinctus adaccommodatamactionem , ideò exdifpofitionepartisadactionem, uſumque aliquemconiecta re, ac colligerelicet facultatem,acpropenfioneminditam adcon gruenteminstrumentariæeiufmodiipartiactionem, v.g. alam datamanimalialicui videmus:ala veròeſtinſtrumentum vo landi,idcircòineßeeiufmodialato animalipropenfionem, &in ftinctumad volatumplus,minusvépro alarumrobore,atque ad reliquum corpusproportione colligimus: pariterpartes ad pugnandumfacteanimalpugnaxindicant,ſiqueroboreexcel Lib. 3. de lant,pugnacitatemquoque excellentemdemonftrant . Aristo mal.cap.1. telemaudiamus. Partes enim, inquit, quæ ad inuaden dum, autaddefendendumſpectant,quæqueanatu ra ijs tribuuntur, quæ aut fola , aut præ ceteris vti poffint, &quibusiusvtendipræcipua,hæcpræcipuè armisdotatafunt,vtaculeo,calcari,cornu, dente , &fi quidaliudeiufmodi fit, cumque mares robu ſtiores, magisqueanimoſiſint, ideoqueautfolis ijs, aut 37 autmeliusijspartes eiuſmodidatæ funt. Galenusquo- Lib.i.dev LiberPrimus. queeandemconſenſioneminterorgana corporis ,&facultates, fupar.cap.2 ac propenfionesanime agnofcit ; dicitenim Omnibus verò aptumeſt corpus animæmoribus, & facultatibus, equoquidemfortibusvngulis , atqueiubaornatum, atqueinſtructum; eſtetenimvelox, &fuperbum , & generoſumanimal : leoni autem, vtpotè animoſo , &feroci, dentibus,&vnguibusvalidum. Instinctus autemadoperationes inditos animali,facultatibusque anime refpondentespartibus indicat obferuatioilla Galeni,quamquif quetamen perſe obferuarepotest; nempe vitulus,adhuccorni buscarens,conaturpeterecornibus, &pullusequicalcitrat te neris adbuc ungulis, &aper,adhucperpufillus,eodemmotu genas vibrat,quo posteanatum vibrabit exertum dentem, idemquedecateris; namfætusmoxexouo exclufiauiumcona : tumvolatusexprimunt,ferpentumferpendi, &c. Concluda- Conclufio. musnunc ergo; conformatiopartium indicat instinctum ad operationes,adquasfuntpartes eiufmodiaccommodate , v.g. manusquidemipse perſeaptitudinemad bellandumfignifi cant , verumfiprecipuam adeamremaptitudinem constru Etione ,& robore ostenderint , bellacem in eodem homineani mum monftrabunt,idemquedeceterispartibus pronuncian dum, velutideincepsinfingulisexplicabimus. : C 3 LI 38 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. DeClimatibus .  : blem.1. §. Primus. Variaſcriptorumdecaredicta commemorat . Osttemperamentumclimatafuccedunt;in-va rijs enim climatibus varijsimbutos moribusna fcihomines obferuatio ipfa patefacit; alijs enim moribus Aethiopesfunt,alijs Germani.Ariftote Sect.14.pro lesin Problem. duoin uniuerfumtradit; efferismoribus, t aspectibuseffe, quiinnimia veleſtu , velfrigore calunt,ex pectibus quodogmateeliciturintemperatis locishomines temperatorum morumnafci: quod t) ratio,quamibidictifuiaffertAristo teles,fiexpendatur, fuadet; est autem, quoniam utoptima temperiesnon corpori ſolum, verum etiam intelligentia pre deft, ita exceffus omnes, corporisnedum, verumetiam mentis temperamentumperuertit. Secundum,quod afferitPhilofophus est; quilocaferuida colunt,timidoseffès qui gelida,fortes. Lib.6.c.1. Vitruuiushac idem aßeritcumdistinctionetamen; nempèqui fubSeptentrione habitant, impauidos aduerfus vulnera, ferrum,infebribustamenpauidos; exabundantiaenimfan guinis, quoredundant,vulnera spernunt, at exnouitatefer uoris febrilis, quodfint infuetiferuori,febremtiment: contra quiAequinoctialem verfushabitant, obſanguinispaucitatem timidiinpugnafunt,&aduerfus vulnera, atcontrafebrim Lib.1.can.2. Spernunt, quodfintferuori affueti. AuicennapariterSepten trionalibushominibustribuit mores leoninos obinnati caloris copiam: LiberSecundus. 39 copiam: pariterdicit habitantes loca calida corhabere timidum, babitanteslocafrigida,fortiores effe, &audacie maioris . Palemon quoque Septentrionalibus iracundiam tribuit, licet dummultidicosfacit , in eo of a ceteris , &a veritate rece dat . Aristotelesenimfapientioreseffedicit locis calidis homi nes,quamfrigidis . Ptolemæuslib.2.deiudic.cap.2.feros tan tummoribus dicit, ) quiAuſtralioribusfubiectifuntparalel lis, utAethiopes, &quiSeptentrionalibusſubſunt, utScy the; illiquidempropterexcedentem æftum,hi propterexcedens, frigus:qua inrecum 1. Ariftotel.dictoanterelato conuenit. Ptolemæus idemeodemlib. 2. deiudic.cap.2. additOrientales Ptolemæus effe viriliores, Occidentales autem effeminatiores contra,quam refellitur. res ipſa doceat; Europeosenim viriliores, t Afianos effemi natioresbiftoriæ fatis indicant,& multorumfcriptorumautho ritas . Ariftot.iddicit 7. Polit. Eustratius, ) alijplurimi.At idinfuper me inadmirationemducit; namnobis Orientalisest India, ideoqueex hypothefi Ptolemai virilioresIndi-nobis : at nos Orientalesfumusinſule Cube,atqueinuentoa Columboor bi; proinde virilioresillisfumus: earegiorursusest Orientalis Indie , quare & viriliorIndia: at nos virilioresillis; ergo multo viriliores Indis,quitamen , utnobis Orientalesfunt , viriliores nobis. Cöfequiturautemabfurditas,quod Orienti ef feftumtribuimus virilitatis, cumtamenOriens, & Occidens varientur : atexvariabacnarrationeineodemum conueništ fermèomnes,quodconfirmatquoqueAristotel. 7. Polit. Que gentesincoluntfrigidas regiones, animoabundare, ingenij ve rò, &artificij parumhabere: qua veròcalidasregiones (pro calidatamenregione AfiamdicitibiPhilofophus)ingenio, arte abundare , & animofitatemnon habere: quæ verò me diaminterbas regionemfortitefunt,qualesGrecos, dicit, t C 4 ani  Deconiect.cuiufquemorib &c. animofitatemhabere,&ingenium. Astrologiclimatafingula fuisfubijciuntplanetis: conſulantillos,quieiufmodicognitionem cupiunt. §. Secundus. Regionisqualitates,acmoresnonex ſolo climate colligi poſſe. VERVM idannotareoportetnonexfoloclimate,ideft di ftantiaabequinoctiali, polovéregionisalicuiusnaturam rectè fumi;namineodem, quo Gallia estparalello,regionesplurime funtlongèaGalliadifferentes,& qualitatibusalijs, &incola rummoribus. Palemoneamrationemaffert,quodpermixte funtinuicemgètes,Syriex.gr. cumItalis,&Thraces tū Liby cis . Verumnaturafoli, &fituslocorum maximamineodem In eodem paralellofaciuntdifferentiam, differentiam , utdeindeexponemus. Quo v climate cur circaplurimumdiffert Goae,& Coccinitractus obamenitatem bique cadé foliàfabuletis Africa ,quæfubeodemfuntparalello . Unde aeris tempe ries. oportet, cum regionisalicuius naturam,&moresiudicare τ lumus cumconfideratione climatis,foli, &fitusconditiones coniungere, quodnosfaciemusinfra. §. Tertius . Opinio,&limitatiohacinreAuthoris. VTveròratioclimatisnonestſolaattendenda, itaeftat tendendatamen,nempèipfa in propenſionesfeorfum influit , utin temperamentumagit, ipfumquealterat. Nunc itaque quærendum,huiusquæfit ius,posteaut areliquis regionis differentijs alteretur, intendaturque , aut remittaturintellige mus. Nonergomihiilludfimpliciter probatur,quodfimpli citerdicitur, climataferuidabominestimidosfacere,frigida auda LiberSecundus. 41. audaces, & iracundos. Reiautem veritashunc inmodum colligetur,indagabiturque. Exterior calor, ac ambientis ad aliquem usqueprogreſſumlaxatporosanimalis,nunc hominis. (dequo unoin preſentialoquimur)indeque internumbumo rem, acfecumcaloremeducit: atcumfupramodum excefferit, conftringitporos, undeinternushumornonpoteft eliquari.Eft hocdogmaAriftotelis 4.Meteor. ubidicit aſſatahumidioraeſſe Summa 1. elixatis, eòquòdobignisexficcationem coeuntexteriores mea cap.4. tus, &ideònonpotestexcerniintus existenshumidum. Hac ille: &confirmaturetiamexdictisin Probl. 9.vbi,curcorpora indutamagisſudent,quamnuda, cumbectamenmagisaSole incalefcant , eam redditrationem ,quoniam Soldeurendo nudi corporisforamina,comprimit. Queclimataergocaloritorren tifubijciūtur, eaexteriusquidemficcantcorpora,noninterius; undenequecaloreminternumabſumunt: at calorinfratorren tis terminum, &efficaciampotest præstareillumeffectumin timumeducendicalorem. Crederemergofabuleta Africa ho- Calor,&fri mineshabere,fiquoshabent,impenſæcalidosintus,aciracun- gus nóvbi dos,utferpentes, ibi quoqueſœuifunt, ac venenosifupra edunt effe queeofdem modum. Verum,quàtractus eiuſdemparalelli aquofusest, velpalustri,velfluuialiaqua, veletiamamplisſcaturagini bus, ibicaloremelixantempotius,quamtorrentem , )laxare poros,&cuminteriorehumoreeducerecaloremcredendumest, hominesqueideòintusfrigidos reddere,proindeque timidos . Nuncdicamusdefrigore. Frigusambientis compingit, & denſathumiditatem,ateò uſqueprogreditur eius exceſſus, ut expulſaomnihumiditatepuluerulentareddatcorpora.Idvide musinfæuishyemibus,quarumrigore,&frigore,ſiſerenafue rint,nonfecustelluspuluerulentafit, atqueinastu, &fub Ca ne: inhomnibushocipfumproportioneaccommodatavidemus fieri . Ctus. 42 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. fieri. EtenimGermani,& Danipingues, &carnosi:atGrot landiexfuccihominesdicuntur, exficcante iamimmodicofrigo re exteriorespartes , eliſionehumiditatis. Externumergofri gusſuavipenetratintimacorporumeiufmodicarne denudato rum, adeò uthepatisrefrangaturcalor; t refrigeratumhepar Sanguinemfrigidumexprædominiogeneret (hincluciduscolor gentis)ſanguis veroincor influensipfumquoquefrigidiusin Storeddit. Quocircahomines timidifunt; cuireifuffragatur Homines, id,quodOlausMagnusdicitderegioneeiusmodi) vocat verò resregiones ipse Biarmiam)Dicitenimeamgentemproarmis utivenefi incolunt, ti midifunt,vt cijs, et magicis incantationibus: atbellicofihomines armis,non Biarmi. : : ! filiorum . imprecationibus hoftes vlcifcuntur. Arbitrorego itaque,quod ume diciturfrigidi lociincolas effe audaces , &caliditimidos , ve rumeffedelocisintralatitudinem temperate circiterzone, qua restrictionem abſquedubiofufcepit Ptolemæus lib. 2. deiudic. cap. 2.verfusfinem. Aristotelesquoquecontulitlocafrigida cumAfia,noncum locis calidiffimis. AtAfia,quetumAfie nomine ab Aristotele intelligebatur , nonpertingebatadtropi cos; namcultas Afiepartesfanèfignificaße videturAriftote les,cum arteabundaredixerit,non autëfquallidas zonetorride calore immodico,quç agreſtespotiusfunt,quamartificijs instru Ete . Si verò calorem etiam torride zone amplectamur,non illis conuenire timiditatem ex illis, quede Brafilijs hominibus MoresBra- nücdicunturfatis redditurapertū. Maffeiushæcfcribit.Æquè iræ, aclibidinisimpotentes,adpugnas &certamina temerarij,præcipitesquevltionis,& humani ſangui nisauidiflimi; Eatamengensſubæquatore est, & vltra aquatorem usque adtropicum Capricornimaximaexpartezo netorridefubeft . Hecitadictafint; innaturalibus veròli brisremexactiusexponemus. Noneritfanècanon,utrestri Etus こ 43 Etus anobis,penesquemquamcontrouerfus,fcilicet in zonatë LiberSecundus. perata, nempèintratropicum, & circulum polarem; quagen tesadpolummagisaccedunt, eſſeaudaciores,quæadtropicum, effeingeniofiores, &timidiores,quæ veròin mediodegunt,t ) ingenio, audaciapollere,minustamenhac,quam Septentrio nales,minùsillo, quamAuſtrales; hocquerationeclimatis ipfius. Aliastamenobcaufasacciderepotest, utinAustralioreclimate nafcaturhomo audaciſſimus, qualisAnteusinfabulis , &luba inhistorijs, &inSeptentrionalinaſcanturfummoingenioho mines, ut IoannesDunsDoctor,cognomentoSubtilis,inSco tia, AlbertusMagnusinGermania,&Ioannes Regiomonta nus , &CopernicusinAstronomicis , &alijmultiinomnibus Scientijs viriacutißimi. DeTriangulis,et Stellis, et deDamonuminspi ratione, ac afflatu . Cap. Secundum. §.Primus. Diuerfæ propenfiones &moreshomi numvndegignanturſecundumPtolemæum. ASTROLOGI quædamtriangulaimaginantur refpi cientia duodecimfignaZodiaci, que etiam triplicitates vocantur, ex eorumquediuerfitateinfubiectis regionibusdi uerfas propenfiones , acmores gigni credunt . Quattuor ergo triangula æquilaterain zodiaco excogitant, quorumfingulala teraquattuorfignafubtendunt. Primumab initioArietisad initium Leonistendit, indequeadinitiumSagittarij, & v caturaPtolemeoBorrolybicum . Secundum triangulumest a TauroadVirginem,indequeadCapricornum: vocatAustri- quæ incelo Nomina triagulorű , Solanum,&Nothapelioticon. TertiumabinitioGeminorumad imaginatus eſt Ptolem. initium 44 Deconiect. cuiuſquemorib. &c. initium Libre ,indeque adinitiumAquarij; dicit Aquilonis, &Subſolani. Quartumabinitio Cancriadinitium Scorpijsin dequeadinitiumPiſcium; vocatNotholybicum. Diuiditde indeidemPtolemæusquartamterræhabitabilem,quamfcilicet ipſe cognouit,inquattuorpartes,acfigurasquadrilateras æqua lesduabus lineis, alteraab Occidentead Orientem; altera ab AuftroadSeptentrionem.Quartasrurfusfingulas,ductisdia metris, induotriaguladepefcit,quorum alterumcufpideadcir cumferentiam pertinet,alterumadcentrum. Trigonumdein deadcircumferentiamquadrantisinterSeptentrionem,& Oc cidentemfubijcit triangulo Borrolybico,atque Ioui,vtdomina tori (namtribuit Septentrionemloui, OccidentemMarti, Orie tem Saturno , AustrumVeneri)Iouemergoeamobcaufam præficit dictaregioni, cuiſociumadiungit Martem ratione Africi. TriangulumquadrantisinterSeptentrione, Orien temtribuittriangulo, triplicitativéAquilonis, &Subſolani, #Saturno,acloui, utſocio dictamobcaufam. Quadranti rurfusinterOrientem, &Austrumfecundum exterius trigo num,acadcircumferetiampraficit trigonum Nothapelioticon atqueexplanetis Venerem , & Saturnum, utifocium: reli quo quadrantifecundum itidemexterius triangulum preficit trigonum Notholybicum,atqueexplanetisMartem, utipri mum, &Venerem, vtiſocium: attriangulisfingulorumqua drantuminterioribus, &adcentrum,preficiteandemtriplici tatem, ) eofdeplanetas,quos,&quampreficitcontrarijqua drätisexteriori trigono. Ethæcitadixiffefufficiat. Quosmores parú certis veròfinguliseiufmodiplagistribuat,relegolegentem adPtole Aftrologia maumipfumlocoanteadicto, nequefatistamencum eoreliqui innitiť fun- omnes Astrologi confentiunt; nempè arsnon admodumcertis damentis . innixafundamentis,non potestetiäadmodum conſtanseffèfibi. Platoquidſenſitde varietateregionum . INSPIRATIONEM, ac afflatum Demoniacum,necnon DemonumcustodiamponitPlato, utcaufammaximamva rietatis regionum.lib. 6. dell. infine. Maximeautem , in quit, loca regionis differunt,inquibus inſpiratioque damdiuina,&quæDæmonesfortitifunt,quihabi tantes propitij ,vel contra ſuſcipiunt. Platonici au Distinctio tem Demonesdiftinguuntin Saturninos, Iouiales , Martia- Dæmonum les, Solares, Venereos . fecundú Pla tonicos. AT DeSolo. CaputTertium . §. Primus . Solidifferentias continet. T. Soliconfideratio naturaliortamest, atqueconftantior. Continethac &conditiones Telluris , & aquas adiun. Quædican Etas, &irriguas. Dicoaquasadiunctas maria, &lacus,ſta- u gnaque,acpaludes: irriguas veròfluuios,acfontes. Terraip įirriguæ. faperſeprimòdistinguiturafcriptoribus dere agrariain mon tanam,collinam, & campestrem. Subdiuidunturdeindefin gulamembrafenis differentijs: velenimfolutaestter ra, velſpiſſa: pinguis velmacra: humida, vel ficca Differentiapriormontane,&cam pestris,collinæque etiamadfermo nemdefitupertinet,utpo Stea intelligemus. * turaquæad S. Sc 46 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. §. Secundus. Quimoresſequanturvarias foli differentias. QVAE differentia morumdiētasfolidifferétiasfequantur, nuncconfideremus, utfolumdifferentias animorum,feupro penfionumfaciat.Primòergodifferentiamfacitratione obiecti, utestfecunda, autſterilisregio; namfertiliscopia reddit in colasdefidiofos, utquiparuolaboreexabundantiſolo viftum fufcipiant,adeò utſiſpontealimentafluerent, utdeaureaeta te comminiſcunturPoeta ,omnisindustria, omnisquearscef faret: exdefidiaautem mollities corporis, &animi,quam co Invberefo- mitatur ignauia. Liuiuslib. 29. Fertiliſſimus ager, co lohomines nafcunturi que abundans omnium copiarerum eſtregio , & perbi. gnaui &fu- imbelles,quodplerúquein vbereagro euenit,barba ri funt. DeEmporijs locoAphricaloquitur; ſuperbia quo queextătafelicitategignitur. Contraexfterilitateregio. nis induſtrijhominesnafcuntur, exindustriaqueduri. Cicero, licetoratoriè,hecexpreffèrit, accomodatiſfimètamendefcripfit . MoresLigu Ligures,inquit,montani,duri, atqueagreſtes: docuit. &Cá ramoru cur ageripfenihilferendo, nifimulta cultura, &magno cero contra diuerfi . Ci- laborequæfitum. Campaniſemperſuperbibonita Rullum. teagrorum, &fructuum, magnitudine vrbis,ſalu britate, defcriptione,&pulchritudine. Veruminhis Cicerononadfoli naturam restringitfermonem, ut nosnunc facimus. Reftètamenadiunxit arrogantia ex affluentia re rumluxuriem. Exhac, inquit, copia , atque omnium rerum affluentia primùmillanatafunt; arrogantia , quæa maioribus noftris alterum CapuæConſulem poftulauit, deindeea luxuries, quæ ipſumAnniba lem LiberSecundus. 47 lemarmis,etiam tum inuictum,voluptatevicit. Ex fertilitate ergo, &fterilitateregionisnafcitur eiufmodipropen fiofedilliciendo,&rationeobiecti, ac motione morali,utnunc dicit Schola , non rationefubiecti, ac motionePhifica. Verum Phificamotionefoluminpropenfionesagitperea,quæ emittit, quæfuntinduplicidifferentia: aliaenimfuntconspicua,fruges nempè, &fructus,tpabulaanimalium,potusquoque, feula tices ; fint aque,fiue vina: aliaſenſu, visus præfertimbaud conspicua, quefunt vapores,& exhalationes,quæfubindevi Solisa terra eleuantur, aerique immifcentur. Alimentaagunt in mores, utabhominefumpta,inſanguinemqueconuerfa, in cor quoque ita conuerfa influunt. Exdiuerfis autemcibarijs Sanguisvariatemperatura nafcitur ; nempealimentaeiufdem etiam ſpecieiin aliquibus locisflaccidioragignuntur,minorisque nutrimenti, alicubi compreffiora, acnutrimentimaioris,item calidiora,feufrigidiora, obquam diuerfitatem alimentorumal trix virtus , &concotrixhepatis,ſanguinisque effetrixfan guinem calidiorem , autfrigidiorem gignit,itemautefficacio rem, autimbecilliorem. At ratione vaporum, &exhalatio numduplici modoalteraturcorpus. Primomodo, utimmixti Vapores,& aeri inſpirantur, adeoqueadſpirituum generationem , quibus quoadmo exalationes materiamfubminiftrant,faciunt . Aliomodoconciperedebe- res ſpecter. musfluuium veluti, vaporum (vaporeslatèaccipio)noscir cundantem, & inquoperpetuò mergimur. Eiufmodifluuium interpretatur Ariftoteles inantiquorumdictis Oceanumcirca Lib. 1.Me terram circulariterfluentem Hicergofluuius,cum ex vapori- .cap.1. theor. fum. busconsistit, quifuaptenaturafrigidifunt, &humidı, calidi verò, vt a Soleeleuantecalfiunt, corporaquoque,que ambit, bumefacit , atqueemollit : at corpora mollia præficces extendi ampliuspoffunta calore animalı, adeoque proceriorafieri; nam ea  Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. eaquoqueetatefolumcorporaaugentur,quamollitudinem , ac teneritatem conferuant,fcilicetpueritia, &adolefcentia . Cum veròfluuiusidemexhalationibusſcatet, calida, &ficce,que funt, corporaduriora, & contractiora,ideofiunt. §. Tertius . Digreſſiuncula de proceritate Inſu brium:& curnuncGalli minores,quam antiquitus corpore fint. REGIONES hincirrigueprocerioreshominesfaciunt, ita Infubria, &cateratotaItaliæ pars,queLombardia nunc vulgò dicitur, proceriores, utplurimumhomineshabet,quam Romandiolanoſtra; nosenimminusmultò aquofam regionem babemus . Galliapariteraquofa, &irriguaest, undeprocera antiquitus corpora gignebat. Quibus ideò Romani,&Itali nucfint Cur Galli preexiguitateerantdefpectui, uttestatur Cafar . Atquifit Utbreuiores m Doritate nunc,utbreuiores multofint Galli,quamantea?nequeenim ræ,qua an- maioresfuntItalis ,imòferè minores . Caufamegoreijcerem imò ferè tiquis tem poribus. vita . in multumalimentum; quinquiesenimfortè indiecomedunt; deprimiturautem calorcopiaalimenti,netollatinaltumcorpus. In Lycurgi Quocirca Plutarchuseamcaufam afferebat, quamobremLa cones procereftature effent,quodparuo cibo erantcontenti. Caloritaque poterat, nonoppreffuscopiaalimenti , inaltumſe, 1 corpus tollere . Etrufciregionemficcioremincolunt,t) mi nore etiam multo cibo utuntur, ut ideo æquent proceritatem Infubrium,nonequetamen ,acillicraffifunt . Hocverding uniuerfum afferipoteſt, aeremhumidiorem, in quo &frigidi tas præftetaliquopacto caliditati, ad vberioremnutritionem; cibiquefumptionemdisponere, vt videmus Infubresampliore, quamnos uticibo,&Gallos, quamInsubres: obaeremfcilicet humi LiberSecundus. 49 humidiorem,frigidioremquefimul.Frigidi,fcilicetbalnei vires, &effectumimitatur, cuius estexcitarefamem, ut videmus inpuerisſeſeinfluuijs abluentibus . In ciborumergocupediam propendent,qui eiufmodiregionem incolunt: atficca regionis incole multò minusealaborabuntpropenfione,&adparfimo niamerunt,ſeu ad victusparcitatemaptiores,utLigures,& Tufcos modò videmus, &Hispanosmultòmagis. 6. Quartus . Quaratione vapores ad ſpirituum generationemvariamconferant, indequeadmores. ATprafentiusmultò, & validiusin moresagunt vapo res,quàinspiratispiritibus generandisVariammateriam bibent. Spiritusſua varietate ad variosinclinare moresan tea vidimus, varios autem eleuari vapores ex diuerſoſolo hincfuccinolècolligamus. Cumterrafuerit humidaſua,vel adiunctahumiditate vaporesemittit: cumficcaverò,exhala ex tiones: exhisspiritusficciores , & calidiores, exillis quidio res,ac minuscalidigignuntur. Cumterra eftfoluta,pluresef fundit ,&craffiores, cum ſpiſſa pauciores , &fubtiliorespro tenuitate meatuum,per quos materiaemittitur: expingui ter rapinguiores eleuantur,ex macratenuiores, acdepuratiores. Si ergo &spiſſafueritterra, &macra, vaporestenuiores, acde puratiores multò eleuantur, unde etiam spiritus pro materia qualitate tenuiores, &purioreserunt, craßiores excontrarijs differentijs, acobefiores,impurioresque. Montanis,utpluri mumlocis,&macredo, & spiſſitas terra inest, ſpiritus etiampuriores,ficciorestamen, quamparfit; undeperspicaces quoqueincole montiumfunt, )iracundi. Animaduertendum tamenest, finimiafitmacredo, &denfitasfoli,feu ſpißitudo, D tum  Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&. tumpoſſetam inopem, &paucam ſpirituummateriamfubmi niftrari, ut fpirituumpaucitatelaborentincola. Quoexdefe Eturedditurhomointriſtitiam pronus,neque admodum potis functionumprestantium animiobinſtrumentiprimarijinopia, fcilicetpinguiores spiritus,&craßiores,ac multi,conſtantesho mineserunt etiamaduerfuspericula, nonadmodumtamenper Spicacesingenio , acutique . Atquoniam Spirituslaudatißimus erat,qui multusfit,clarus,fubtilis, calidus,&humidusmode ratè, regio etiamadeiufmodi fpirituum materiamfubministran damaptiffima erit,qua temperat contrarias qualitates v.g. aquosa, tSpiſſa,veluti montesaquofi; bumiditas enimadco piamfacit,&adhumiditatem ſpirituum,quantam requirit gaudet. temperatusſpiritus : at spiſſitudo adpuritatem, &fubtilitate. Perufiatem Perufiahactemperiefoligaudet; estenimis monsaquofus: ac perider Soli cedit ventorumperſpiratio, que vaporesagitationepurgatio res reddit . Eademquoquetemperie gaudetlocusaquosus,& macer, licet campestris,ſiperſpiratus &ipfefit.Mutinenfium م hacestconditio, quorumagri macrifunt, undeexPliniouna cum Parmenfibus gaudent lanis optimis; estque eaplanities cum amontibus diftet, &avallibus,leniterqueaßurgat,ad Mutinaval modumperspirata . Estadeò aquofaMutina, utquicunque deaquofa. in eaCiuitateputeumexcauareaggreditur, illifonsinfuturum perpetuusprofluat. Patauini, &ipfigaudent perfpiratione, acpinguehabentfolum, t )minusetiamaquofum, undeadar mamagis,quaadliterasfacti videntur. Quodconfirmatpau citas virorum inliteris illustrium,quiin celeberrimiGymna ſijtampreſente,tamquediuturna occafionefloruerunt; intanta præfertimamplitudineCiuitatis. Atfiin pinguiſoloaliqua commifceaturputredo, utin CeruienfiumCiuitate, ubilimus multusinaftateputrefcit,tetroqueodorelocumcomplet.In eiuf modi , LiberSecundus. 1 51 modi, inquam,locisſpiritus impuri gignuntur, acliuentes,qui &inmores liuidos,acmaloshominesredduntpropensos. 5. Quintus. Quædixeritdeijſdempenèdifferen tijsHippocrates, remittendoinaliumlocum. HIPPOCRATES eafdemdifferentiastangit, quique Lib.i.deae easmoresfequantur, exponit, videturquediuerfa anoftrisdi- locis,c.vlt. re, aquis,& cere, verum,quiaconiungitfitum,&quapiamalia,ideofunt in alium locum reijcienda . Reijciemus itaquepoftfermonem defitu . Deaccolis fluuiorum ,&lacuum . FLVVIORVM accolein eorum conditionemincidunt, quiin vaporibusdegunt,vaporesqueinſpirantpuriores, eòta men, quòfluminamaiora, &fluentiorafuerint,quorumaquæ nusquamstagnent. Quàenimlentucurritflumen, ibi vapores craffioresfunt . PoftquamPadusRheno, velalioobice impe : ditus,nonfluuitFerrariam,utantea,craffioresmultòvapores CuraerFer exeiusalueo exhalant. MeminicumPatauiodomumredirem, rarię factus utineum locumdeueni, unde imminentem Ferraria aerem fitcraffior. viderepoteramus,nebulosumeum, acfatisdenfumapparuiſſe: dum verò Patauium verſus oculosretorquerem,purißimum cælum, acaeremundiqueprospexiffe. Hocipfumadhucmagis accolis lacuum accidit,ut Mantuanos confpicuaplerunquene bula,quamipfifumanam vocant, occupet. Quæergode vapo- Fumana , ribusantea diximus, bispræfertimtribuereoportet : nam, & Mantuanis. illis effectus iam dicti pro maiore vaporum copia euidentius inerunt. S. Septi dicatur D 2 52 Deconiect.cuiuſquemorib.&c. De accolis maris. AT marisaccolealiamconditionemcontrahent,cumaqua Ariftoteles enimfalfaimbutafit exhalationibus, illisquecombuftis, quæ ex 2.Metheor. mari exhalant, nonpurusvaporfunt,fedexhalatioquoque,fic cioresitaque Spiritus in illis proficcioremateriagenerabuntur ; quodque anteafinximusbalneum,ficciuspariter erit; unde in iramfuntproniores,quam,qui in merodegunt vapore: neque tameficcaprorfus erit ſpirituum materia, cum & vaporesad iunctoshabeatpotius ; ergoinqualitatehumiditatisfpiritusgi gnenturfermètemperati . Unde maritimiincola,ſiabfuerint aquapalustres,& ingenio,acumineque mentis, &vigoreani mifatis vigebunt. Veneti,Ianuenfes,Anconitaniquehocfuo Veneti cur exemploconfirmant.Licet Venetiinestuarijs,nonin marifint, rib.fint,qua mitioresmo atrei, ) locipropinquitatepro maris accolishabetur,&haberi Ianuenfes. debent, tamenquodin estuaria aliquid prolabaturfluuialium aquarum ,&exterra circumdante aliquid afflet,humidiores adhucfpiritus, 1 mitiores mores Ianuenfibus naturaobtinent . §. Octauus. Deaccolis Paludum. PALVDIS autem, utdeharumetiamaccolisloquamur, Lib.1.c.4. induplicifuntdifcrimine iuxta Vitruuijfententiam:aliæenim, cumpropèmarefunt,illoetiamaltioresfunt, adeò, utfoſſisad mareductis, in illud aquasfuasdeponant ,&marisfluxuma rinisrepleanturaquis: alia veròpaludesinferioresfunt mari , adeoque nonhabentprofluentes exitus . Salubresprimæ,pesti lentesfecunde. Accoleprimarum idemferre,quodaccolema ris, &præfertimestuariorü,utVenetipatiuntur, eandemque morum LiberSecundus 53 morum, acpropenfionumconditionemfubeunt . Ataccolaſe cundarum peftilentem aeris, infaluberrimum corporisftatum fortiuntur, mores quoque liuentes, morososque, ac degeneres nancifcuntur,fomniculoſosq; quoqueefſſedocetAriftotelesfeſt. 14.probl. 11. §. Nonus. Additiodecibis,&potu. INCLVSIMVS inſolocibum,&potum, utpotè,quiab eopermanent : attamenmultapotuiſſentdicifeorfum,quemfin gulimorem velinferant, velintentent. Ut enimprofuis qualitatibus, caliditate,frigiditate ,ficcitate, humiditatein re ſpondentehumoreaptisuntbilem,ſanguinem,pituitam,melan choliam mutare, admoresitapertinent, uthumoresincorin fluentes,inmaßafanguineaelati, nostramin moresinclinatio nemafferant : quantumtamen, &quousquealibidicemus,fi cutiquantum crafis ciborum,& qualitatesinterdumrefran ganturab hepate. Eftaliaciborum differentia, que ineorum Quæciborů lentore, accontrarioconfiftit : vocat alicubifubftantiamGale nus : dequanositeminfraſuoloco. Facitlentoradrobur,cumleno. calor ventriculi tantus eft, ut cibum concoquat:attenuitas ingenij acumenpromouet . Atcumiamquædamde cibisdixi mus, t) quedamſubſequentibuslibrisdicturifimus,contenti itaquedictis,& dicendis,decreuimusnihil nuncaliud fubijcere breuitatis caufa, eò magis,quòd lecto res poffunt addifcerea Medicis, quos illi cibos bili , aut reliquis humori busgignendis aptos iudicent. * D De 3 ſubſtácia vo cetur a Ga 54 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. Deaere,etde ventis. CaputQuartum. §. Primus . Deaere. Xſolo,firectèæftimemus,nascunturaerisqualitatesma FXfolo, ximaexparte. Triaenimfunt,queaerem mutant, cli ma,cuiusratiocommunis admodumest, venti,quorüratioex trinfeca est, & vapores, exhalationesque , quæ ex terra ele uantur, in aeremque diffunduntur, &commifcentur,queiam eft intrinfeca,&propria, acpeculiaris ratio. Aerquidemipſe perſevniuseftcrafis,calidusfcilicet, ethumidus,vniusquete nuitatisfaltemindiftantia equali a terræ , &aquafuperficie, at acomixtis vaporibus,fiueexhalationibushabet, utpurior, impurioruéfit, craffiorautfubtilior, & reliquasobtinetmemo ratas differentias a Sc Scriptoribus claritatis,obfcuritatis, acne bularumhabitus.Nullaergo est magispropriadifferentiaaeris, quam,quæèſoloafflat. Quod veròbicdequalitateaerisdici mus; deconfistente , acperfeuerante crafieiusloquimur, non detranfeunte, acfugaci: nempeaernebulofusduobus modisfu mipotest, alteroquidē,quòdfuaptenatura,atque utplurimum nebulofusfit, altero modo, quòd aliquandonon denominatur verènebulosus,quiinterdumnebulas patitur; nametiampu riffimus aer nebulisinterdum offufcatur: at nebulofum dici mus,quifuaptenatura,utplurimumquenebulaspatitur. Hoc itaquemodo nunc aerisqualitates accipimus,adquasconcur runtetiam venti,nempè ut ventisobijcitur,exfalubribuslo cis, autinfalubribusprocedentibus alterarinatus eft. Adquem pertingit ventusexpalude pestilenti,isex ventispeſtilen tem conditionem acquirit, prestantemcontra,fiexodoratolo   co afflet; verbigratiafi ex ingenticitriorumfylua; odoratus enimisafflatus, acputredini valdecontrariusaerem mirumin modumperficit,achomines ineodegentes,&ipfuminspiran tesrecreat,purioribus demum spiritibus complet. Atde ventis nuncloquamur. Interim Gal.purūaeremdefcribitlib. 1.defan. tuenda.cap.11.omnesquefermècauſasimpuritatis adducit. De ventis . VENTI igituralijparticularesfunt,quiſcilicet alicuius regionis, aut lociproprij , eiustractum nonexcedunt: alijcom munes ,motuqueſuo plures regiones peragrant: illipro loco, materiaque,undenascutur, variantnaturam,ofqualitates: bi veroprocardinibus , undeflant, diuerfilongeinterſeſunt. Utrumfcilicet ab Oriente, anab Occidente, abAuftro , an a Septetrioneſpirent ,an abaliquo aliointeriectorumpunctorum Horizontis . Qualitates, ac virtutesfingulorum ventorum traduntura Scriptoribus,præfertim ab HippocratedeAere, a quis,&locis,capfecundo, abAuicennaprimicanon.fen 2. abHalyAbb. lib.s.Theor.Cap.8. §. Tertius. Deventis Septentrionalibus. VENTI Septentrionales ergoexfententiaHippocratisfa ciunt hominesedaces, nonbibones , morumquepotiusferorum, quammanfuetorum : coniungit autemipſe cum ventis aquas, quæfuntdure,&frigida . Sirem verò ex iactis principijs deducerelubeat,quoniam venti Septentrionales vapores atte nuant,acpurgant,ideòpurioresquoque Spiritus, ut generen--tur; efficiunt. Qui ergo mores confequuntur puritatem fpiri D 4 tuum Venti qui dem pprij , quidamcó munes. 1 56 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib&c. tuum,biex ventisSeptentrionalibusperfeexcitantur. Dico perſe, namratione loci plerumque impeditur effectus, verbi gratiafiquæciuitasobuerſaſit Septentrioni,&agrum vligi nofumhabeat, Boreasquidemtenuiores reddet vapores,quame ipfiperſe effent, nonadomnimodamtamenpuritatemadducet. Pro climatibus prætereaeffectus ventorumvariabuntur; a lios enimprestabit Boreas effectus in Septentrionali, aliosin Auſtriali climate . AdSeptentrionem,Boreamqueproportione quadamceteri ventiadSeptentrionem accedentes rediguntur. §.Quartus. DeventisAuſtralibus. VENTI Auſtrales vaporescoguntpotius, aeremque craf fioremreddunt , undeimpuriorumquoque,&craffiorumspi rituummateriamfubminiftrant: idquefuaptenatura: ex acci denti vero,feuexconditionelocipoffuntillilaudabileseffectus producere, nempèfiregioficca, &frigidanimiumfuerit,corri gent illi exceffum, &ad mediocritatemadducent. Ex doctri naHippocratisnonreddunthomines admodum propensosinci bos, &potum. De ventisOrientalibus,&Occidentalibus. VENT1 OrientalestemperatiſſimifuntHippocrati, aquas optimasfaciunt, &moresadintelligentiam, &iramprestan tiores Septentrionalibus : at Occidentales ventosaquofiffimos JudiciaAu torum. dicit, autumnoquefimiles , &impuroaere uti eiusmodiinco las attestatur. Sedfi ventosapoſitu ciuitatisfeparemus, ven thorisdefa- tosOccidentales egononiudicomalos, ut Hippocrates , neque lubritate ve minus laudabiles Orientalibus , ut Auicenna: nam expe rientia LiberSecundus. 57 rientia ipſadocetZephiru,Fauoniumvéfuauiſſimüeſſe ventü, cuiflorumpropagationemeritotribuuntPoeta,acrerúomnium. Namfimulacspeciespatefacta eft vernadiei, Etreferatavigetgenitabilis aura Fauoni, Aerieprimum volucresteDiua,tuumque Significantinitum,perculſe cordatuavi. EstauctoritasAristotelis 26.fect. probl. s 7.tt )antea43. ubidiciteumferenum,clarum, atquegratiffimum,temperatif fimum,præterearationemquereddit,prefertquoque Subſolano Homeri auctoritate, qui dicitper Elyſioscampos ſpirare . SedZephiriaffiduèſpirant, auræquefalubres . Lucretius. Preterearatio aliafubeft;namOccidentales ventiexcitan- Occidenta tur abOrienteSole,maneenim Fauoniusſpirat,poftMeridiem, citantur ab Subſolanus; quiideò a Sole vergenteadOccidentemexcitatur: Oriente So les venti ex ateffectus Orientis Solisbenigniores, &fecundioresfunteffe- lesabOcci le,Orienta Etibus eiuſdemOccidentis. Atficiuitatis, &lociaspectum , dente. adOrientemconferamuscumaspectuad Occidentem,certè ille hoc multòlaudabiliorest, utetiamfateturin 7.Polit.Ariftote les; etenim Sol Matutinus , acOriensblandius recipitur, cum enimafrigorenoctisadcaloremdiurnumfittranfitus,aperiun tur, & explicanturcorpora , &pori animantium ,imò t) rerum , altiusque influxus caloris Solis ad mittitur, & blandioretactu: at vefpere fittranfitus acaloreadfrigus,adeo que constipantur corpora arctius,atque mali د gnius admitti turfola ris radius, eiusque efficacia . De A 58 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. DeSitu. Caput Quintum. S. Primus . Variediftinguitur Situs. Dſitumiamtranfeundum . Situsestaspectusloci ad hunc, illumvé Calipunctum,Orientisfcilicet,aut Occiden tis; qui ideòpotestitadiftingui: velenimomnibus Calipunctis estapertus, velnulli, velbisquidem apertus,bis vero tectus. Apertusomnibusest, veluti cacumen aliquodmontis, autlo cus campestris, intracuiusſenſibilem Horizontemnullus mons affurgat ; estnulli apertus locus concauus, aut conuallis undi que montibus cincta. Inquorum intermediofuntloci quiex. gr. Orientipatent, attegunturOccidenti, Septentrioni, ) Au firo, velpatent Orienti , & Septentrioni, &Austro, &oc culuntur Occidenti, velduobus patent, duobusque alijs te guntur,velnulli cardinipatent, at alicuiinteriectopuncto, ut qui locus obuertiturinter Septentrionem , & Orientem.ex.gr. utrecentes nuncpartiunturHorizontem ; Greco, autmedijs inter eum ventum, &Boream, Subſolanumvé ventis,feu ventorum quartis . Verumtantadiligentiadiuifionis nonfa cit ad hoc institutum:fatis est principaliores affectus pertra Etareinpræfentia . §. Secundus . Duoeſſeimpedimenta,quæaſpectum alicuius cæleftis cardinis occludunt. CONSIDERARE autem primumoportet duoeſſe impedi menta, quamobremlocusalicui, velaliquibus Horizontis car dinibus nonpateat; aliudnaturalefcilicet;aliudartificiale: na turale LiberSecundus. 59 turale estmons, autcollis,& demum aßurgentisterræ tumu lusabquis: artificiale verdest edificium , velexædificijfor manafutur; præfertim vero edificatio univerſe Ciuitatis a ſpectus alios aperit alios claudit,ut enim via Ciuitatisexpor rigunturin aliquem ventum,acCelipunctum,illiquoquepun Eto, ac vento apertaestCiuitas: utquefeneftra,acaditusdo mus, pariterilli diciturexpofitadomus . Vitruvius,quinole- Lib.1.c.6. bat alicui ventopatereCiuitatem, viasducebatnonfecundum diametros, fedfecundum chordas Horizontis. Poteftergo edifi catio, eiusqueformaclaudere,t )aperire, cuilubeat vento, ) afpectui Ciuitatem,acedificium . §. Tertius . Demoribus ex ſituvario naſcentibus . SITVS &ratione ventorum alterat mores, &ratione afpectusipfius. De ventisiamdiximus,quasfingulimorum differentias faciunt : id vnumfubijciemus de locis undique perspiratis, &delocisnihilomninòperspiratis . Primòergo cumomnibusexpofitifint ventis,aeremperpetuòagitatumin Spirant incole; acagitatio extenuatpotius,atqueexpurgat,vn depurioresearatione ſpiritusobtinebunt.Ariftoteles eſt viden dusfect. 1 4.probl. 7. præterea mutatioiugis ventorumperpe tuamquoquevarietatem aerisfacit,nunccaliditatem inducen do,nuncfrigiditatem, nuncficcitatem, nunchumiditatem: at mutatio (utHippocratestraditdeaer. aquis, &loc.cap.12.) animum ad exercitationemexcitat : exercitatio vero ,& la- Mutatioani bor, ad utilitatemducit. Sicciorapræterea corpora, t) durio- citationem ra ventorumperpetuailla perspiratiofacit,utalibiquoquedi- excitat. & xi. Contraloca undique clauſa craffum, ) Stagnantemaerem continent,undespiritus vitiatoshauriuntincole,corporaquo mű adexer que 60 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. quemollia, &defidiofa unàcum animisfuntinertia,acfom nolenta. Hipp.cap.eod.1 2.fcribit,quilocaconcaua,pratenfia,t eftuofahabitant ventosquecalidosplusfentiunt,quamfrigi dos, aquis utunturcalidis,himagnos effenonpoffe . Viri litas autem,&tolerantialaborisnon equaipfisineft.Ceterum autequibus ventisexpofitos effepræstet,iampatuitexdictis, perfefcilicetloquendo, ratione tamen alicuiusadiunctiprestat exciperepotius Austrum, quam Boream,cumfcilicet locusfue ritfuapte naturafrigidus, velobcelfitudinem, velobclima . D. Marini Oppidum Nonprocul a nobisabestoppidum D. Marini in editomonte conferuat li pofitum,quodtotumpatetAuftro, nihilBoreæ praterfummam bertatemil- arcem; tt Je, &tercen ) estlocusfaluberrimus,&benemoratuspopulus,qui tis ab hinc interpotentiores,& cupidosprincipatusferuauit , &feruat annis. nuncquoquelibertatem ; nempècaliditas venti,&fitusfrigi ditatemloci temperat, & adiustam mediocritatem adducit. In Borealibus pariter regionibus habitationesprestat expofitas effe eandem ob causam Austro , quemfitumferuant noſtre rusticanedomus. §. Quartus. Deaſpectibus. Ex aſpectuautemlocorü,&punctorumHorizontis,pre clufis ventis, naſii videturtantum maior, minorqueletitia, tristitiavé . Equidem lumen, )temperiesqualitatum,fri gorisfcilicet, caloris,humiditatis, &ficcitatis voluptatem, acletitiamafferunt: contraluminisexiguitas, & caloris,fri Afpectus goris véexceffus tristitiamingerunt . Quare Orientalisafpe gratiffimus Orientalis Etus latiſſimusest,nam temperatusexea parte calorpre Se omniŭ eſt. ptentrionaliparte,exqua vehemensfrigus,& Meridiana,ex qua vehemenscalor. Luxquoquegratißima, eòquòdextene bris LiberSecundus. 61 briscumerumpat,comparatiopropriaobfcuritatisgratiorefa cit eius reditum . Occidentalis afpectus estipsequoque perse temperatus : atcumluxtumadtenebrastendat,exMeridiano fulgoreminusgrataoccurrit . Australis aspectus illustrisqui dem eftfulgentiorquinimò reliquis, atcalore excedit, unde nonæquègratus. Septentrionalis minimèomniumiucundus, qui luminedeficit, & exceditfrigore. Ethæc perfeloquendo, namcõtrainfrigidisfuapte naturalocisAuſtralispoſitusſum moperègratuseuadet,calorefiquidemſuo temperabitfrigus, lumine complebitprospectum . Idem monet Vitruviuslib.6. cap.1.Contracumalocaferuida fuerint , Septentrionalispoſitio Summoperèiuuabit. IdemVitruuiuseodemloco; frigorefiqui demtemperabiturcalor; cuitemperiei,acrefrigerationi cum mi nuslumendeferuiat, eaipfaauerfio a luce tum grata erit . Ve rumqueperſeſuntpræferre illisoportet,quæfuntperaccidens. Denationum,acgentiummoribus,seupropen fionibus. Cap. Sextum . 6. Primus . Quæconfiderentur in inueſtigandis nationum moribus. : TIONVM, acgentium,ciuitatumquemoresexpre cedentiumomniumcombinatione colliguntur. Debemus fcilicet climaconfiderareſolum, acfitum; quaetiaminconfide N ratione venti,&aercontinentur. Prudenstriangulorum, J ſtellarium rationem Astrologis relinquo,&Demoniacosaffla :: tus Platonicis. Demoribusautemnaturalibus,feudepropen fionibusloquors ſcio enim morales, ) aduentitios noneofdem Qui mores mutētur,& eiufdemgentisperpetuòeffepro variagentisfortuna,atquere cur. gimine 62 Deconiect.cuiuſquemorib.&c. gimine,demumquediſciplina.Hippocratescur: naturalibuscau fisetiamdifciplinamconiunxitin lib.deaere, aquis, &locis ; Afianos enimdixit eſſe timidos, &imbelles,quodregibusfub eßent,&Scythas defidiofos,t inertes,quodinpueritia, & prioreadolefcentia,ſederent perpetuò incurribus, illisque ve berentur. Seddifciplinaaliuminhocoperelocumfibi vindi cat; denaturalibusnunccaufis, acmoribusagimus .  Devarijsgentibusquidvarij Scriptores dixerint . Ifidorus. RECENSEAMUSprimum,quidde varijsgentibus varij Scriptoresdixerint; pofteanos exiactisprincipijs rem aſtima bimus. Ifidorus ergoin Ethymologodicit Afroseffe astutos, acfraudulentos, Gracosleues,Romanosgraues, Italosfero Vitruuius . ces,acrisque confilij . Vitruuiusincommuni Septentrionibus Subiectas gentes aduerfus vulneraaudaces, meticulofasinfe bribus, acmenteſtupentes: contra,quefubAuftroinfebribus Securas, aduerfusferrum timidas afferit; mente autemexpedi tas, &celeres. AtinparticulariItalos, utin mediopoſitos, pollere &confilio, &animirobore, adeò, utconfilijs refrin gantAquilonarium vires;forti manuMeridianorum cogita Ariftoteles. tiones. Ariftotelesincommunidicit Europeos ,quiqueinfri gidis regionibus degunt,abundare animo, atparum ingenio valere,&artibus: Afianosingenij , &artificij multumba bere,fed carereanimofitate: Grecos verò,utinter eosme dios, &animi robore, 'ingenij viribuspræstare,adeoque orbisimperioaptos,ſi in unamRempublicamcoalefceret; ut quod VitruuiusItalis, & Romanistribuit,idGracistribuat Po'emon. Ariftoteles attamen exitus Vitruvijdictofauet. QuePolemon : dicit , LiberSecundus. 63 dicit , adeoimplexafunt, &vitiata, uteaadducerenonfit opera pretium . Ptolemaus ex triangulis, &dominantibus Ptolemæus. Stellisfingularumgentium moresdeducit, verùmidnegocium nos iam Astrologis reliquimus . At Maternus dicit Scythas Maternus. eſſe crudeles, Indosregia nobilitatesplendeſcere , Gallos amen tes,&inconfideratos, Gracos leues, Afroslibidineferuere, Si culos acutos, Hifpanos tumidos,&iactabundos, Ægyptiosfa pientes,Babiloniosprudentes: fedHippocratesincommunidi- Hippocrat. xitAfianos (Australiorem Afie partemintelligit,de Septen trionaliore enimfeorfumdicet)effebenigniores,toperiofiores Europais, at minus viriles, minusqueaudaces,aclaborum , ærumnarumque minus tolerantes , neque etiam effe vult in amoreconstantes eiuſdem generis , earundemque perſonarum; quibuscumiungit Ægyptios, &Libycos, eofdemfcilicetmores his tribuit.Atdeincepsdeillis, qui addexterăHyberni So lisOrtusfunt usquead Meotidempaludemdißerit : verum ego arbitrorlegendumad dexteram estiui SolisOrtus, nõHy berni; fecus enim comprehenderetbac circumfcriptio omnem Afiam,dequa proximadixerat. Intelligitautemfrigidiores Afiaregiones; meminit veròpræfertim Macrocephalorum, Phaſianorum,quorumtamenmoresnonexponit,nifiquod fegnioresad laboremPhaſianos afferit. Ceterumexprincipijs Hippocratis , cumeospopulospluribus temporummutationibus fubiectosenunciet , oportet viriliores, &bellicofioresreliquis Afianisfateri; nam ) idemHippocrateshachabetverba . Cap.9.infi. Inuenies autem &Afianos ipfos inter ſe differentes plurimum,generofiores alios, aliosdegeneres,quorú omniumcauſaadtemporummutationeseſt referen da. De Scythislongèpluradicit, quam,queincompendium duci queant.  De coniect. cuiufquemorib &c. : i §. Tertius . Satius eſſemores nationum ex obſer uatione depræhendere ,quamex caufarum combi natione . LONGE fatius estex obferuationepreſentesnationum mores eruere, quamindagareexcaufarumcollatione . Inobfer uatione veròetiam difciplinapublica continebitur, quæprogen tisfortuna variat; ex.gr. CumRomani,Italiqueex communi catione OrbisImperiopotirentur ,fuperbi erantfupramodum, culo cinxit Popilius cir undePopilius & circulocingereAntiochumaususest,&An Antiochum tiochusillifuperbiamgentisobiecit, dumrefpondit ; Romanum Regem. effetibi animosfacit . Apuleiusin milite aduerfus olitorem ar rogantiam repræfentatmagnam, nifipotiusmilitie id,quam gentis vitiumfuerit:nuncHispanitumore nos excedunt,quòd multis gentibus imperent, ItaliImperioexciderint. Gallianti quitus colebantItalos, quibusfuberant, undeRutiliusGallus felices vocat,quiin Italia eſſent nati,atpostImperijcafum,flo renteGalliæregno,nos spernebant,quiſpretus occafionemdedit equeſtri certamini inter Gallos,&Italos terdenos,cuiusmemi Lib.s.hift. ! nitGuicciardinus, quotemporeHifpaniduceConfaluo cũGal lis deNeapolitanoRegnodecertabant : palmaautem penesIta losfuit.Siergohocmodonationum, ) gentium, Europearum nempè, moresdefignareplaceat ; hic videturcatalogus. : §.Quartus. Hifpanorummores. HISPANI fuperbi, t) elati, cumexteristamenpotius grauiter, quamcontumelioſeſe gerunt . Sidiſciplinamdemus, potiushonoris zelatores,quamfortes, accontemptorespericulo rum : LiberSecundus. rumfunt; undeTyronesHispani non admodum prestantes Hifpaniplus milites habentur,funtque. Verumſidiſciplinemilitariſedent, plina quam 65 valentdifci inuicti euadunt . Nonfuntadmodum dediti artibus, &ad natura. ſcientias ingeniopotius Stabili,quàmmagno, &attentopotius, quàmflorido; hinc nonmultum inlinguis valent. Adpru dentiamamplius,quàmadſpeculationem videnturfacti:proni verdinPhilautiam; undeſuapotiuscommoditate, quàmalie noexiuredeliberationesineunt, quastamenobtentumirofem perexornantes approbant, minusfaltemperspicacibus . Hac cumdico,decommunigentisnotaloquor, excelluiſſeenimlite ris virosſummos, &iustitiafingulares,facilèeft monstrare inductione; præcipuèautem Theologia nuncibifloret . Gallorummores,&Germanorum. : GALLIprocacesfunt, &ergaexteros paulòminusinfo lentes, artibus,&Scientijs dediti, acuti plurimumingenio, at nonæquèStabilitate pollent,ferocesfuaptenatura, &bellico fi, eximpetutamenmagis,quàmextenoreanimi . Vndefire ſtinguaturimpetus , languent animo , acflaccefcunt; retinent-nempèantiquam naturam . Inprincipio plus ,quàm viri, in fine minus,quàmfæminafunt. Utalienaex procacitate, & libidine ufurpant,itafacile &effundunt. Prouidentianon aquè,acHifpanivalent; unde nontandiu imperia acquifita ipfi tueri , atque Hifpani potuerunt. AcriorlibidoHifpanis, atfufiorGallis..: Germani fuperbi; fedbarbaridicuntur;ferocesinbellohabi lioresqueferocia,quàmGalli,minusalieniappetentes,quàmre liqui, undepronioresiniustitiam,artibus excellunt,non equè Scientijs, acprudentia valent; minusetiam in venerem effer E uefcunt: 1 1 66 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. uefcunt: at cibis, &potuſeſeingurgitant . Hicvidetur effe communisnationumgenius: at ab eoplures in contrarias() Albertus virtutis, & vitijpartesabfcedere,quisnonnouit ?Albertus Magnus,Io Magnus,Io. MonteRegius,Copernicusparesprimisfuere, teregius Scri utinnumerosaliosomittam virosilluftriffimos . Imperatores Pani gnus idæa itidem, Principesoptimos, acprudentiainfignespluresno uimus,quosbreuitatiscaufaomitto. Galliquoquequotflorue CarolusMa runt t) literis, & omni virtutepræftantiffimi? CarolusMa optimi Prin gnuspotius ideaoptimiPrincipis,quamPrincepsoptimusdi cipis. ! cidebet: atinliterisnonnéea unalausfatis eft;exAccademia Pariſina,tanquamexequoTroianofluxiffeScolafticamdoctri nam? Nunc verò cumdoctrinafolidiorefupraomnemfidem eruditionem, t) eloquentiam coniungunt. §. Sextus. Italorum mores, &Polonorum. ITALI profortunaimperijiamamiſſi,præterquamEccle fiaftici, minuselatifunt,fiin vniuerfum loquamur . Veneti magnosspiritusretinet, licèt multò maiorescentumabhincan nis, ampliusvéhabuerint . BenigniusigiturItaliergaexteros Sehabent,preterquamquodhofpitales etiaminamplitudineim perijfuerunt,quodde Romanispatet,quiintegrisnationibus DeJudicijs. hofpitiumpræbebant ille Siculis,alius Acheus: t) Ptolemaus eandem illisnotamtribuit. Inlaudebellica propioresfuntHi ſpanis,quàmGallis,&Germanis,nempèſidifciplinamdemas, inferiores hisfunt audacia,atfiexerceantur,prestantiffimi Italos cum ſpanis, & mi lites cuadunt. Hincenimilludanimirobur,quod vniuerfum Campatan orbemdebellare valuit, nuncquoquein belloBelgico,quodlis Gallis,Hi- dusfuit vere virtutis militaris,nullummilitumgenus,æquè, Germanis. acHifpane, Italelegiones (tertiosdicebant vulgò)exerci te LiberSecundus. 67 te,ac veteraneenituerunt. Fateritamenoportet, cumItalia bifariam ab Apeninodiuidatur,partemSeptētrionaleadScul tennam uſquenescioquidGallicumredolerepre reliquaparte, quecumHifpanisampliusconuenit.Caufa veròinfrapatebit. In hominisacumineHispanosfuperant,ſtabilitateGallos : at tentionetameceduntHifpanis: ineffectione,atqueinartibusa Germanisfuperantur (picturamexcipio, inquaItaliantistant cateris) prudentia naturaliplurimum valent. Expreßit in RomanisVirgilius. TuregereImperiopopulos, Romane, memento. Caterum in reliquis moribusmedij interHispanos, Gal losqueconfiftunt. Poloni,quiGermaniæmultispopulisadherent, liberioribus funtmoribus,quàmGermani,quifunt plurimumfuspiciofi, generofitate etiam morum illispreſtant, & fplendorem cul Ble tusaffectant,oftentantque: ad Italosprodiftantialocorum,& climatisplurimumaccedunt. Mores Vngherorum , Illiriorum , Græcorum ,& Aphrorum. PANONI inferiores, fiue Ungheri , &funtfubmedijs Galliaparallelis, &moribusfimiles; bellaces enimacimpetuo fi: verùmcumminuscultifint,funtetiamefferatiores .Galli enimcontràdiſciplinis,acliterarum Studijsflorent. Fllirij&DalmatafubijfdemcumItaliaparallelisdegunt; asperiortamenregio, ) nuncabſqueanimarumcultu: bellaces funt, &durianimo,ficultustamenadeffet,aptidisciplinis, quòdinliterisD.Hieronymuspatefecit, indifciplinabellica, t Diocletia imperatoriaDiocletianuspræclarus,fiethniciſmi zelumaufe- nus præcla ras, Imperator. : E 2 Greci rus Impera tor.  Deconiect.cuiuſquemorib.&c. Gracifubijfdem cum Hifpanis parallelisnuncabſquerullo cultu,&difciplinafunt. Chriftiani autemgraui tyrannidepref fist )animis, &opibuscarent.QuiinTurcarumreligionem ceßere , illi iugi armorumdifciplina exercitipræclarifunt mili tes,acneruusOthomanice militięfacilèdicidebent;exillisenim præcipuè cohortesIannizerorüconftant, quæfuntcohortespre torienuncOthomanorum . : ; Aphri (decultiore Aphrica, eiusque in nosobuerfaora lo quor) acumineingenij præftant,feruentlibidine. Liuiuslib 29. ſuntanteoesBarbaros naturęhumidę&effuſæinve nerem. Nonadmodumedaces,Europæisbellica virtutemi nores,industrij quoque, undein Hifpaniacultiorafuntloca que Mauritenuere,vtinBetica. RefertAndr.Nauagerius inrelationelegationisfue ad Carolum Quintum, &agricultu ramadhæc uſquetempora exercebantinHifpaniaeorum reli quie,quasproximèPhilippusTertius,nuncregnans,expulit. Ægyptijeorundemmorumfunt. : 7 Anglosob pulchritudi nemD.Gre gorius voca uitAngelos. §. Octauus. Anglorummores. ANGLI praftantesfunt,& vigoreanimi, &ingenio, cultu artium , &difciplinarum florent ,benigniquoqueinbo Spites; amoribus & veneridediti,tumprofanguineotempera mento,cuiſubmixtaest bilis, tumpro obiectorumirritamento : pulchritudo enim tamfæminarum,quàm virorumestinfignis, quam pulchritudinem admiratus D. GregoriusAngelis pro Anglis vocauit , miferatus tam pulchragentis eternam damnationem,que tumIdolisdeferuiebat ,in Infulæconuerfio nemtotoanimoincubuit , &voticomposfactusest. Quærela parnunclocumhabetin Caluiniſmoprafenti . De LiberSecundus. 69 Demoribus naturalibus,feupropenfionibusnatio numagiturexcaufisnaturalibus, earumq combinatione . Cap. Septimum. §. Primus. DeHifpanis. VERVM adpræfensinstitutum redeundopropenfiones naturalesnationumaperiamusexnaturalibuscaufis , di miſſainterim difciplina . Ordiamurab Hispania: haca grad. . circiterlatitudinisadgrad.3 6. in Austrumexporrigitur; adeò vtfi mediumcummedio,extremacumextremisconfera mus,fit australior Italia , & multò australior Gallia Hacitaque rationeminusfuaptenatura bellicofa: at mon tofacumfit,acasperiplerunquemontes, perspirataque ,eara tione caliditas climatis afrigiditatefolitemperatur; ita Canta bripræfertimbellicofi,qui etiamæquè, ac Italiæ mediumbo realesfunt. Regio minimè in uniuerfum aquosa, undeex-præcedentibusdenſiorcorporis habitus,utficinorebalneocon tinetur. Reftèitaque Manilius. Afperiorfolidos Hispania contrahitartus. SterilefolumHispaniamagna ex partedefcribitur, unde vapores, exhalationesvéexeopura eleuari videturexprace dentibus : attamennefcioquidaduſtiſepeconiunctumhabents argumentoqueestfalfasplerunqueaquas ,fifodeatur terra erumpere. Spirituumitaque materiaterrestriseaexpartered ditur, &ideononequèſpirituspuri generantur, atqueinma crofolofuaptenaturagignianteadiximus; indequefit,ut acu menin vniuerfumnon obtineanttantum,quantum caliditas climatispraborealibus Italia, &Galliaregionibusexpofceret. Andreas Nauagerius E 3 falaces  Deconiect.cuiuſquemorib.&c. Salacesfunt inVeneremexclimate , &exfalſedine,quamdi ximus: & quoniam durioremhabitum corporis dictam obcau Samhabent, &ficcioremfpirituminſpirant, verifimile eſt t cordiscarnemcompreßioremipfis,acduriorem,quamGallisef ſe; undecumafſfueuere periculis , maiorineritillis, acpertina cioranimitonus,quamGallis,quoseximpetupotius, quam ex tenore animiaudacesdiximus . Situs etiam multarum Ciuita tumHifpanieparumperſpiratus est, utToleti,& Burgos, quam Ciuitatem Latini Auguſto brigamdixere . : §. Secundus. De Gallis. GALLIfrigidiusclimaincolunt;agrad. enimcirciter s4. latitudinis ad 43. in Austrum terra illa extenditur . Regio campestris, &aquosaest, atperſpirataadmodumin vapori bus; undemollioracorporaHispanisobtinent, & maioraquo que, niſiquedictafuit ratioobſiſteret.Eandemob caufameda ces,utfupra oftenfum,funt. Verum,quoniamperſpirativa porespuri etiamfunt, indeque materiaſpirituumpura potiun tur,acutiitaqueingenio: mobilitas autemingenijacumencomi tatur,quod fi audaciamcum mobilitateconiungas,impetuosos efficiashomines,nonautemconstantes, &pertinaces erga ma laurgentia . De Italis. ITALI – LUIGI SPERANZA – GRICE ITALO – H. LP. GRICE – Apennino borealiores uſquead Scultennam,quę parsLombardianuncdicitur, aquofamGalliæinstarregionem obtinent, undeadGallorummoresacceduntpropius:atreliqua Italia,tum,quæ adfuperum, tum,quæadinferum mare, minus multò LiberSecundus. 71 multòaquosaest . Rome pra caterisfolumfiticulofumerat, eftque,si naturamspectemus,arteque ductosaquęductusmen te auferamus,quos,quot, & quantos ad commodum urbis fumantiqui excogitauerint , Magistratus, acPrincipes , & nuncPontificumcura apertumest: attamen in illis ipfis par tibus nonæquèestfitiensItaliafolum, atqueHifpaniæ,fi uni uerfumcum vniuerfo conferamus. Caterumenim alicubiHi fpaniamcopia,ubertatequeſcatereaquarumfcimus,præfertim veròGranate urbs irriguaeft . Mediocritateitaquegaudet Andreas Italia, cumque Spirituum materiamficcioremaliquanto,quam Nauagerius Gallia attrahat, &acuminepraftat, &ſtabilitate. Utrum queprestat gradus accedensficcitatis; ſplendorenim fic- Spledor fic cus , utdicebat Heraclitus, animus ſapientiſſimus. Et cus,animus quoquecertumexficcitateftabilitatem procedere. Verumtamen mus. hac,licètfitin vniuerfum Italorumnota,inhacipsatamenilli fapientiffi varijsgradibusconfiftunt; nempèaustraliſſimapars &proximeillipartes,excellunthabilitateadſcientias , borea liffime impetuquodamGallicopollent in mortispericula: medię partesprudentiaexcellunt,&aptitudineaddiſciplinăbellicam. MediumItaliaRomaobtinet,intergradumenimtrigefimum Mediū Ita queest australiſſimępartis, liæ fcilicet promontorij Leu- baRoma copetra latitudoest gradum 46. quæ videturborealißima latitudo Italia , mediaest; etenim gradus 42. ipfa latitudinis habet. Dico autemborealißimam latitudinem Italiæ eße grad.46. proximè; cumenimVenetiagrad. .obtineant,cer tèlimesabillis Italiæintegroproximè gradu abestin Boream . QuiItaliępopulidisciplinammilitaremadeptibellicofiffimieua ferunt, interquadragefimum primum, & quadragesimum quartumgradumconstiterunt. Qui pre cæ terispopulis apti fint ad diſciplinam militarem . E 4 §.Quar 72 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. §.Quartus. Dereliquorumpopulorummoribus. GERMANI &climatefrigidiore utuntur,ideoauda cioresfuaptenatura, ) aere minusperspirato,quam Gallia, cummontibus, &filuis ventifrangantur, undeſpiritus mi nusdepuratos obtinent, proindeque a Gallorum acumine ab funt: Spirituumtamencraffitudotenaciusretinet impreſſas re rumefficiendarum imagines, unde&adefficiendifuntaptif fimi; quocircaartibus, &artificijsadmodumpræftant.Acce ditad bec patientialaboris , quameadem fpirituum craffitudo exhibet. Superbiaquoquegentisimmodicacohæreteidem ſpi 3.par.lib.11 rituumcraffitiei , ut iam docuimus . Poloni, utmagiscam cap.7.8.3. pestres, aere etiam perſpiratiore utuntur. Ungheri non ubi queaquofamæquè, acGalliregionem incolunt, undepertina 9.ppèprin Strabo.lib. ciores,quamilliinpericulis . Gracimacrumfolum ut pluri cipium. mumhabent, &præfertim Athene,purißimoitaque ſpiritu tebantur, undepręstabantingenio, atin climateerant cali diore; ideoque minusfortes,quam Itali, &Galli, Hifpanique : magnaenimHifpaniapars, &ferociorfubfrigidioreclimate degit , ut Cantabri, Aftures, & Humantiniantiquitus, t quamnuncCaftiliam veteremprefertim vocant,quietiamex Hifpanisclimatacalidiora incoluntexnaturafoli acrioris spiri tushauriunt. Angliafolumfuaptenaturafulphureumhabere dicitur, undeareng eiusalbedo,exquaAlbionedictafuit;pro indecalidi vapores, quiinde eleuantur, climatisrigoremtem perant, exquatemperiehominumingeniafuntadactionem , contemplationem plurimum apta . Sed tot dereomnino arduadixiffein vniuerfumfufficiat; exactèenim ,qui ineiuf modiindagine verſari velit, ipſumoportetadfingulalocade Scen i L.  fcendere,utparticulatim &folum, &fitusexaminarepoßit, omnesqueeorumdifferentias inuestigare , &conferre. Deatatummoribus. Cap. Octauum. Ætates distinguit. AETATES reftantexcaufisnaturalibusmorum; earum autem moresdefcribit Ariftoteles,qui adtresredigit;ado lefcentiam , mediametatem, &senectutem : nempèadorato remrefpexit,quicumpuerisfermonemnonhabet,neque enimin illos caduntpublicędeliberationes, veliudicia, nequeetiam en comiastesadfolospuerosencomiafua effunderet,fedcuramo ralisdebet puerorumquoque moresintelligere ,cuiusprefertim etatisinstitutionem, &difciplinam molitur; quippequæ obno xiadifcipline vere eft, ac multò magis, quamreliquæ ætates. UndeAriftotelesin 7. Polit. atatem puerilem ab infantia of Cap. vlt. queconfiderat,partiturqueinquinquepartes; ininfantiam ip Sam,inetatemabinfantia uſqueadquintumannum,ineam, queaquintoadfeptimumannumpertingit, afeptimoaddeci mumquartum,a decimoquarto ad vigefimumprimumannu, ratioquedistinctionis eiufmodi pendetexvariacurapueri ha benda.Inprimaenimparteobteneritudinëmembrorumpræci puacuraeft,nediſtorqueantur, inſecundaneaboccupationeali quamentis,autcorporis impedianturcrefcere,in tertiaiamopor tetdiſciplinamſpectare, quamaddiſcere puerum oportet,ing. quarta autem parte, &quintadifciplinamdiuidereoportetto tam. Atnoſtrohuicinstitutofatis eritquatuorætatesconfide rare;pueritiam, iuuentutem , vigorem,&senectutem . Sc 5 1 74 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. . Nedumexdifferentijstemperamento rum, fed exinſtinctudiftinguimoresætatum. Qvo admorespertinet,dequibusnücfolisexinftitutoagi mus,differentiam etatum reduciadtemperamentorum diffe rentiam, pluresfacilèadmittent, nempèſenečlusfrigidiustem peramentumreddit, vigortemperamentum, iuventuscalidius, quamparfit,pueritiahumidius,&fimiles,acrefpondentes mo rescomitantur. Verùmpratertemperamentidifferentiampue ritiadistat a reliquis etatibus instinctu,&ὀρμήadVenerem3 impetu ve- namatas pueri non agnofcit eum stimulum,experiturové. Si verò exſolo temperamento differentiapenderet , minusqui dem, aliquidtamenstimulieiufmodiperciperet puellusquoque. Cur pueruli Potiusitaquenafciturſtimulusexinstrumentorumiamaptitu opentant dine, queanteainepta erant; proindequenullusadcorum fun nereum. Etioneminstinctuspercipiebatur. Depuerorummoribus. CaputNonam. A InartePoe tica . Puerorummoribus exordiendo eos Horatius itaexpri mits gestitparibuscolludere, & iram Colligit, ac ponit temere, & mutaturin horas . Sanè puermobilis eft, &inconftansexuberantecalore, &hu miditate. Inperpetuo itaque estmotu ; quod docuit Plato in Secunda delegibus, ubidicit . Tenerioris ætatis omnes nonpoffe neccorpore, nec vocequiefcere,fedmo : ueri femper,&loqui velle. Estpraterea cibi appetentiffi muspuer,tum ob corporis incrementum,tumquia calorhumi dus LiberSecundus. 75 dusadcibosin ventriculoconcoquendos,queeſtelixatio,plus rimum,imòtotum confert,tumobiugemætatis eius motionem: adiuuat verò motiodigestionem ciborum. Ob calorem estin irampronus,obhumiditatem nonferuatdiù. Veneris motus nonsentit,nequeagnofcit,reliquus tamen voluptatis , ) do lorisſenſusilliniſolus,faltem maximusineft. Cumitaquefit voluptatisappetentiſſimus , acutaqueeiusfintadmodumcupi ditates,indeetiamquerulus,&moroſus, acgemebundus, cum ſtatimnonfueritfatisfactum eiuscupiditatibus. Hincnaſcun tureæ conditiones,quaspuerotribuitPlato . Verbaviriſunt. Septimode Eft autempuer omni beſtia intractabilior; nam cú legibus. prudentiæfontemnondum perfectumhabeat, infi dioſiſſimus eft, acerrimusque, & petulantiſſimuso mnium beſtiarum. Ideòob vehementiamcupiditatis, que estacutiffima, est ipse quoque acerrimus, &petulantiſſimus, atqueob rationisparticipationemfupraalias animantesest ad explendascupiditatesinfidiofißimus;infidię enim excupiditate rei, cuiinfidiamur, ) ex aliquo verſutia gradunafcuntur. Hacin vniuerfumdemoribus,quietatem puerilemcöfequun tur,fifcilicetipfamperfeconfideremus: ratione tamenpeculia ris temperamenti huius , velillius pueripoteft multam di uerfitatemfufcipere. Ex.gr.fi quispuerlongè abundet humi ditatefupracalorisproportionem, obtufasis cuditatesgeftabit, &hebetudinemquoqueingenijpatietur: atinfuccedeteiuuen tutis ætate,inqua humor exficcatur multaexparte,utfert etatis crafis, cupiditates tum aperiuntur; &acuitur inge nium. QuodBocacciusfabulaturcontigiffe Timoni,aliatamen excaufa. Nosinadagiohabemus maiorisplerunqueindolis ef Sepueros, qui diùinſtarequorum NeapolitaniRegnidormiunt, Que indo fcilicetdiùingenium bebes, acrude præſeferunt . Eft verò idturipueris. cum les æftime 76 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. cummultus calorcopiofiorehumore ab initio obtunditur,quo deindeadiuſtammediocritatem ætatistracturedacto, laudabi lißimum temperamentum euaditex multoſcilicet calore, t multohumoreintersetemperatis . Quod verònuncfupponi muspueritiam effèhumidioremſequentibusætatibus,preter quam,quodresipſaindicat,Galenusdeteperamentis monftrat. Deadolefcentia,iuuentutisgmoribus. Caput Decimum . §. Primus. QuæAriftot.dixit2.Rhet.cap.12.fe cundùm Sigonijſectionem afferuntur & exponun tur , interiectis annotatiunculis . Dmoresadolefcentiætranfeamus, quosexactiffimè de fcribit Aristoteles 2.Rhet. loco antea indicato , illis ego contentus ero . Tantum aliquaad declarationem, cum opus fuerit ,parenthesis modo,interponam,utquæinterfignafue rint, meaintelligantur, reliquaAristotelis . AbAristoteleergo exordiamur, eiusque verbis.Iuuenesfuntmoribus cupi di,&ad ea,quæ concupierint,conficienda parati (No enim differunt ea agere,quærerevé,quæ cupiunt, modòfacultas adfit)& ex corporeis cupiditatibus venereis potifli mumdediti (Gaudentquidem conuiuijs, & compotationi bus minustamen,quam venereis)quarum rerum impo tentesfunt. Inconſtantesautem ,& rerum concupi tarum faftidiofi (Nonfecundum genusquidem,etenim Semperfubindeferuntur in venerem,atinparticulari, &pra fertim corpora,quibusfimulpotitifunt,fastidiunt,aliaque, alia exoptant)&valdèquidem concupifcunt,fedpro tinus LiberSecundus. 77 tinusconquiefcunt (Concupitare obtenta , &ratio est) quia acutashabentvoluntates,&non magnas, qua les ſuntægrotantiumfitis,&fames (Horumenimfitis, &fames acute, & acres;punguntenim veheméter,atparue, quia exiguocibo, &potufatiantur) & adexcandefcentia, acutaqueexcandefcentiaprocliues funt, ad eumque impetumſequendumparati;atqueiræobnoxij,quia propterhonoris deſideriúſeparuifieri patinonpof ſunt:verúægrèferunt,ſi ſibi fieri iniuriam arbitretur ( Quecauſaire est,quiacalidiiuuenes, &ficciores,quàmpue ri, undemaioris, &robuftioris irefunt, eademquecalorisra tio eos cupidosfacit . Feruorin venerem exeodemcalorepro cedit, & exabundantiaſanguinis, undeſeminequoqueredun dant) Imòpotiusvictoriæ , quiaiuuentusexcellentia mm appetit; victoria autem eſt excellentiaquædam (Di cunturautemmagisappetentes victoria,quàmhonoris ,quia certoſtudioquærerehonores, acdignitatesnon eft curæiuueni lis,quenulliſe certoſtudio obftringit,ſed virilispostea. Iuueni itaquepotiusexcellentię in uniuerfumappetentiaineft, adeo queetiam victorie . Quoniamtamen &excellentiaincludit honorem,ideo honorisfub earatione appetitio nonestfubtrahen daiuueni) Atqueharumrerum ambarum ( fcilicet vi Etoria &honoris)quampecuniarumfuntſtudioſi.Pe cuniarum autemſtudioſiminimè; propterea, quia indigentiam(nondumfuntexperti,quale estPittacidictum in Amphiaraum) Quæcauſamoralis eſt (acphiſica,&ex temperameto eft calor, quicontrariafrigiditatidifpofitione in ducit;inducitaut auaritia frigiditas,vt antea vidimus)Neq; malis moribuspræditi funt,fedbonis,quia nondum multaflagitiacognouerunt(Malos hic mores intelligit omnia 4 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. omniain deteriorem parteinterpretari,utdeclaratin capitede fenibus; boniitaquemoresfuntomniainbonamparteminter pretari) & creduli,quia nondumfæpedecepti funt, & bonaſpepleni,quia,vttemulenti,ſiciuuenes natura calidiſunt (Spem,caufalemnempè, intelligereoportet,fcili cet boniexpectationem,nonautemformalem,quę eſttonusani mi;huiufmodienimtono virilisataspreſtatiuuentuti. Secun daautemratio) Simul etiam eſt, quia nondum fæpe opinionelapſiſunt; magnaque exparteſpeviuuut. Spes enim eſt futuri, memoriaveròpræteriti : iuue nibusautem futuri eſtmultum,præteriti autempa rum.Primisenimdiebusnihilſememiniſſe, ſperare veròomniaarbitrantur : & facilèdecipipropter ean demcauſam,quia facilè ſperant;& fortiores , quia iracundi; &bonafpepleni;quorum illud efficit, ne metuant, hoc,vtconfidant: nequeenim quiſquam dumirafciturtimet,&fperarebonialiquid fidentia affert (Quæ ratiofortitudinisexprecedentibus affectibus, ac comitantibusducitur,fedetiamextemperamentocalidoducere licet, quod audaciam facit, velutianteadictumest. Iuuentus autemipſa perſecalore abundat) &verecundi , quia non dum honeſta eſſe alia exiftimant,verùm alegeſola funtinſtituti (Sunt,quiduogenerabonorumcredant,aliud, Aliud publi quorumpublicè, acpalamoporteatlaudare , aliudautem clam, aliud clam celaudatur, &reipfaeligere,quam distinctionem Ariftot. 1.ſephift.elench. eligitur. adduxit, & Platoantea . Noncaditiniuueneshecopinio,qui eafolabonaagnoscunt,quępalam laudantur. Suntautem, que leximperat, ac monet)& magnanimi,quia nondum a vitadepreſſiſunt, fed rerum neceſſariarúrudes ſunt; &feipfum rebusmagnisdignumcenſere magnani mi LiberSecundus. mieſt : idautembeneſperantis eſt,&honefta(fcilicet 79 Splendorem obtinentia)facere, quàmvtilia malunt,quia moribus potius,quàmratiocinationeviuunt(Mores bicdicūtur,quicommendantur: quaratione moratumdicimus, quibenèmoratus est. Viuitautem iuuenispotiusex præfcri ptolaudum, vulgòiactatarumprefertim,infumptibusfacien dis,quàmex utilitatis æftimatione, &fupputatione: idipfum autemest, quodfequiturinAristotele )Eſt autem ratioci natiovtilitatis , virtus honeſtatis : & amicorum ſtu dioſi , ſodaliumquemagis, quamaliæ ætates, quia conuictugaudent,&nihil vtilitatemetiuntur;qua renequeamicos (Adeo utfintamicitia iucundeipfi,non utilisſtudioſe) & omnia in maius , ac vehementius contra Chilonium præceptum (Chilo enimLacedemo- Chilonis p nius, unusexfeptemſapientibus, nequidnimis,preceperat) ceptum,vt, ne quid ni delinquunt,quiaomniaagunt nimis; fi nimis ; fi quidem & mis: amantnimis, &oderuntnimis,&reliqua omniaeo démodo;quippequi,&fcireſeomniaopinantur, & aſſeuerant, quæ cauſaeſt,vtomnianimium agant . (Amantverònimisobacumen, & acredinem,nonobmagni tudinem ; etenim acutas,nonmagnas habere voluntates iam dictumfuit. Acumen veròcalorisidipfumacumendefiderio rumfacit ; que estcauſaphiſica, moralemautem,quæeftopinio fcientiæ,iamdiximus)& iniurias faciunt adcontume liam, non ad malitiam(Excellentiamenimilliquærunt, contumeliasauteminferendoſeeminere patientibus credunt ; undealienainterdum ufurpant,nonutlocupletentur,fedut emicant . Demumqueexinfolentia, & procacitate, non ex auaritia, acmalignitate) &mifericordesfunt,quiaom nesbonos, acmeliores exiftimant; fiquidemfuain nocen 1 80 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. nocentia alios metiuntur ; quare indigna illos pati arbitrantur.Etriſu delectantur itaquefaceti: facetia verò erudita contumelia eſt (Suntequidem in iucundam vitamiuuenesexcalore , & humore proni; namlicètminus, quàmpuerihumidifint, humoremtamencopiofumretinent, & ideo in omnemhilaritatemfunt effufi)Atiuuenumquidem Que dicatur'mores eiufmodifunt. (Iuuentusautemhicfignificateta le iuuentus . abAriftote- tem, que apubertatead virilem uſque protenditur. Durat pluspaulo,minusvéduobusfeptenarijs ,aquartodecimofcilicet uſque ad28. annuminmaribus : licèt Aristoteli videatur adtrigefimumextendere, cumdicit corpusatrigintaannis uf queadtrigintaquinque vigere .) : §. Secundus. QuæHoratiuseademderetradit. HORATIVS ferècontrahitin pauca,que latius Ari Stoteles differuit . Suntautemcarmina eiusinartePoetica Jmberbis iuuenis, tandemcustoderemoto , Gaudetequis, canibusque, &apricigraminecampi, Cæreus in vitiumflecti, monitoribus afper, Vtilium tardus: prouiſor, prodigus aeris, 1 : Sublimis, cupidusque, &amata relinquere pernix. Desenectute. Cap. Undecimum. §. Primus . QuæAriſtotelesſcribitdemoribusſe num. Rhet.  2. EBEBATfermonemdeiuuentuteproximèfequifermo : ن D'deviriliatate:at fecutusordinemAriftotelis,defene Etutis 81 Etutis moribusago,prius eodem modo adducendo verbaAri LiberSecundus. Stotelis,&exponendo: fedpaucefuntex pofitionisindigapost explicationemcorum,quedičłafuntdeiuuenibus . Iamaffera musAriftotelis verba Seniores autem,&qui vigoremre miferunt,exijsfermè,quæhiscontrariafunt,magna expartemoresadeptifunt. Etenim, quia multosan nosvixerút,&multisin rebusdecepti, lapſiqueſunt, &resmaioreexparteperditæfunt,nihil affirmant, atque omniamulto minus,quàmoportet. Et opi nantur, nihilveròſciunt. Etcumcontrouerfantur, adduntſemper( forſan ,& fortaſſe ) atqueomniaita pronunciant; affeueranter verò nihil: & malorum morum funt , quòd eſt omnia in deteriorem par tem interprætari. Prætereaverò ſuſpicioſiſuntpro pter incredulitatem , increduli verò propter peri tiam (Nempè peritifunt verſutiehumana, quamſapè expertifunt , unde vix cuiquam fidem adhibent) Neque valdeamant, nequevaldeoderuntpropterhancra tionem, fedexpræceptoBiantis,&amant tanquam Præceptum Biantisdea ofuri,&oderunttanquamamaturi:&pufillanimi, micitia. quia a vita depreffi funt; nihil enim magni, nihil eximij, fed ea, quæ ad vitam pertinent, concupi fcunt : & illiberales,quia patrimoniumeſt exrebus neceffarijs,vnàfimul verò etiampropter peritiam, quam ſit difficile acquirere, & facilè amitterenon ignorant (Frigiditasprætereatemperamenticaufa eftphifi capropenfionisinidem vitium)&timidi, & omniapræ metuentes,quia,contra aciuuenesfuntaffecti,quip pèquirefrigeratifunt,illi veròcalidi; quareſenectus aditumtimiditatipatefecit; eſtenim timor refrige, :: F ratio : 82 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. ratio quædam : &vitæ cupidiin extremis potiffimú diebus, quiacupiditas eſt rei ,quæabeſt,&cuiusrei indigentes funt, campotiflimum concupifcunt,& obiurgationibus delectantur magis, quam conue nit ; eſt enimpufillanimitas : & hæcquædam(nempè errata cuiusquevelleuiaattendere,ineamqueindaginetotoani moincumbereeftanimipufilli,qui nobilioribus occupationibus apufillis eiufmodinonauocetur. EsthocilludTerentianum 1 Attenfioresfumusadresomnes,quàmfatest) Etad vtilitatem, nonautemadhoneftatemviuút magis , quàm conuenit;quia feipfos diligunt;veile enimbonumeſthuic,honeſtumautemfimpliciter, Etinuerecundipotius, quàm verecundi;quia.n.no curanthoneſtatem æquè,acvtilitatem,paruifaciunt, quid exiſtimetur.Etmalaſpeplenipropterperitiam, quiaplerunqueresperditæfunt, &indeteriorempar tem plerunque cadunt,& præterea proptertimidi tatem. Etmemoriamagis,quamſpeviuunt;nam quodvitæreſtatmodicum ,quodeffluxit,multum eſt. Spesauréeltfuturi,memoriaveròpræteritorum; idquodeisloquacitatis etiamcaufamaffert, quia res præteritasnarrant;dum enimrecordantur,volupta te afficiuntur . Acexcandefcentiæ quidem acute funt,ſedimbecilla (&duratione, &effectufunt enim impotes ultionis) & cupiditates aliæ defecerunt, aliæ funtimbecillæ (cupiditates voluptariasintelligit,quarum alia defecerunt,ut venereain extremaſenecta,aligimbecilla, utcupidiofe ; ob ventriculienimlanguoremnonmultamillis operadarepoffunt) Quare nequecupidifunt,nequead cafaciendaparati, adquæacupiditatibus adducun : L tur; ſed adea,quæalucro (Cupiditasitaquepecunie,t lucri in auaro permanet)Itaquetales temperatividētur, quia cupiditates (queſcilicetintemperantisfunt)oblan guerunt:& lucro inferuiunt,& ratiocinatione po tius viuunt, quàm moribus; eſt enim ratiocinatio vtilitatis , moresautemvirtutis :& iniuriasad mali tiam, non ad contumeliam faciunt (adcompendium enim &vtilitateminiuriantur; ) inhishucusquedictiscon trario modofehabentſenes , aciuuenes: at in commiferatione eodemmodo,fed ex diuerfiscaufis) mifericordes autem etiamfenes funt:verùmnópropter eandem canſam, ac iuuenes :illienim propterhumanitatem,hi verò propterimbecillitatem ;putant enimomniaeſſe vi cina ad patiendum; hoc autem erat mifericordis. (Eft enimmifericordia, utdefinitAriftoteles, Molestias que damobmalumapparensinteritus, t) molestieafferenda vim habens ,eius,quifitindignus ; quod& ipſeſe paſſurum,aut aliquemfuorumexpectet)Vndequerulifunt (Ex licetipsoquodputantomnia eſſe vicinaad patiendum)&ne quefaceti , nequeridiculorum ſtudioſi ; quia queru lusaduerfaturei,quidelectaturrifu. §. Secundus. QuæHoratiuseademdere:&quæ damdubitatio foluitur. 1 HORATIVS autemdemummoreshisexprimitfenum. 2. Multafenemcircumueniuntincommoda, velquod Querit,&inuentismiſerabſtinet, actimetuti: Velquodresomnestimidè,gelideque ministrat, Dilator,ſpelongus,iners, auidusquefuturi. F 2 : Diffi  De coniect.cuiuſquemorib&c. Difficilis,querulus, laudatortemporisacti , Sepuerocenfor,caftigatorque minorum . : Videturautem Horatiusrepugnare Aristoteli,dum spelon Horatius cũ gumſenemdicit,et futuriauidum; contraquamdicatAriftote Ariftotele, les,quifpem afene remouet . Maioragiusfoluit distinguendo fpem,in fpemfortunatiexitusnegotiorum,quamAriftoteles denegatſeni, &in spemproducende vite,quamexponitipse tributam ab Horatiofeni. Nemoenimtamdecrepitusest,qui Senonputetadhucannumpoſſeviuere.Nequeegodictum viri extraprobabilitatem arbitror,attamencredopoßereferriaddi lationem, cui coniungitur (dilator, ſpelongusiners) (Vo ertia . enimiuuenis paratuseftadeaftatimprestanda, &profequens da,quæ cupit,itafenexinillisinfequendis esttardus, acdilator, Spequelongus,dumfcilicetfe aliasfacturumfperat,acproponit: Quidfitin- cumquaexpofitione verbum, iners, quodfequitur, congruits inertia enim efteainexequendis rebus lentitudo) Devirilis atatismoribus. Primus? QuæAriftotelesdicit Rhet.. : Dmores virilis ætatiscũ A Arift.traſeamus,cuiushæcver bafunt. Qui veròvigét,profectòinterhos(Senem fcilicet, &iuuenem)interiecti, moribus crút vtrorúque exuperationedetracta ; quippèquinequenimiscon fidunt, quiaaudacia talealiquid eft,nequenimium metuunt,fedinvtraquerecómodèſegerunt.Neque omnibusfidéhabent,nequeomnibusnõhabent;ve rùmexveritatepotiusiudicant; & nequeadfoláho neſtatem (fcilicetpulchritudinem,&fplendorem)viuunt, neque LiberSecundus. neque ad vtilitatem , fed advtrumque, &nequead 85 parfimoniam,nequead luxuriam , fedadid, quod conuenit. Similiterverò etiamadexcandefcentiam, &adcupiditatem: &temperantescumfortitudine, &fortescumtemperantiafunt;quiahæc in iuueni bus,fenibusquepartitaſunt; fiquidé iuuenesfortes, &intemperantesfunt, ſenioresautemtemperantes, &timidi. Vtauteminvniuerfumcomplectar, quæ cunquecommodaiuuentus,&fenectusinterſediui ſerunt, hæcamboretinent; inquibusveròexuperat,. autdeficiunteorum,quod moderatum eft,&conue niens . Vigetautemcorpusa triginta annisvſquead trigintaquinque, animusveròcircaannumquadra gefimumnonum . Confirmanturex temperamento, quædixitAriftoteles . HAECAriftoteles,quæperſeplana, &ideo nullisanobis Subnotationibus præterquampauculis interiectis difiuncta . Verumfundamentumtemperiei morumhuius ætatis interfe nectutis , &iuuentutis mores pendet ex temperamentoætatis interduas illascontrarias mediocri, & temperato . Calorenim excedensiuuentutistum temperatur ,& frigiditassenectutis abest . Nonideoeffertur, utiuuentus, adexceſſum,neque rut Senectusestobfrigiditatemlenta, & iners,fedmediomodo, ac temperatoſehabetob eandem mediocritatem : &fortis est; ca lorem enim retinet , &temperans ; nonenimab excedentibus Animal in cupiditatibus incenditur, &rapitur. Adijcio autemhancaliam ætatis pgref nonnegligendamanimaduerfionem , animal abinitiohumidius catur. fuséper exic F 3 cum 86 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. cumfit,ſemperdeinceps in etatisprogreſſuexficcari, adeo ut iuuentusficciorfitpueritia,iuuentute etas virilis,&hacfe nectus, dehumore auteminnatoloquor;dehumoreenimaduen titio, &excrematitiofecùs eftdicendum,fiquidembumidahac rationeplurimum eſtſenectus . Cumergo virilis etasficcior fitiuuentute, aeretiamficciuserit , undetonum, actenfionem diutius retinebit ; proinde viri constantioreseruntinpericulis quàmiuuenes: iuuenesautemcontraimpetuofiores. Fortiores itaque verè erunt viriiuuenibus,utetiam tenorem infra Virtusaviro Etioremanimiferuant. Unde virtusa viro appellataeftex dicitur. CICERONE (vedasi). Virtus etiam profortitudinefumebatur,ficutietiam gracèfortitudo ἀνδρεῖατῶἀνδρός dicitur,fciliceta viro. Annotatio, &fubiectiohorum, quæHoratius dicit. At veròhac,quedeetatibusdiximus,eodemmodo,quo catera defitu ſolo, climatibusque intelligendafunt,ſcilicet perſe, &feorfum; nempe virilisatas,qua tales,eos mores, quosdiximus,inducit: verumfitemperamentumpeculiareper fona,ſidiſciplinam,ſireliquas etiam caufasmorum coniunga mus, velomnes , velaliquas, maximatumdifferentianafce tur; reperiemus enim& viros, &iuuenestimidos, &fuga ciffimos, cõtrà,fenesfortes,qualislegiturfuiffein extremaeta Belifarius in teBelisarius,quitumetiam tt tefortis. )confilio, & virtute militari extrema æta fummouitabobfidioneConſtantinopolishostes. Poffunt etiam eſſe hominestamferuidi temperamenti; ut nonnifi inætate fenilinimiuscaloradmediocritatem contrahatur,atqueitaex temerarijsipfiforteseuadant, naturali,inquam, &imperfecta fortitudine. Contra,iuuenesinterdumignauialaborareexem pla LiberSecundus. plamultatestantur, &illudprætereaPoete Vosetenimiuuenesanimumgeritis muliebrem. Subijciamus,queHoratiusdixit Conuerfisſtudijs etas, animusque virilis Queritopes,&amicitias,inferuithonori, Comififfecauet,quodmoxmutarelaboret . 87 Acaliditateautemhabet, uthonoriferuiat; amoderationeca loris, utconfiderando , acpreuidendofutura,queratopes, t amicitias : querurfus omniafuntde naturalipropenfione ac cipienda . §. Quartus. Omnes cauſas naturalesdictas adtem peramentum demum, conformationemvè par tiumreduci. 1 ATcaufamemoratenaturalesexterneadinternastempe ramentumfcilicet, & conformationempartium reducuntur; partimautemadtemperamentumſolidarumpartium corporis, partimadtemperamentumhumorum, utaque cibi; partim adtemperamentum fpirituum,ut vapores,t exhalationes; licèt etiamcibiadſpirituumgenerationempertineant . Eiufmo di ergo caufis rutemuradtemperamentorumgradus elicien dos; undeomnes admomentummorumidem , quodtem peramenti,fcilicetadſenſorij diſpoſitionem,quodmomentum idemest, atquenaturalispropenfio , reducenturinfra inexpo fitionemethodilibrandicontraria momentamorums. Acta tes tamen adaduentitias etiam caufaspertinent, ut uſum, experientiamque rerum important , velutifenectus , ataf quevirilis . F 4 LI  Deconiect.cuiuſquemorib.&c. De caufis ad uentitijs morum. De Nobilitate .  Proponuntur, quæ tractanda. AVSIS morumnaturalibusexplicatis,aduen titias aggrediamur . Sunthe tumexconditio nibusfortuna,nobilitate,diuitijs,poetntia, bona fortuna, &contrarijs: tumexinſtituto, acstu dio vita, quàmquiſqueelegit,fcilicet effe militem, effephiloſo phum,effe iurifperitum. Quefortunefunt, profequutuseft Aristoteles,queſtudiorumnequaquam: at adnoftruminftitu tumpertinetetiam studiaconfiderare . Primoautem lococum Arist. ex nobilitateexordiamur, & præcæteris,quid ipfafit, declaremusfufiusdeillapofteainparuis moralibusdifputaturi. §. Secundus. Vocis ſignificationes. NOBILITATIS nomen,ut hinc exordiamur,non unum,&idemfignificat . Unoenim modolatèfumptum idem,quodperfectio, ac preſtantiaimportat,dumquerimus, utrumSolcateris Stellisfitnobilior; utrumfcientiadeanima reliquisfcientijs nobilitate præftet. Intelligimus enim num 1 bilitas voci nis. Meliusex- perfectior &præftantiorfitcateris . Atad humanamcontra primitur no Etanobilitatemduasadhucfignificationesobtinet ,aliamgene busGræcis, ricam,aliamfpecialem,utlatina voxfit multiplex.Gracive quàmLati- ròduabus vocibus rutunturad easduas, acdiuerfasfignifica tiones; LiberTertius. 89 tiones; nobilem enim in communifignificatu ruocant γνώριμον cui in ordine ciuili opponiturmultitudo grace Πλήθος. ItaAri ftoteles4.Polit. cap.3 . &4. nobilium italatèacceptorumplu resfacitdifferentias ; quatuorautemmeminitexpreßè,fcilicet- Cap.4. diuitias , clarosnatales, virtutem, difciplinam,græcèdicun των Πλᾶπος,ἐυγένεια,Α'ρεθή,Παιδεία: ... reliquas differentias indicat eacommuni dicendiformula(& hisfimilia,quædicunturfe cundùm eandemdifferentiam)eft itaque hæc prima vocisno bilitatis adhumanamrestrictefignificatio.Alia, Spetialisque eft pro claris natalibus,græcè ευγενείαſcilicet ad verbumbona natiuitas. NosetiamItalicènobiles ,bennati, dicimus,t nobilitate, buona naſcita; quiquenobilesfunt, cuanobilita teſuaaliquidfibi onerisimponiſignificare volunt, æquèdicunt idipfum, ricercarlaſuanafcita. Cum verò hecduo vo nobilitatisfignificata obtineat , cumfimpliciter profertur pro ευγενεία feu claris natalibus accipitur ; unde vulgari nostro idiomate, nobil'huomo nifialiudexprimatur, & gentil huomoidemfignificant :fedgentile,egentilezza,figni ficantnobilem, &nobilitatem. Dantesita ufuseftvoce. Taleimperò,chegentilezza volſe, Chefoßeanticapoffeffiond'hauere . EtBocaccius;chegentilezzanontogliepouertàideft abinopianonauferrinobilitate. Hecdefignificationibusvocis Inopia non nobilitatis . Ethymologia verò vocisinprimofignificatuac ceptaeft ex cognitione,quoddignusfit,quicognofcatur;fuapte que naturafui cognitionem effundat iuxta illud Rodomontis penes Areostum . (. Vbicunque refidam Lux meameprodit. Lucem veròfaciuntomniabona,que confpicuitatem obti neant aufert nobi 90 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&. neant , ut velalereequos,&canes; hofpitio illustres homi nes accipere; ſplendidis uti veſtibus, ornatoquefamulitio, lu cem, accelebritatemafferant; nobilitatis veròpro eugeniano minalis definitioex modòdictisapertaest,ſcilicet clauſasque dammaiorum,quamadhibuit,&fuppofuitAriftoteles 2.Rhet. cap.is. §. Tertius. Afcriptoribusin difputationedeno bilitate fæpe varias nobilitatis fignificationes con fundi. Ininueftigandanobilitateex vocisambiguitateſapemul ta perturbatio orta estinfcriptoribus . Videasenim,quinobi_ litatis tranquefignificationempaßimconfuderint ; unde multidubitarunt , utrum virtusfolafitnobilitas; etenim fi latiorfignificatio eius attendatur,certè nobilis, utgracegnori mosdicitur,cum pluribusabundetbonis claritatemfauentibus; a virtutepra cateris veram, acfolidamclaritatemfufcipit,vt honor virtutispremiumdictusfuerit , & itaexnonnullorum. opinione definitus . Dum pro prestantia rei, adeoquelatiſſi mèfumiturnobilitas,certum efttumquoquehominemnobilem effè ex perfectione, acprestantiahumana: at perficiturhomo ex virtutibus corporis, )animi,exhisquepotiffimum; vtiu rèinhocfignificatu Socrates, referente Stobeo, definieritnobi nimi,&cor Nobilitas a- litatem eßeanimi &corporisbonamtemperiem; )Euripides porisbona dixerit; virumbonumeffenobilem: qui veròmaluseft,licèt a temperiesex parentemeliore,quàm Iupiterprocedat,ignobilem effe . Qui de finiuerunt,nobilitatemeſſeperfectionemforma, &nobilitatem Dialogo de Socrate. Taffiusin humanamefſſeperfectionemforma , ac animerationalis, illihoc Nobilit. latiſſimo modonobilitatem tumaccepere,licèt clampofteain alias  aliasdeflexeruntfignificationes, &potiffimumineugenia,ſeu clarorumnatalium : nosergoadhancinpreſentiafermonemre Stringimus. An fit nobilitas. SvNT, qui iuxtalogicumqueſtionum ordinemquerant primolocodenobilitate,anfit. Piccol. adducitStoicosdenegan- Grad.mo V tes, &Socratem, & Euripidem,&c. Sed verèdenobilitate, ral.8.c.14. cutnos modòſumimus ,&communiteracfimpliciterfumitur, cumadhominemrefertur,disputarinequit, anfit. Quisenim non videt alioshominesex maioribus clarisortos , aliosexob ſcuris,utdifferentiaignobilitatis,&nobilitatisnullo modola terequeatur . Verùmid disputatum videmus , vtrumnobi litas,becfcilicetmaiorum claritasfit bonumfolidum, anfu tile . Boetiusfutilebonum contendit, tſi verafateri veli- Lib.3.deco. mus,dumfecundùmnaturamremconfideramus; claritasipfa fol.proſa6. perſemaiorumnihilindefcendentesphiſicè, utitadicam,im primit : atfecundùmopinionem,adeoquein vitaciuili, quæopi nioneno minimum nititur, multumadpofterospertinet, eosque ornatprecedentium,maiorumqueclaritudo, undepræclarèCi cero; Optima, inquit, hæreditas apatribustraditurli teris , omnipatrimonio præſtatur ſcilicetgloriavir tutum,&decorrerumgeſtarum,Quod,firemexnatu raipſaeſtimemus,contrà,reftiffimèBoetius . Quidgenus, &proauos Strepitis? Si primordia vestra, AuctoremqueDeumspectes, Nullus degenerextat, Nivitijspeiorafouens, Proprium deferatortum . Dixi Metr.6. 92 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. Dixiautem claritatem maiorum ipfamperſenihilin defcen dentes phyficèimprimere utfeiungerem claritatemafunda mento, quodinterimeft naturale, eſtque virtusnaturalis,pro penfiofcilicet , &aptitudo adpulchra, & honesta,queſape pertraduceingenitosexgenitoribustranfitiuxtailludHoratij.-fortescreanturfortibus. Dequa virtute,quæobidgeneris virtus dicitur,moxdiſſe remus. Interimergo dari nobilitatem,effeque bonumſecun dùmciuilem estimationemnullomodo ſpernendumaccipiamus. Netamentumeantadeònobiles, utcredantnobilitatis bonum effè ceterisomnibuspreferendum; nam , ) virtus, &glo ria , bonorquefuuspræſtant claritudini,quamquis ex aliena auorumclaritate adeptuseft: fecundumquamcomparationem veriffimumilludBoetij , Quareſplendidum te, ſi tuam nonhabes, alienaclaritudononefficit. 6. Quintus. Quidfitnobilitas. Definitio eſſentialis. IAMquidnobilitashacfit,dequanuncloquimur, expona mus. Primòautem definitionem effentialem quæramus ; po Steacaufalem inueftigabimus. Sunt ex Logicis, quicredunt definitionemaccidentis effentialem eandem effe cumdefinitione eiuſdem nominali, quod tamennon eſſe perpetuum alibi mon ſftraui: interdum tamen id accidit, &frequenterpropinque funt, quodinprafentiaeuenit; namnobilitas haceugenia, qua minalis no bilitatis. Definitiono nobiles homines,&Italicè,Gentilhuomini,dicuntur,eft cla ritasmaiorumfecundùmdefinitionemnominalem: atfecundùm eſſentialem non multum ab earecedit; &fieanominalisdiftin guatur; acelaboreturamplius , adeffentialemtraducitur. Ari Stotelesitaque inprimo Rhetoricorumbancipfam definitionem locu & da LiberTertius. ::  locupletiorem, &explanatioremreddidit, exigendo legitimam originemex viris,atmulieribus : claritatem autem maiorum explanauit,fiprimi clarifuerint, aut virtute,autdiuitijs, aut aliarerumearum,quein honoremfunt;fiquismultiex gente . illuſoresfuerint,tum viri,tum mulieres,tumadolescentes,tum fenes. Quoniamtamenpopulariusbecdefinitiotradita eft,ut librisRhetoricis congruebat, quam methododefinitiuæ etiam in moralibus accommodetur, ideoeambunc inmodum contra hamus. Nobilitasestorigo legitimaex virisac mulieribus , Definitioef quorumprimi, & multiclarifuerintaliquaearumrerum,quæ bilitatis! inbonorefunt. Hecdefinitio exactiore methodoita procedit, ſentialis no abſtrahendo aſpetie omnibonorum, ex quibus homines clare Sount. Atfirigoreminfringereadmaiorem, &planioremde finitionisintelligentiam libeat, non erit inutileprimam bono rum Speriemparticulatim meminiße, utetiamfacit Aristote les dicědo; Nobilitatemeſſelegitimam origineex viris &mulieribus, quorumprimi, &multi clarifuerint virtute, autaliacearum rerum,quæin honorefunt.s InquintoPolit. cap.primo coniunxit,dicendo; Nobilesef ſe, quorummaioresvirtute, &diuitijspræditifunt. Dumenimvirtutismeminimus earumetiamrerumaliarum, queinhonorefunt, nefcioquamexplicationemafferimus taci tam,quafcilicetres, t )quabonaillafint. 3, 5. Sextus Declarationem definitionis aggreditur. IMMOREMVR aliquantisperindefinitione adductade claranda . Animaduertendum autem,dum definitur aliqua earumrerum,que intenfionem, &remiſſionemfufcipiunt,in graducofumendameffe,inquo abſolutamdenominationem, fimpli  Deconiect, cuiufquemorib.&c. fimpliciterfufcipit,nonfecundum quid;nempealbedovelpu radefinitur, velnonnifidenominationemfufcipiensexprado nobilitate minio, qualem, &quotumgradumdeterminauit Ariftoteles 6. Phis.tex.83. Secundolocoidconfiderandumestnobilitatem hanceugenie,acbone natiuitatis anobilitate humanagenerali Ex generali pendere,fecundùmquamnobilesgnarimosgræcèappellaridixi fpecialispro mus; namauthornobilitatis nonpotefthabereclarosnatales,at cedit. clarus effedebet virtute,autalioeorumbonorum,queinbono refunt; adeoutcumindefinitionediximusprimos, & multos generisclaros, eosgnorimos, ) nobilesgenerali humananobi litatefignificauerimus . His iactisfundamentis querendum primoloco, vtrumfatisfitadnobilitatemeugenia,fipatercla rusfuerit, anauusetiamrequiratur: annequebiduofufficiant, fedrequiraturpræterea proauus clarus,&gnorimus,liceat greca voce uti. Illaetiamemergitdubitatio,an virorumfa lùmclaritasattendatur,an etiammulierum. Quòadprimumst rigorem verborumAristotelis attendamus,certè tres ad mi nimumprædecefforesclaroseßeoportet, patrem,auum, & pro auum; cumenimmultosAriftoteles clarosrequirat,gracènu merus multitudinistresfaltemexpofcit: duoenim non nume rumpluralemapud Gracosfeddualemfubeunt. Aliqui ra tionemaddunt; debetenimnobiltashabereprincipiu,medium, tfinem:at principium, medium, &finisnonnifiin tribus. confiftunt . At militie nuncD. Stephani,D. Mauritij, ac Lazari, D. Ioannis Hierofolomitanifatis habent adnobilita temaßerendam,ſipatris, &auiciuilem claritudinequis often dat. Dicendumitaqueprimumnobilitatisauthorem adeoque nouumhominemnullampenitusnataliumclaritatemhaberesfi liumautemeius iamaliquidnatalitiæ claritudinisobtinere,em patre enim claro nafcitur: at neposmagis adhuc claritateea dem diLiberTertius. : 95 dempotitur, abnepos adhucmagis. Certumergoeſt,ſtatimpost nouumhominem ,fed clarumdefcendentes aliquem bonanati uitatis gradumnancifci:atuttotparticipentgradus,quotad nobilitatis abfolutamdenominationem exiguntur, placet mihi ternariusnumerusin uniuerfumloquendo:pro futamen , &locobinariusquoquefatisest, utexemplo recenfitarummi litiarum patet. Atprotertiogradupreteradductaargumen- In natalib. tafacitbeoaliaratio. Neceffarium videtur, ut exhominum fatetresgr oculis recefferint ad nobilitatem afferendam prima generis dus claritur falté dinis, vtno fordes: atquoniam aliqui quartam uſque vident generatio bilia dican nem, fieripotest, utadeiusætatem,qui auum clarumhabuit, fedexobscuropatrenatumperueniatidem illeobfcurus auipa ter,quotamen viuenteprimefordesgenerishominuminocu lisfunt,ac perfeuerant . Quod si proauum usqueclarum exigamus, ceßateiufmodi periculum, ) nihilnonclarumeius generispoffuntvellonganiſenes vidiffe. Herodianuscumno bilitatem Commodieffert, eaprefertimrationeillum commen tur. : Herodia ffert, ea nuseffertno bilitatéCo dat,quodtertioiam graduimperium, nobilitatemqueRoma modi. namcomplecteretur. §. Septimus . Eandem definitionis declaratio nemprofequitur;verum etiam claritas mulierum exigatur. ילין 1000 SED utrumetiammulierumclaritasexigatur,anfufficiat claritudo virorum; Iusciuileſola virili claritate contentum eft cum omnemmulierumclaritatem, obfcuritatemvéexmari torumconditionependere velit: &ratio etiam naturalisfuf dedignitat, fragari videtur, fiadgenerationemfolumpatremactiuècon-1.mulieres. .C. Libr.dege currerenonetiammatrem (quaeftAristotelisdoctrina)fu- ner.animal. Scipia 96 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. Scipiamus . AtAristotelis adductainRhetoricisauctoritas contrarium vult, & ufus militiarumdictarumHierofolymi tane,D. Stephani quæ exigunt, utclaritas,nedumpaterni, fedetiammaterni stemmatis, &utriusqueauie, paterne,ac materne demonstrenturadoſtenſionemnobilitatis.Respondeo itaque adintegramnobilitatem& virorum &mulierumcla ritatem exigi;cum enim bonumnobilitatisinopinioneconſiſtat, utanteadiximus,ipsequoque maternefordesfecundùmexi ſtimationemcontactuſuo adiungunt dedecoris nonnibilperfo næ, &generi; undeCicero obiecit Pifoninobiliffimobomini obscuritatem maternigeneris. Verumtamen cumnobilitas,ne dumintegra,fedetiam expredominioabſolutamdenominatio nem obtineat (utproximèdiximus)præstet verò claritas rilis fatis eſt tionem no bilitatis. Claritas vi- virilislongè muliebri claritati, ) obfcuritati, ideo, meiudice , ad abfoluta claritas virilisfatiseftad abſolutam denominationem nobili denomina- tatis; atnonadintegram nobilitatem: cuiconclufioni ufusat testatur; namfiquisexnobilifamiliaignobilemfæminam,aut dotis, aut reialteriusgratiaducatin uxorem,ex eaquefilios fufcipiat, nobiles illi tamendicentur, etiamfiignobilitas matris imputetur. : :: S.Octauus . Verumexiganturlegitiminatales on QUÓD demuliebriclaritatedicimus,delegitimispariter naturalibus dicendum,aliquatamencummoderatione,Sineita que legitimis natalibus non eftintegra nobilitas;nammatris turpitudo, ac impudicitiaſordesquædamest eius, quinascitur; nequeenimfineruboreitanato obijcitur genitorumintemperan Deinftitut. tia, utdicit Plutarchus : claritas verò maiorum potest tum Pucrorum excedere eam generationis turpitudinem,tumexcedi abea In LiberTertius . 97 Ingeneremodiceclaritudinis vincit deformitas,adeo utqui nafcitur pro ignobili habeatur: cumcontrà multaeritgeneris claritudo , a ſplendore maiorumfæda natiuitas occulitur, vel offufcatur . EstensifamiliænonimputanturBorſi,ac Leonel- Borfus,& li natalesillegitimi . Venetijscontràillegitimifamiliarumno- Eftenfesno bilium nonadmittuntur adpublicos nobilium honores : penes thi. nosinplebeiumordinempotiusrecidunt. Hacde effentialidefi nitiones adcaufalemtranfeamus. §.Nonus. De cauſalidefinitione; cuiusfunda menta præmittuntur. CAVSALIS definitionontantaacriuiahicfumitur, quanta inlogicis declaratur;fed laxiusaliquanto; nequeenimcaufail lucpertinet,cur, &quadecauſaorigofitexperſonisclaris,fed curorigo eiufmodiprobono imputetur, curnempè aliena maio rumlaudesnostra fiant,cumtamen, utargumentaturBoe tius, non videatur id accideredebere. Eftautemeiusargu mentum,ficlaritudinemprædicatiofacit, illifintclari , neceſſe est, qui prædicantur; quare ſplendidumte,fituamnonhabes, alienaclaritudonon efficit. Queramus ergo, undeſplendor nobisex maiorumnostrorumclaritatenafcatur . Repetendum. eft, nedumexinfidentibus,inherentibusque,fedetiamattin gentibus, acpropinquismalis fecundùm existimationemallini, nefcioquidmali,perſone, &rei : idproximèdiximus; atnunc etiamconfirmemushoc unicoexemplo . Sivas velaureum adpurgamentacorporisſuſcipiendafactumeßet,turpique eiuf modiministerioiamdeferuiffet , etiamfiexactiſſima cura ablu tum,&abſterſum effèt, nontamenexeopotare, velcomedere Sustineremus,tantumfolaantecedentiumfordiumexcogitatio 1 G nos Leonellus  Deconiect.cuiufquemorib &c. nospromoueret. Bonorumattingentium,&propinquorum ratioetiam commouet, nonadeo tamenpresenti,&acriſenſu, atque malorum. Vaſe quidempuriffimo, &adpuraministeria deferuiente libenter uteremur ,at non tantum indefuauitatis acciperet potio, quantum infuauitatis ,si ex vafe purgamen tisdeftinato,etiamfiabluto,potaremus. Inrebusetiamnatu ralibus multimorbicontagio inficiunt , atnunquamnullaſani tas contagio iuuat : quod Ariftoteles habet caufamque tradit probl. primofect. 7. Hincfit,utcausa , quamobrem maiorum fordesefficiantignobilespofteros, euidentiorfit, quàm cur clari tas eorundemexornetpofteros nobiles . Vndenonſolahonorum propinquitashicprocauſaadducitur, utillicfordesipfametfi nitime afferuntur,fed alia præterea causa affere opus est, quamnuncinuestigemus. : §. Decimus. Duoafferuntur dicendimodi, alter Ariftotelis , alter AdouardiGualandi,tertiuspræte rea exBoetioadijcitur . Dvo modidicendiofferuntur,quamobremclaritasmaio ruminbonumcedatposteriorum . AltereftAristotelis ,quem etiamtetigitHoratius ;nempèconfentaneum effèexmelioribus ortoseffe meliores ,eòquod nobilitas eſt virtusgeneris,dequa Lib.3.Polir. cap.8. virtutemox dicemus . Adouardus veròGualanduscauſam in eoreponere videtur, quodfitnobilitasparentum,maiorque inRempublicammeritorumhæreditas:ficutenim,inquit,alio rumbonorum,queadmaioresnostros,cum viuerent,pertine bant,ita etiam meritorumin Rempublicamharedesfumus. Sed quid,fitertium modumdicendiexBoetiofubijciamus? necef fitatemfcilicet nonrecedendi a maiorum veftigijs,quamimpo nitnobilitas, caufam effe, cur maiorumclaritas verèin bonum pofterorumcedat.Verba virifunt. Quod, fiquid eftin 99 nobilitatembonum,ideffearbitrorfolum,vtimpo fita nobilibus neceſſitudo videatur, nea maiorum virtutedegenerent . Examinemusnuncdicta. Virtutem autemprimògenerisdeclaremus. Eftfanèeiufmodi virtusnon morèacquifita,fedinfita extemperamentopropenfioinmores, &affectus laudabiles,dequaiamnonfemeldiximus : &quo niam temperamentaplerunqueper traducemexparentibusin filiospropagantur,ideoplerunque etiam virtutesnaturalespa riteringenera,acfamilias diffunduntur . Aristotelesremto 2.Rhet.c.18 tamfimilitudineagrorühuncinmodumdeclarauit (Eftenim, inquit, in familijsprouentusvirorumquidam,perin deacinijs, quæ nafcunturinagris,&nonnunquam fi genusbonum fit,viripreſtantes exoriuntur, dein derurfus retrofertur. Familiæverò ,quæfubtiliin geniopræditæ funt,admoresinfanioresdeficiunt,vt quiabAlcibiade,&Dionyfiofuperioresprofectisút: quæveròſtabili ,adſtoliditatem,vtqui a Cimone, Pericle,&Socrate. Hec ille. Ceterum autem in virtute generisrepofitam effenobilitatë, tumbocloco2. Rhet. tumpro ximoindicato 3.Polit.cap.8. tumalijspræterealocis; &primò deHist.animal. pariternobiledefinit, quodeſtexbonoge nere. Non refpicit autem infingulis virtusgeneristotam virtutem,fedinhisfortitudinem militarem, ut infamilia Gonzagha,in illis prudentiam politicamfolidam&prestana Virtutes p tem,utinfamiliaMedicea,inalijs paternamergafubieétos priæfamilie Gonzaghæ, regiamque charitatem, utinfamiliaEftenfi. 4 §.Vndecimus. Conferunturmodidicendi. RESTAT nunc, utquamexhis veramfententiamar G 2 bitrer, Mediceę,& Eſtenſis . i 100 Deconiect.cuiuſquemorib.&c. bitrer, exponam. SentioitaqueabAristotelecaufamnoncom munione vniuoca,fedexattributionecommunemallatam eße, outindefiniendo eiusfermè mosest; nempènobilitaseſtcla ritas maiorum,fiueorigoexmaioribusclaris. Claritas au temeorumest velex virtute, velexdiuitijs, velexaliaali quareearum,quæ in honore habentur. Cum ergoclaritasex virtute est , virtutigeneris nititurnobilitas : at cumexdiui tijs,velex alio eiusmodifplendorefortune,virtusgenerisnon habetibilocum,neque vera,nequeprefumpta,nifi,fiforteadeo tenuiter,utnullius vixmomentiexistimaridebeat. Aristote les ergorespexitnobilitatem, quæfecundum effentiameftclari tas maiorumex virtute,eiusquecaufam attulit virtutemge neris;nempè ex eiufmodi virtutegenerisfit , ut virtutem maiorumappræfententpofteri,utplurimum, utqueinopinio ne, exiftimationequehominumclaritas illorum his tribuatur, quatenusprefumitur,vulgòperpetuò virtutem eandemgene ris ingenereipſo propagari, licèt verènon propagetur, utsa pientesagnofcunt,Ariftoteles.Poffumushinc diftinguere, utis virtusgeneris vera,anpresumptafitindefinitionecauſaliin telligenda; etenim , dum verameamcontinuationem claritatis ex virtutefibifuccedentiumhominum ineademfamiliaconfi deramus,exquafitnobilitas, virtus vera naturalispro caufa exigitur, utfcilicet virtus naturalis cauſaeſt virtutismora lisperfecta,autimperfecte. Vt veròintegram nobilitatisdu rationemanimocomplectimur, tum prafumptam, non veram virtutemgeneris accipereoportet ; duratenim nobilitas,post quametiamobſoleuit virtusgeneris, utfatetur Ariftoteles , quomono Præfumptio &resipsadocet; namflorenteRomanoImperiofamilia Corne bilitati de- lia nullum edebat virtutis specimenfedcumalijsantiquisRo feruiat. manorumfamilijsalto luxudemerſaStertebat : attamen , quis nega LiberTertius... ΙΟΙ negareteamintanta antiquitate , & claritatediuitiarum , loci nonfuiffè adhuc nobilem ? Ammianus Marcellinusfuo tempore nobilitatem Romanam etiam agnouit & admiratus est,quifcripfit aduſque Valentis exitum : & Chilpericus po ftremusRegumGallieex primoſtemmatenobilisab omnibus afferetur, etiamfiomnigeneris virtuteexutus. Tumergòcum obſoleuitiam virtusgeneris, non vera, fedpræfumptanobili tatemefficit . HecitaquedeAriftotelisdogmate hac in res , quod Peripateticifuntfequutiex recentioribus . Poffeni nus,Taffius. : Adouardi Gualandidictum communionem uniuocamre fpicit,namidverèanimisnoftris,opinioniqueinfidet, utcete rorumbonorum,aciurium,quæ maioresnostriobtinuere, here desfumus,itaetiam fplendoris obfcuritatisquehæredes effe. Verum nonest,curid admeritainRempublicamreftringa mus. Quicunqueenimfueritſplendor,hæredesexopinioneca demfismus,&quaecunquefueritignominia. Quodveròdi citBoetiusnonpertinetadcauſamnobilitatis , fedpotius adeffe Etum,conſequentemque utilitatem,quam agnofcentes multi Principes libentius credunt munitorum locorum cuftodias vi risnobilibusquàmignobilibus ,quòd credant pro illorumfide Splédorma 1 4 ior eft fide nobilitatemipfamfideiubere , uthoneſta &præclaraexempla iufforpofte maiorumillisad imitandumproponit . Uterqueigiturmodus tis. dicendi &Ariftotelis, &Gualandicaufamexprimunt,fedil leexattributione, hicexcommunione uniuoca.Ariftotelesau tempræftantiffimèproſolita methodoad declinandum equiuo cationispericulum ,quod latetetiamindefinitionibus, commu nionemexattributioneamplexuseft: atmodus Boetijad cau Samnonspectat,nequeveròestidilliimputandum,quianeque tuminhuiuscaufaindagine verſabatur. G 3 §.Duo  Deconiect. cuiuſquemorib.&c. §. Duodecimus . Taſſij definitioexaminatur. TORQVATVS Taffius in Dialogo peculiari,quemFur niuminfcripfitabinterlocutore , denobilitate egit; definitioně Definitiono queeiustandemcollegithuncinmodum . Nobilitas eft vir bilitatis ex tus generis honorata ob antiquam claritatem ;decla Torquato Taffio. ratquedefinitionemeiufmodi constareex genere ,& differen tijs, adeoqueeffèntialemeffetotamfignificat,nullopacto caufa lem.Virtutem itaqueprogenereaccipit,reliquaprodifferentijs: atcertèintimusagnofcitſenſus,dumdiciturnobilitaseſtvir tusgeneris, tumprædicationecaufalem,noneffentialemeffici, nonfecùs,accum dicimus ecclipfiseßeterrainterpofitionem, &quadraturamrectanguliexalteraparte longioriseßeinuen tionemmedie proportionalis,quod est exemplum Ariftotelis SecundodeAnima; &resipsaloquitur,namgenusnunquam poteſta redefinitaauelli,at abſque virtutegenerispoffè effe Chilpericus nobilitatem vidimus, v.g. Chilpericus Rexnobilitatemobri Rexnobilis nebat, atnullaineo virtusgeneriserat. At nunquamitage quanquam degener. nusseiungiturarecuiusgenus eft, utdiftinguanturfubiecto. Aliopretereanominereprehenfionemihidignavidetur;lyenim (honorata)nonestdifferentiavirtutisgeneris, cum confequa turpotiusillam,utcommuneconfequens. Virtusenimomnis fuaptenaturaefthonorata,nonautemaliahonorata,aliainha norata est; fi honoremprodignitatehonorisaccipiamus,vel proexiftimatione, &opinione virtutis. Quod si pro SIGNO est extrinsecus virtuti; eſt enimeiuspremium, autfignum,non differentia:fed,quicquiddehacreprehenfionefit,certèprima viget,&vrgetomnino. EtAriftotelesfuainRhetorica tuminprimodeanimal.hist.genus nobilitatisinorigineponit, non LiberTertius. 103 nonin virtutegeneris. Definitionemeiusin1.deRhet.attu limus,&in 1.debist.animal.itidemdicitnobileeffe; quodor tumeſtexbonogenere, utin ortu,tanquamingenereno bilitatemponat,noninbonitate, autin virtutegeneris.Nam finobile eft,quod ortumeſt exbonogenere, nobilitas erit ortus,&origoexbonogenere,nonbonitasgenerisformaliter. Denobiliummoribus. Cap. Secundum. . Primus. Quæ dixeritAriftoteles 2.Rhet.cap.15. EXPLICATA nobilitatis natura,eiusnuncmoresex ponamus. Aristotelesduorumin vniuerfummorum, no bilitatis meminit:prior est cupiditas honoris, eamque ratio nemreddit; quoniamnobilitas eftmaiorumdignitas.Cum ve roomneseabona,queſuppetunt,accumulareconfueuerint,ideo nobilesauitishonoribusfuos &ipfiadiungerefatagunt.Secun dusestpropenfioadcontemnendoseos,quimaioribusfuis(pri misfcilicet authoribus generis)fimilesfunt; ignobilesenim fuiffeeos,idestobfcuros natalesobtinuiffeneceffeeft. §. Secundus. Cur poſſeſſiobonorumingerattu morempoffidenti. VTdictorum, &dicendorumcognitioclariorprocedat, eft hoccommunefundamentumftatuendum; omnisbonipoffeßio tumoremquempiamnataestingererepoffidentiplus,minusvé proqualitate, amplitudineboniquodobtinetur.Confequens autemeftaffectuisefufpiciendi ob aliquodbonumcontemptus eorum,qui eocarent,in eofaltemquòdcarent. Quocircanobiles G 4 igno : 104 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. ignobilesſpernunt,diuites inopes. Secundolocoideftetiam ani maduertendumfuafingulisbonamaioraſemper videri,quàm Polit. fint, quemexphilautiaerrorem & agnouit , &procaufafun Lib.5.cap.1. dametoqueſeditionūomniūinrebuspublicis Ariftotelesftatuit, utibienim expofuit diuitescuminaliquo excellant ,fcilicet in diuitijs , creduntſe in omnibus excellere,adeoque Reipublice munia , &dignitatesfibi deberi. Nobiles contrà ex eadem philautia arbitranturfibiomnesReipublicedignitates, acfolis conuenire : que, cumitafint ,fitamen cum intima credulitate coniungatur publicaconcelebratio Ciuitatis,acloci, tumorin immenfumcrefcit.NuncVenetijsnobilitas,cumin manu Rem publicamhabeat, abomnibusfufpicitur, &celebratur: tumor etiameiusnobilitatis maximuseft. Tempore etiam Iugurthi ni belli, antequam Marius eampercelleret, nobilitas Romana, que Consulatum, &summasdignitatesfibipermanustrade bat, maximètumebat, utmeritiffimèinidtemporiscaderet, quoddixit Sallustiusde Metello agens. Ineratcontemptor animus, &fuperbia, communenobilitatismalum .  Quævitia,&virtutesconfequantur nobilitatem . Ex hisfundamentispatet,&vtrum, &quamobrem nobilesfintignobiliumcontemptores,plustamen, minus vépro loci,&Ciuitatisinftituto. Patetetiamdumclaritatemfuörum fufpiciuntquamquamipfi ex illis obtinent , inflammaridefide rio bonorum ,&dignitatum ,quibus fuæ nobilitatisbonum augeant &inpofteros auftius transmittant . Florente etiam adhuc veranobilitate , adeoque virtute generis ,cuiinnititur pareftinfamilijs militaribus moresbellicofos vigere; in litera rijs LiberTertius . 105 rijs literas , ) ſtudia; in prudentibus negociandi dexterita tem,etc. At abſolefcente iamnobilitateretrorsum mores ruere comodo,quò ex Aristotele declarauimus: dequafamiliarum déclinatione,non deincremento, acftatu verafunt, queHora tiusfcribit. Ætasparentum,peiorauistulit Nosdeteriores, moxdaturos Progeniem vitiofiorem. Habethocpostremoboni morisnobilitas , utipfam pudeat actionumprauarum,acamaioribusdegenerantium,nifitamen ea vetusdeprauationobilitateminuaferit utpeccatumaliquod fibifamiliarefecerit velutiimpudicitiam Romane nobilesIu uenaliteste,ſuatempestate . Cuiusapudmollesparua eft iacturacathedras. 4 Suntetiam exeducationein clara domo urbanimores nobi libus multofaltemmagis,quàmnouishominibus,quifortune immodico fauoreadfummarepentecreuerint,dequibushomi nibus verumeftillud Claudiani; Afperiusnihileftbumili,cumfurgitinaltum. Et intelligemusdiuitumrecentium mores multo contumeliofio res effe . Demoribus diuitum . Cap. Tertium . 6. Primus. Quæ Ariftoteles dicit in 2.Rhet.cap.19. A : : Ddiuitum moresaccedamus; prestatautemexAristo teleexfcribere, ut moresætatumfecimus. Sunt (inquit) cõtumeliofi ,&fuperbiapoſſeſſionediuitiarú aligd palli (nempèeoipſo,quoddiuitesſunt,eiufmodi morespatiun tur) 106 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. tur) Perindeenim affectifunt, acſibonisomnibus af fluant; fi quidem diuitiæ, quaſi pretium quoddam æſtimationisaliarum rerum funt; quocirca venalia omniaipfarumeſſevidentur(quam tamenratiocinatio nemplurimum confirmatphilautia ,quefacit velutiproximè vidimus,utquiſqueſuabonamaiora,quàmfint, credat,maio risque meriti)& delicati & arrogantes;delicatiquidem propterdelicias (nempèobeammolliciem, quamdeliciasdi ximus propterquamfcilicet utunturmollibus vestibus,cibis Suauibus, & demumtotosſe luxuidant) &beatitudinis oftentationem (bec eftfecunda ratio , quamobrem luxu utantur ad oftentationem beatitudinis,quamobcaufamquo que pretiofis utuntur vestibus,amplasdomosedificant,ſu perbequeinstruunt,bigis &quadrigis,nunc etiamfeiugibus utuntur,magnopretioemptis,curribus prætereaamplis, ornatiffimis) arrogantes autem,&elati, quia omnes in ijs rebusoccupariſolitifunt, quarumipſiamore, at queadmirationeducuntur &quiaalioseadéæmula ri opinantur,quæ&ipfi.Nonimmeritòergoitaani matifunt, quia multifunt,quihabentiumindigent, vnde&illud dictuSimonidisdeſapientibus,& diui tibus,ad Hieronis coniugéextatroganté;vtrum me liuseffetdiuirem effe,anlapiente, diuitemreſpodiſſe: ſapientes.n. dixit,ſe diuitumforibushærétesvidere. Hocitaquepeccatoadiuuaturcredulitas diuitum ex communi concelebratione , attestationesque hominum, exqua valdetu morem animi crefcere, atqueopinionemdefuisbonis proximè monuimus. Etquiaſedignoseſſeimperioarbitrantur. Ins.Polit.cap.1. 3. Polit.cap.8.atquevtfummatim dicam; dementisbeatimorumdiuitiæfunt. Imitatus est.  est hunc dicendi exparte modum Horatius , dum dixit; Stultitiampatiunturopes; )minusilles Fortuna,quemnimiumfouet,stultumfacit. Differuntautmores eorum,quinouisfruunturdi uitijs, & corum , quiantiquis, quiaomnibusmalis, ijsquegrauioribus cumulatifuntmagis , quanouis ; namnouasdiuitiaspoſſidereeſt quaſirudemdiuitia Fumelle; (contumeliofioresfcilicet, &fuperbioreserunt,qui nouis,quàmquiantiquis; itemdelicatiores,&arrogantiores, dementioresdemum ) Etiniuriasinferuntnonmali tiæ; (nonfraudisſcilicetadcircumueniendum,& adlucrum) Sedpartimcontumeliæ,partim incontinentiæ ple nas,vtinverberationem; (que contumeliæfunt)&adul terium(quefuntincontinentie ) §. Secundus. Dubitationes quædamafferuntur, &foluuntur Ariftotelis. ATcontrahec Ariftotelisdiftadue præfertimdubitatio nesnafcuntur, non diffimulande:prima quidemcontradiffe rentiamantiquorum, &recentium diuitum; namcontranoui diuites minusfumptuofifunt,magisqueparcuntdiuitijsquàm antiqui,utideAriftotelesſignificat,& tradit lib. 9.Ethic.c.8. Respondeononaccipihicab Ariftotelediuitemnouum,qui ipſe Soluitur pri perperitdiuitias, antiquum,quiabalijsacceperit, fednouum, tio. qui repente, &insperatoalienobeneficiofactusfit diues, anti quumverò,quiaparentibus, t) maioribus acceperit; adeoque ab initiofit indomodiuitenutritus, quocircanonfit ufusdiui tiarumrudis. InhacCiuitatequidamexagnatimorteinſpera taim ma dubita 108 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. tamhæreditatemafſfequutus profuſisſumptibus totamceleriter CICERONE (vedasi) in ſe effuditilluftriore, & celebratioreexemplo;idemfecit Antonius cunda Phi lipp. : dæ dubita tienis . inPompeij Magnibonaintrusus. Aliuddictum , quodindu bitationem adducitur, est, diuites effedelicatos; namauari po tius effe videntur,nonſumptuosi: &Aristotelesfatetur lib. 4.Ethic. cap.1. liberales noneßediuites , eoquodnon parcant Sumptibus . Qui ergo,conuertendo,diuitesfunt,parcuntſum Solutiofecú ptibus,nonfuntdelicati, neque luxuoſi. Refpondeoficonfi deremus diuitias ipsas perse abstrabendo tum a virtutelibe ralitatis,tum ab auaritia, quiapotest effe abſque alterutrohabi tu, & inhomineneque vitioauaritia,nequeprodigalitatisla borante,nequeetiam virtuteliberalitatis infignito. At pro facultatefaciendorumſumptuum,proque innata cupiditate deliciarum adeasducere, atqueinclinarefaltem, undeiureme ritò Ariftoteles dum loquiturdediuitiarumperſemoribus,di uites in deliciaspropendere afferit . Quo ad Ariftotelis aucto ritatemex lib.4. Ethic. cap.1. dicendum est comparatiuè ipfam intelligendam , nempèquinonparcitſumptibus ,non equèerit diues , atqueis , quiparcit ; & perpetua corrogationipecunia : rumincumbit; adeoutnonpoffiteffeperantonomasiamin Ci uitate diues liberalis, autfumptuofushomo, qualiserit , quiredditusquotannisinfortem corrogat. Cate rùm liberalis ,quiamplumpatrimonium a maioribus acceperit,diuesfemper eße perfeuerabit; quianonexfor te,fed ex redditibus Solùmfumptus facit, out exAristoteleipso an teadocuimus. : : De LiberTertius. : 109 Demoribuspotentum, &fortunatorum . CaputQuartum. A : §. Primus. Quipotentesfint. Dpotentum morestranfeamus. Primòautem explice musquifint,potentesgræcèSuvādosab Ariftotele vocati, 4) δυνάμενοιquoque.Potetesergofunt,quiin magistratibus,pre fertimprimis,funt; potentiaenimeapublicaeft: primòquidë,fi perpetuusfit,ut dynastis, acregulis contingit: deinde,fifuc cefforem recipiat, utin liberis ciuitatibus, utplurimum, acci dit. VenetijsenimfolusDux estperpetuus;reliquiomnesma giftratus mutantur.SuntetiampotentesgratiofihominesinRe publica,fiueMonarchiaeafit,fiuePolyarchia . Dicuntur ve- Qui dican rògratiofi, quigratifuntdominanti,autconfilio, autprincipi; turgratiofi. quorumque idcircofententia libenterſuſcipitur . Demagogi quoque meminit Ariftoteles inRebuſpublicispopularibus eiuf modi erant, & infenatu RomanoquondamCicero, &pluri- Cicero & mumPompeius. Potentiaetiamnasciturex multisclientelis, Pomp.inSe quarum ope quis poteftpro arbitrio multafacere. Germano- nopotétes. rumhacerat,referenteTacito,potentia Hæcdignitas (in quit)hæ vires magnoſemperelectorum iuuenúglo bocircundari,in pacedecus,in bello præfidium . PaucisabhincannisinItaliafactionumGuelphę , acGhibelli naprincipes, acduces magnahuiusgeneris potentiapræſtabat; etenimdiuiſus ubiquepopulus partim hunc,partim illumfe quebatur. Nuncetiammagnatesacproceresciuitatumaliquas clientelas habent. Comites, & Marchiones,quifunt alicuius ciuitatis,partes inditionibusfuis dynaste,ac regulifunt: in ci uitati natu Roma Deconiect.cuiufque morib.&c. uitatibus verò,quarumproceres exiftunt , utomniinillisdi tionecarent,itapotentesfuntobnumerumfubiectorum,quo rum ceuclientelenixi,poffuntplurima,filubeat,patrare. Co Romani lumnij,Vrsini,Sabelli, cateriqueRomaniBaroneshancinVr Eti aliquan proceresdi- berationemfubeunt,licètnuncproEcclefiaftici imperijampli doPontifi- tudine, des. Seueritate minus multo,quamanteapoffint, quando cum compe dicebanturPontificumcompedes . §. Secundus . QuimorespotentumfintexAri ſtotele 2. Rhet. . NVNC quifintpotentum moresexAristoteleintelliga mus, utinreliquisfecimus. Potentes (inquit)partim eif dem moribus præditi funt ,acdiuites, partimverò etiammelioribus. Suntenim potenteshonorisaui diores (verfanturfiquideminhonoribus,fiue magistratibus, fiuegratia,fiue clientelis præſtent: atquiſquebonaipfafuare tinereftudet)&moribusviriliores, quamdiuites,quia ca affectant negocia ,quæipfisadminiſtrarepropter potentiamlicet: (Siue magiftratuumenimpotentiamrespi ciamus,maxima negocia tractant;fiuegratiam,inmaximis confultationibus ,acfuafionibus verfantur,fiueclientelas, eas quoquetueri,acclientesprotegere, & iuuaremagnumest nego cium)&ſtudiomagisdediti,quiainfedulitatefunt toti, quod, quæ adpotentiampertinent,confiderare coguntur.(Studioſos autemhic vocatindustrios,acdiligen tes,déditosquenegocijshomines,qualisfedulitas neceßaria est resmagnastractatibus: acqui clientelis inhiant, officiosospre : terea effeoportet) Et grandiores, grandiores, quàmgrauiores, quia confpicuoseos dignitas reddit. Itaquemoderatèſe gerunt. Grandirasautem mollis, & elegans grauitas III eit. (Grauioresfunt,quiobſtipo vultu,erecto,acquasiinflexi bili colloincedunt: grandiores autem,acgranditas magis vul tuarridet ; folutioreetiamcapitis nutufalutantibusrefpondet, interim&voce. Nequeenimpotens veretur,neexeafacili tate contemnaturexeo,quòd dignitasconfpicuum, & vene randum reddit . Non ceßat tamengranditas effegrauitas, quoniamgrandis infacilitateretinet dignitatem,ſeque maio remrepræfentatillis,quibuscum agit,fi minoresfuerint : cete ris autemmagnum) Etfi iniuriamfaciunt, nonparua, ſedmagnafaciunt(cumenimnonexiguaillilucracaptent, autparuuloshonoresnegent necfacilè, acleuitera ceterispro uocentur; timenturenim. Quarenonnifi vehementer prouo cati,aut admagnumincrementumnoniniuriantur) : §. Tertius. Quo inſenſuſintaccipiendaca, quædixitAriftoteles. HAECautem,quaenuncex Ariftoteleexfcripfimus,intel ligendaaccipiendaqueperſefunt,fcilicetdepotentibusipfisper ſe,non utbuic,illivé vitioannectuntur.Potentes autemperfe ſtudium potentie includunt , quodſtudiumdefcripti morescon Sequuntur. Atfiintelligamus tyrannicumhabitum, autpro penfioneminiunctamalicuipotenti,longèisaliosinducet mores, multoqueſeuiores: &quoniamfubpotentibusetiamRegesfu premiquePrincipescontinentur; dicitHomerus, quodnonſe melretulimus, &rationemadduximus,: Diuorum Regumirameffe magnam, Quem affectum cateri etiam potentes ex proportione fub eunt.DeliciasRegumdefcribit inPerfarumregibus Platoin Alci Deconiect. cuiufque morib.&c. Alcibiade . Primòuxorienimregiainfingulaornamenta crepidas,zonam &c. integra Prouinciæ destinabantur,& Hi cipum. Storici res gestasAlexandriMagninarrantesdeliciasDarij, que posteiusdebellationem in Alexandri manusdeuenere , FaſtusPrin- mirasdefcribunt. Principum veròFastum,tumoremqueani mi,quoſeſufpiciunt, cumpræfertiminantiquosfucceduntprin cipatus, quis defcriberet ? Se utDeoshabent, &diuinospro pemodum honores ambiunt : nonnifi adulationes admittunt: Superbia vix liberam vocemtolerant. Imperatores Turcarum neque Regis Tur- recto afpicifuftinent. Adulationibus corruptiſeomniafcire,vel faltemmodoanimaduertant,fcirepoffecredunt, licèt,utpluri mum,ſcientias, &habitus contemplandi spernant,& nihil eſtiment. Regalemluxamin omnibusadhibent,partimobde licias , &ad ostentationem beatitudinis; partimadpræstrin gendosoculos, &animosfubiectorum , utdebitamreuerentia Lib.deCy- exhibeant; quodconfiliumin Cyro & representauit , &lau ropędia 8. dauitXenophon,cumpræfertimprimamillam regiam,&splen didiffimam egreſſionemdefcribit . Etdemum, quospotentesha bentmores,eosinſummohabentPrincipes: potentesautem moresdiuitumhaberedictifunt, quiſeſufpiciunt,funtelatiat quearrogontes,&c. Quocircatalesquoque potentes, &potif fimumPrincipes,acRegesmagni. §. Quartus. Demoribus fortunatorum . Ariftot. 2.Rhet. cap.18. 1 Defortunatorumnuncmoribusdicamus.Fortunatihomi fortunati. Qui dicatur nes dicuntur, quibus,quorumqueactionibus, &defiderijsfor tunaadfpirat, adeo ut quicquidaggrediuntur voto,felici cur fuaßequantur: benèfcilicetfortunatos intelligimus ,cumfortunatos dicimus. Cesarſefortunatumagnouit&predicauit; undenautetimentiprocellam,netimeret,dixit,quodfortunam Cafaris veheret . Syllapariterfefortunatuminfcripfit , & Syllafe in in attestationem Idolumfortunepro amuletoperpetuogestabat fcripfitfortu natum . finu . Partesbonefortunefunt,diuitiæ,potentia, nobilitas , Sedpretereamultitudo &probitas liberorū, &bonacorporis : Adijciamus,quodabinitio diximus, adfpirationemfortune actionibus, &captis omnibus. Quid verò, &quæfitfortu na,utrumprudentia ipſadiuina, utad effectus nobis inco gnitosrefertur, velutconcurfumnobis incognitumcaufarum iungit, ancauſaomninoperaccidens, ancœleftes afpectus,non esthuiusloci inquirere,&determinare. Qui veramfimpli citerfententiam noſſe defiderat , Theologos adeat, nos phiſicè rempeculiaritractationediſcuſſimus . Moresnuncfortunato rumdefcribamus. Aristoteles ergo histribuit moresſuperio rum,fcilicet nobilium, diuitum, &potentum,cuminterfortu natosillifint: dicitprætereaeſſe ſuperbiores , ac inconfideratio : res; tantumenimfortuneſueconfidunt, utnullo,velſuo con filioomniaſe affequuturosſperent. Cæfarisfiduciam expofui- Cæfariste mus,cuius maximumargumentumfuit,cumobuium Caffium unnata. meritasfor cumdecemroftratis ipfe cum unicaexpectauit , &ſpe venia propofita,adfuas partesinuitauit: in cuius tamen manu erat ipfuminuadere, &forfancapere. Hocfibi voluitpenesLiuiū AnnibaladScipionem. Tuamadolefcentiam,&perpe tuam felicitatem ferociora vtraque quàmquietiso pus eſt confilijs , metuo . Tribuit præterea idem Aristo telesfortunatis Deorumcultum,&quoderga Deosaliquomo doaffectifunt,fidem habentes proptereabona, quæ afortuna fuppeditantur . Suntetiamnegligentesfortunati, etenimſpes facitnegligentes , utT. Liu. dicit lib. 27. in principio. Ne : H gli  Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. gligentiam(inquit) infitam ingenio duci augebat fpes. §. Quintus. Vtrum fortunæ profperitas reddat hominespioserga Deos. At videturpotiusfortune profperitas a Deo auerterein Acultas. multa bomines peccatarapiens ; unde etiaminfacris literis. Tollitur dif Impinguatus,incraffatus . Refpondeo in verareligione, in quapeccataprohibentur,&inqua verus Deicultusest,vi tapuritas&Sanctitas,prosperitatemfortuna aDeoabducere potiusobirritamentapeccandi; undeid monentfacræliteræ ; QuosDeusdiligit,eoscorrigere; &ibidemdicit. Vexationem dareintellectum . Atinpseudoreligione, inquafolusexterior cultus attenditur,cæterumlicentia permittitur viuendi,pro ſperitasdeuotionemin Deoscociliat, utin Ethnicorumreligio neerat,inqua etiampeccatafacrificijs redimebantur abſque propofitononpeccandiamplius,utexPlatoneinfecundodeIu Stocolligitur. Cumitaquenullaemendationisobligatiopeccan temteneat,licentiaque permittatur viuendi,folusfacrificio rumcultus,acpomparequiratur,eamfacilèprestantfortuna ti,&tamfacilesacfibipropitios Deosdiligunt,&colunt.. Demoribuscontrariarumconditionumexpofitis. CONTRARIARVMautemconditionum,acfortunarummo CONTRA res exdiétis contrario modocolligūtur,fcilicet moresigno bilium,pauperum,plebeiorum, acinfimorumhominum, &in fortunatorum: nempe ignobiles contrarios nobilibus obtinent mores; pauperesdiuitibus; plabei, tt )infimi bominespotenti busi LiberTertius. 115 bus; infortunatifortunatis. Ex.gr. Nobilesfunthonorumap petentes, ac dignitatum; ignobiles,fi utilitatemabbonoribus, acdignitatibusfepares, nulloearumdefideriotenentur.Vtenim dicit Aristoteles lib. 6. Pol. cap.4.Multitudo magislucrum appetit, quàmhonorem,&adOligarchiamtuendammonet,s. Polit.cap.8.neexmagiftratibusemolumentacapiantur;quie fcit enimpopulus amagiftratibus exclufus, cumnullam exillis vtilitatemnafci videt. Diuitesfuntdelicati, atpauperesdu ri, &parci eò,quodinopiaaſumptibusprohibeantur. Poten tesgranditate utuntur; infimi, &abiecti,acfubiectihomines pufillitate; fplendorefiquidem occurſantium perftringuntur , )reuerentia immodicapremuntur, cumeosadire,&compel larecoguntur; undetitubatioſape, & tremor vocis &ali quandofuppreffio. Fortunatifunt ſperabundi , &confiden tes: at infortunati desperabundi,cumſepius iam votisfuis exitum aduerfariexpertifint. FortunatibenèergaDeosaffe Eti: at infortunatiplerunqueblafpemiinDeum,&pendentes, qualesetiam aleatores,cum aleaaduerfa ceciderit, videmus. Hacitaexempli gratiacollata excontrariofint. Idem autem estincæteris faciendum. Cum verò nunc diximus ignobiles noneffe honoris cupidos , non intelleximusbonorem innatum, Lib.devirt. quemmulti vocant,et dequo antea dictumfuit infecunda parte; nequeetiamdumcupidosnegamusomnempenitushono risſenſum ,& Stimulum negamus,fedaerem,& quifitali cuius momenti. Aliquamautem,fedexiguamin illishonoris cupidinemagnouitAristoteleslib.6. Polit.cap.4. Quæ cupi do, inquit, honorum illis ineſt, facilèadimpletur&c. Placetetiampro moribus minusfortunatorumhominum ex circa hono remcap.9. fcribere verſus Terentij in Adelphis fub personaHegionis. Scen.. Suntautem . Act.. H 2 Omnes  Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. Omnes,quibusresfuntminusfecunda, magisfunt,nefcio quomodo Suspitiofi: adcontumeliam omniaaccipiuntmagis Propterfuamimpotentiam,ſeſempercreduntneglegi. ? : 1 Tranfituradvitainstituta, acStudia. Diuidunturartes , &exercitationes. TR ac RANSEAMVS adinstituta, ſtudia vite . Estautem illudprimòdiftinguendum; utrumfintartesfedentariæ, ancontrapluriumexercitationum, & motuumexercitationes, fiquidem & motuscorpus robuſtum, animumferocem red citationib. Cap.deexer dunt, ut anteavidimus Platoni,&Ariftoteliprobatum.Ve natores, Gymnicorum,autequestrium certaminumſectatores plurimo vtuntur motu :luctatores itidem, t) id genus alij: contrà,aleatores, ociofiquequieamincolunt vitam,quam cele Li.9.Odyſs. bratpenesHomerumUliffes Conuiue autemin ædibus audiuntcantorem, Sedentes exordine;iuxtaautemimplenturmenſe Panis, &carnium,merumautemexcratereexhauriens Pincernafert, & infunditpoculis. Hocmihioptimuminanimo videtur. Intereos autem, qui vitam laudabilemducunt, literati,acftru dijs debitiſedentariam vitambiomnesdegunt ,qua vitacor poris robur,ac vigorem remittit,aclaxat,animum quoque emmollit eaipfaratione quietisperſe ,acfeorfum confideratas Gothicuiuf- undecelebre estilludGothiadpopularesdictum . Qui tempo dacelebre dictum . re Claudij, captis Athenis, accoaceruatisinforo adcomburen dum : LiberTertius. dumlibris,diffuafit illam librorum cladem; quod dum Græci homines illisſtudioſius incumberent,minusadbella idoneifie rent: dico autemrationequietisipfiusperfe,namrationecogni tionis,quamfuppeditat , contrariumoperaripoterit, interim 117-queoperabitur. §. Secundus. Corellarium deartibus, artificibuſ queilliberalibus. PENDET exdictis, ut artes(de illiberalibus loquor) Sedentarie minus aptos, accordatosmilitesexhibeant,quàm quemotibus abundant,præfertim validis , & robustis . Pe nes Romanosexrusticanaplebe, quàmex urbana milites po tiusſeligebantur; AutorVegetius; undeHoratius . Sedrufticorummaſcula militum orummafculan Proles,fabellis doctaligonibus , Verſareglebas . : Imo &nobilesagriculturamexercebant utdeCincinnatocon ftat. Aristotelesquoque laudatosex Agricolismilitesfeligi affèrit; poftea expastoribus. Verbafunt. Inmultisverò Lib.6.Polit hæcPaftoralis vita cum agricultura conuenientiam cap.4. habet.Vtrique enim corporibus exercitatiad bellicas expeditiones vtiliflimifunt,acpotentesfubdio con fiftere. Omnesautem artes illiberalesquæftum profpiciunt; adquerendumenim victumexcercenturabartificibus, unde questus quoque cupidosfaciunt: acquorum maioresfunt& amplioresquastus,illi magisadeos rapiuntur. Eiufmodifunt mercatorumqueſtus; magnorumenimmercatorumfuntampli, &magni:atminutorum,quiquammerces,acres infumma emptas,minutim vendunt,frequentes ,&exfrequentia de mummagniipfiquoquecuadunt. Cum vero mercaturamin H 3 ter  Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. ex fui natu ter artes illiberales conijcio ,intelligoilliberales, quæcunque in Mercatura fradignitatemhominis nobilisſunt: talis autem est mercatura raeft illibe. ipfaperse, ni ufus ciuitatis, et loci aliudperfcripferit,utFlo ralis. rentia,Venetijs, ) Ianue videmus. Sed alicubietiam cau ponariaa nobilibus ufurpatur; nempe emuntfrumenta,reli quasqueſegetesestate,triturationis tempore,quas ibidempoftea byeme, aut verefequenticarius vendant. Atcertèmercatu ratenuis vbiqueestfordida.. : : Deartibusliberalibus,quamotumultovtuntur. CaputSeptimum . §. Primus . Devenatione. DEartibusnuncliberalibusagamus &primòdeillis,que motibus vtunturmultis: occurritautem venatio. Mul tiplex ipfa eft , cum & terrestrium , &aquatiliumaniman tium,præterea bominum captura venatus quidamest, volucrumindaginemcomplectatur:fed& est, utPlato, Plato, t Aristo teles dicunt. Detotobodgenereiddicamus in vniuerfum,(ce tera enimbuiuslocinonfunt)venationesaliquas&cummotu corporis valido, & cum periculoeffe, utquæ aduerfus ani mantesterrestres,acferasfunt,Apros,Urſos &c.alias &fine motu valido corporis, & finepericulo,ut aucupatio,que viscoperagitur;fedentesenimexinfidijsauiculasaucupantur. Piscatus quoque,quifuccorumpermixtionefit, velbamoabf quetumpericulo,tumlabore est. Alia venatio mediainter dictas est,motu vtiturplurimo,fedpericulocaret,velutiqua Leporesinfequitur,t )pauidaseiufmodianimantes. Queve natio &periculum, &motumincludit,adroburtumcorporis, tum LiberTertius. tumanimi utilis eft. Quæ veròneutrumcontinet,inutilis est:atquepericulocaret, motu veròperagitur,roburoperatur, Sedminusmultofaltem animi,quàmprimum venationisge nus. HucrefpexitPlato cumſolampedestrium venationem 119 veroperay laudauit, nonautem dormientium,que nocturna dicitur,& ocioforumhominumest; nequeetiam,quæinlaborisremißione fit, tretibus,laqueisqueferasdomatnoncoſtantesanimi vi 1 ribus,fedillam ,quacanibus , &equis, &corporis viribus agitur. Voluitnempe virfapientiffimus eamfolam venatio- Quævena nemexerceri,quæadanimofitatem conduceretPiscatum verò tioPlatoni probetur. vixadmifit; quoniam piſcium in cibis ufumnon admodum Lib. 3.de probabat. $. Secundus . Deexercitatione armorum; & primò Iuſto. devita militari . SVCCEDITexercitatioarmorum . Triplex enimeiuf modiexercitatio distinguipoteft; alia,quæinbellisipfisperagi tur,quomodo veteranimilites verèexercitati dicuntur; alia eftexercitatiohacludicra , & umbratilis,dequanunc dici mus; alia mediaeſt,quecumpericuloperagitur,&fanguine, interdum etiam(fedrard)morte, cuiufmodi eratPerusij olim, quamdefcribit exactè, &commendatsummopere Campanus Scriptorgestorum Bracchij. Quampiam eiufmodipericulorum plenamexercitationemiubetPlato. Exercitatio,quain bellis ipfisfit, vitammilitaremconstituit,quafuaptenaturaanimos. fitatemaffert;pro licentia quoque ,&potentiarapacitatem, &infolentiam, nififeuera difciplina coerceatur. Etenimqui potentioresfunt,agreſtibus dominisſefacilefimiles præbent, (utPlatodicitlib.3. de Iufto)niſidiſciplinacohibeatur. Eaa duntetiamproniinſtupra, &inlibidinem,tumobeandempo.. H 4 tentiam Deconiect.cuiufquemorib&c. 120 tentiam & licentiam,tumquodbellicofihomines venereiquo cap.7. Lib.2.Polit. que, unde MartemVeneriiunxerePoete, utrefert,ac re cipit Ariftoteles . §. Tertius. Deludicra exercitationearmorum . Exercitatio armorummedia addifciplinam pediam queſpectat, nonadhunclocum. Restatitaque exercitatiols dicra,&equestris,&pedestris: noshancpræfertimpedestrem italicèvocamuslaſcherma, ſchermidore,quieăexercet. Oritur veròdubitatio; vtrumadfortitudinemipſa conferat, ancontràobfit. Vulgo enimdicunt magistros eiufmodi artis, quiineaquamplurimumprofecerunt,ignauoseffe,actimidos, fiin verampugnam veraquepericulainciderint: idemquean In Lachete tiquituspenes Platonem Laches. Verbafunt. Quafi enim dialogo. dedita opera nullus vnquamin bello illuftris euafit corum, qui hisludisincubuerunt,quamuis in ceteris omnibusproficiant, maximèquiſefrequenter exer cent, foli tamenhi præter cæterosad hocvotiimpo tes funtvfque adeo infortunati videntur. Dicendum . tamen conferreftudium, & exercitationemadfortitudinem , &animofitatem,primòratione motusipfius, &exercitationis corporis,que, ut vidimus, adroburtumcorporis,tumanimi facit, cumprafertimpartes exerceanturſuperiores, unde ) Spiritales, & vifceraincalefcunt, adeoque&humores. Quo circain corquoquecalidiorfanguisinfluit. Ratione item peri tieconfert. Experitia veròadiuuarifortitudinem argumen 8.Eth.c.8. to est militarisfortitudo,quæfecundüArift. experitianafcitur. Vidimusetiam viros certaminumeiufmodi peritiſſimosfuiſſe Syluius Pic- animofitateinfignes . Syluius Piccolomineus celeberrimus tota colomineus Italia,qui peritia haccertandifuitfortisadmodum, etiam ex 1 pluribus .. LiberTertius. 121 pluribusduellis veris, non umbratilibus, gloriamreportauit: queinveris, Sedinpublicis quoque bellis militari nedum, fedimperatoria pugnis. acin fictis p quoque laudefloruit . PandulphusSpranius, ciuis nosterex nobilifamilia,ſtabiliquadam animofitatefuitinfignis ,inperi culisque, acpugnis multisſpecimenpræclarę virtutis exhibuit. Eratidem certandi, ac degladiandi peritiffimus . Corbis pe nes Liuium libro 28. peritiaeiufmodi videturſuperaffe Or fuam,idqueexpreffiße Liuiusillis verbis : Maior Corbis vfu armorum,&aſtu,facilèſtolidas vires minorisfu perauit; Quòadopinionem vulgarem, quam ) Laches ex preffitpenesPlatonem,fateri oportet nonfufficerehancfolam exercitationem adcomparandamanimofitatem : aliud estenim conferre, aliudfufficere ad quippiam acquirendum; undequi nunquam ex umbratiliad verampugnamtranfierunt,bi cer tè,fi in verampugnaminciderint, ex eafola exercitationenon veram virtutemrepræfentabunt;niſiſuaptenatura,&natu valifortitudinefortesfuerint. Exhaccauſanafciturinterdum Curmagi exercitationis huius infamia, cuminhominem naturatimidum ri,quosvo cadit: nafcituretiamexalio capite, namcum peritiam pugnan- Scherma,ti cant della midi exiſti diafferat, adeoquequandamexperitiafortitudinem,fiincidat mentur. exercitatus in aduerfarium, quemsuspicetur equè, vel magis peritum, timoreopprimitur,utde militarifortitudinedicebat Aristotelesaccidere. Nouitaspretereaperturbat hominem. Exemplo rem declaremus . Porcius Latro declamator,ut Quintilianusrefert, cuminferiumiuditiumex fictodefcendif fet, offenfusnouitateloci, adeoqueinitium noninueniensoratio nis,petijt utſubſelliaexdio in bafilicamtransferrentur.Ma iorautem eft nouitas exnulloin proximummortis periculum venire; undeetiamfinonfugiant,harebunttamen, )tora. pescentabinitioexercitati,quodillis vitio verteturab inspe= Etan  Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. Etantibus. Hafuntcauſe,quamobremexercitatio armorum umbratilis malèaudit, atimmeritò; namnonexperitiaproce dithesitatio,quinimo imperiti,& inexercitati multo magis harebunt (fifuerintincæterispares)verumnon equèin illis attenditur, reprehenditur timor,atquein exercitatis, aqui bus vulgus propterperitiam requirit veram, & abfolutam fortitudinem, quamnullapacis exercitatio exhibet . Pruden tiffimè enim TheodoricusRexpenes Caffiodorumlib.3.varia rumprima epist. Ferocia cordalongapacemollefcunt, cauetefubito in aleammittere, quos conftattantis temporibus exercitianon habere: terribilis efthomi nibusconflictus, finon ſitafſliduus . Demuſica,practicanempevocata. Cap. Octauum. §. Primus. Tria inmuſica contineri,quietem cor poris,voluptatem, figuram . NTERfedentarias veròartesliberalesprimòoccurritmu INTER fica, utpotèque apoliticisgymnaſtice exalterapartein di Stiplina, acpediaopponatur. Tria ipfa continet, corporisquie tem,vellenem omninomotum,voluptatem,&figuram:quie temdico, lenemvémotum ipſiusmuſici;nam infonisinstru mentorum exneruisartificioſaſolummotionemanuumutiturs in cantu vocis, ac vocalium inſtrumentorum motus inTibys &idgenus inſtrumentis motione itidem ſpiritalium organo rum, vehementiore tamen. Qui omnesmotuspræmotu,qui ad animofitatem requiritur,quietis loco haberi iurepoßint. Voluptas, quæfecüdoloco numerabatur, eft,quam,tùquicanit, tumquiauditexcontentupercipit. Quoniam verò voluptas remis remiſſionemanimicum cordisdilatationeefficit,ideo muſicaom nisremittit animum,facitque homines eiperpetuo vacantes Animo(utdicitComicus)ommiſſo. Tertiolocoestfigura, Seufiguratio fpirituum,quam operanturharmonia, / rithmus provarijsfuifiguris: figuræ enim muſicorumconcentuumva riæfunt,alia querula, alia vinolente, ac molles,aliæcon ſtantes,&fortes,aliemoderata, actemperate. ItaPlato in SecundodeIusto: ) querulasdicitLydiasmistas ,&Lydias acutas. Vinolentas , ) molles vocat Lydias, & Ionicas. FortesPhrygia, moderatas, actemperatas Doricas . Reppre henditdiuifionemAriftoteles : at inpræfentia nonest,cur di fcrepantiamtantorum virorumconfiderem:fatestmihi id, in quoconueniuntplures eßefiguras concentuum,quæfingulain Spiritusfui fimilitudinem imprimunt; ſpirituum enim tenuis materia,acspiritalis afpiritali muſice motuagitatur, &figu ratur, &neduminhominibus ,fedinequis quoque,quidfoni poffint,taba demonftrat. Infantescantuſedantur: nos ipfos tube t) timpana inarmaaccedunt,meminimeinadolefcentia meditantemquondam monomachiamſonobarbitisperbypates confirmatum, & accenfum. QuedePythagorafcribitCice- Demufi.c.1. ro , &pofteumBoetius, qui taliafubiungit,idem demon ftrant. Statuaturhocitaquefigurari vario modofpiritusno Strosabharmoniapro variaipfiusfigura. Quaetiam propo fitioadritmos,ac numerosextendatur. Mufice figuras,& Admutatio exillisaniminoftrifigurationemtantifecitPlato,ut mutatio nëmuſicaabfque mutationereipublicafierinonpoßecrediderit. Répub.cre neinmuſice mutari & diditPlato . Moresexmuſica. MUSICAE ergo,quiſetotosdediderint excorporisquie te, texiugiinftillatione voluptatismoresremiſſos,acdefides con  De coniect. cuiufquemorib.&c. contrahunt,imbelleſque, acignaui efficiuntur,præfertimquefi figuraharmoniarum,&rithmorummollesfuerint,&remif Iufto. Lib. 3. defa. AudiamusPlatonem. Quicunque,inquit,permit tit, vt muſica animumfuum affiduè circumſonans occuper &demulceat,perquemaures,velutiperin fundibula harmoniasinfundat, quasfupra comme morauimusblandas, fuaues, molles , acflebiles , at queætatemfuaminmodulis animumdelinientibus confumit,isprimum quidem,fiquidiracundúhabe bat, tanquam ferrum demollit,&vtile exinutili, duroqueefficit. Quando autemincumbit diutius, magis demulcet, poſthocmagisiam liquefacitani mú, &reſoluitdonecdeſtilládo exhauriat animoſi tatem omné,excidatquetanquam neruos exanimo, exquo animum quaſiſegnem militem efficit. Heс ille. Atquid,ſi totam vitam ponatin muſica,fedin modis virilibus, &bellicofisdoricis, v.g. acPhrygijs,ſtuequicun queillifint? Refpödeo modos ipfosperſeinbellicofum affectum ducere, verum rationequietis corporis, &voluptatisiugis, quaminfunditinanimum , muſica refoluere demum animum, &imbellem redderehominem & rationiattestaturinductio, Seucommunishominum quædamestimatio; nequeenimcrede ret quispiam hominemperpetuò muſice vacantem , etiamfi Phrijgia, & ceffantemabomnibellicaexercitatione , ab omni querobuſta corporis motione, & marcefcentemotio, nifiillibe rali,faltemimmodico,fortem, &inpericulisconstantem eua furum: utignauushomo,acmillesex tubefonitunonin cendituradpericula,fedfrigidus manetinpræcordijs animus, itademuminnutriti eiufmodihominisanimusnullam ex figu ris harmonia bellicamfiguram, quæfit ulliusmomentiſuſci piet. 125 LiberTertius. piet. Atcontrà,inanimoſoperſehomine plurimum efficient bellicofi modi. Alexandrummagnumadarma uſquerapien dacommouerunt: non equèimpuliſſentDemosthenem. Con- Conclufio. cludamus . Muſicaeos,quiſetotos illitradunt,quicunquemo diexerceantur, eneruatosanimo, acmolles, imbellesquereddit; eos autem,quiprooccaſione muſicam audiunt,pro varijsmo disacfiguris variè difponit. Licètautem muſica,quiperpe tuoilli vacant, mollesomnes, ac effeminatos reddat,facilius tamen, &expeditius eneruateos,qui molles modosfectantur, proindequeeorumpræfertimmeminitin exfcriptispaulòprius verbis Plato . §. Tertius . Additiodeanimoſis natura . REFERT etiamplurimum,qualesfint hominesnaturali virtute aut vitioadid, utfacilè, difficilevéa muſica dispo nantur. Audiamus,quidde animoſisfuapte natura dixerit Platolocopaulòantea indicato . Atſia principio (inquit) hominemnactaſit(muſicanempeperpetua)natura fine animirobore , citohoc perficit: fin autem animo ſum,vires animi frangens , ad iram reddit præcipi tem,vtnimis quibuſque offenfiunculis irritetur ,ac facilè iterum efferueſcat; vndeex animoſis iracundi, atquemoroſieffecti ſunt, moleſtia,&faftidiopleni. Defaltatione, & choraa. Cap. Nonum. §. Primus. Præmittuntur quædam de rith mo, &harmonia . FXhiscorellarijlocodefaltationedicere, &decernerelicet, Eratipfainter motionesreponenda, ut verèmotioeft: at quoniam 126 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib &c. quoniamſonumetiamincludit, &interdum cantum,feume liusdicamusincludereipſamſemperrithmum,numerumvé,in terdum&harmoniam;ideononnifiposthunclocumdecernere deipfalicuit. Saltatioergoaliaabfqueordine ulloest,& nu mero, alia ordinata &numerisastricta,qua verèfaltatiodi citur, nosqueitalicè(ballo)vocamus:dehacinprafentialo quimur. Quoniamautemrithmusaliquaconfpicuarationere prafentari debet,ſonoidfit. Quodſiſono iungatur cantus, cip. Secundode tumchoreaeft,quamideo Platoex barmonia, & rithmo ex Artiprin- quetripudio, concentu conftare voluit. Antiquitusetiam nostri iungebant rithmum , & cantum illarum odarum , quasobid,ballate, italica vocedixere, quastſono eguif Devulgari seafferit Dantes,nempeeas aliquofonantefaltabant , fimul cloquentia. que cantabant . Quidfitrithmus,quid harmoniaalıbidixi mus,derithmis in rethorica nostra, &latiusin tractatione feorfum,dehocipfo argumentodeharmoniain muſicisnoftris; ex eis locis petantur. Interimfatisfitdicere rithmumLatinè pedemeffè exproportionegratatardi, &velocis,harmoniam autemexproportionegratagrauis , &acute. Incantu utra que proportio includitur : tarditatem autem t) velocitatem varietate notarum nostriexprimunt,quarumaliæmaxime , alia longa , aliæbreues, aliæſemibreues,alieminime, aliæſe minime, aliachroma, aliafemichromedicuntur. Acumen, grauitasexfituearundem, utfuntin altiore, aut humilioreli nea,ſpatiové. Instrumentaquorum unicafemelchordatan gitur,fingulapotius rithmoscontinent,quam harmoniam : at quorüpluresfimulpulſantur corde,illa &rithmos, ) harmo niamincludunt. Quodſiſoniscantusiungatur, multofiteui dentior rithmorum, &harmoniecommixtio,inquarumcom mixtione, &coniunctione pofuitPlato choraam,& in defi niendis LiberTertius. 127 niendis rithmo, acharmoniaprograta proportione ordinemdi xit: atpro tardo, ac veloci motumadhibuit . Ordinem enim, quiinmoturithmumdefiniuit, &harmoniam ordineminacu to, &grauicontemperatoin voce. Vbi vocem adinſtrumen taetiammuſica,nedumadcantumextendereoportet,fecus non complectereturdefinitiototum definitum . Verùmde bis ali bi,utdixi;nuncautemdefaltationecumſono,fiueiungatur cantus, fiuenon,loquamur,quainconfiderationerithmuspre fertimattendendus:dequo alibilatèegi. Quæfintſaltationis partes. QVAERITUR ergofaltatio, itafumpta,quos moresſugge rat. Primò veròdistinguendifuntrithmi; alijenim aliammo rumfiguramprefeferunt; bimoremgrauem,&temperatum; hibellicofum; hi mollem; bilafciuum , &petulantem. Eiuf modieratfaltatio Ionica, dequaHoratius. MotusdocerigaudetIonicos Matura virgo,&fingiturartibus. Verùm. confufiusdoctrinaprocederet, quàmparfit, nifipartes Saltationis ampliusdiftinguerentur . Tresfuntex Plutarcho, Inqueſt.co. Phora,Schema,Dixis; quegrece voces Latinèreddentur; Motio; Figura; Demonstratio. Motiorithmisconftat,qui pluresfunttotidemenimquotpedesinarte metrica, qui uſque adquadrifyllabosfunt2.8. bisyllabiquattuor ,trisyllabi octo, quadrisyllabiſexdecim. QuorumPyrychiuspesfacitfaltatio nempyrrichiam,Trocheuschordacem. Figuraautemestexge Stibusinfaltandocorporis,quigestus&ipfirithmis ijfdem,qui pedibusfaltantur, peragidebent . Qui certantarmis, utpyr richiumfaltantes, concertatio illa eftfigura . Vidiego biftrio nem uiualibus . 128 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. nemrithmiſe ceuentem: erat eafigurafaltationis. Pariterfi fæminafaltandocrißaretur ,feucriſſantemimitaretur, figura tumquoqueeßetcriſſationisrepræfentatio . Demonstratioau temdiciturfignificatioperſone,quăfaltatorrepræfentatvtrum Veneremfcilicet, an Palladem, anIunonem, an Paridem refe rat: quærepræfentatio veste, ornatucorporis,comitatupre tereaindicabatur . Paris pastoraliornatu ; Mercurius cadu ceo, alis, & virga; Mineruagaleam, &oligeneacorona, ut penes Apuleium Deafinoaurcolib 1 0.Pedesergo,feurythmi, alij concitati, utpyrrichij ; alijgraues , utspondei; alij ludi bundi, uttrochai; attamennonexfolis illisturpitudinem,ho nestatemvefaltatiofumit, exfigura præfertim, exqua idem peslaſciuus effepotest, &militaris. Anapaffusfiquis vene reamimpreſſionem imitetur,laſciuus omninoeft,turpisque:con trà,fi militaremimpreffionem, estbellicofus. Unde Lacede monij neque ullammilitarem hortationem adhibebant abſque Tusculan. Cicero libr. anapestispedibus . Pyrrichiopedearmatasfaltationesperage- Platoin4.d bant, utconcitatopede , ) adpercutiendumapto; attamenfi Tufcophon. quis euminaliamfiguramabduceret(abduciautempoteft)con deCiriexpe tinudalium moremrepræfentaret . Turpitudo integraergo,ho dit.hb.7. nestasquefaltationis exrythmo, &figura nafcitur. Demon Stratio, dixisové adiuuant,nonfaciunthoneftatem autturpitu Lāpridius. dinem. Dum nudus ceuebat interfaltandum Heliogabalus , Diſtinctio nuditasfaditatem augebatfaltationis turpiſſime . Distingua multiplex, mus ergofaltationes expartibus eiufmodi,alias honeftas euade re, quarumhetemperatafunt,hebellicofa; aliasturpes,qua rumhelafciua, &molles, heinfolentes, acferoces,he vino lenta, &petulantesfunt, aliquæludibunda; queproloco, & personis &permittipoffunt, & vituperari debent. Itadi Stinctisfaltationibus in præfentia, quæramusnunc mores in terim : LiberTertius. terim variasfaltationŭfiguras legerequispoteft penesAthe 129 neumlib.14. cap. 11. §. Tertius . Qui moresexſaltatorio ſtudio. SALTATIONESfanè promotibus corporismagisad robur corporis,&animifirmitatefaciunt,quàmmuſica; &fifigura concitate, &bellicofafaltationis accefferit, multo magis: atta mencumvoluptariademum vitaeiufmodifaltatorumfit,hac est Statuendaconclufio. Quiſetotosfaltationibusdarent,tan demindefidem, acimbellem animihabitum reciderent.Ratio quan veròest,quoniamiugis ea voluptasanimum laxando,inha bitumeiufmodiremißumtandemeosredigeret. Minor tamen eius effet, quàm muſicorum remiffioob corporis motum,adeo querobur,acSpirituumexmotu calorem. Secundodeindeloco dicendum,quiprooccaſioneſaltationibus uteretur, bellicofisex illis adanimofitatem excitatumiri. Unde Anapaſtoruteban turinimpreſſioneLacedæmones:idfignificatCiceronisproxime Lib.2.Tu indicataverba,Militiamverònoſtramdicoſupartiata foul. rum,quorum procedit admodumad tibiam, nec adhibetur vlla fine anapęſtispedibus hortatio . Pro fizurispariteralijsadalios moresdiſponerentur, utIonicafal tatioadvenereosdifponit . Retinenda esttamenea animaduerfio,quam antea . .ex Caffiodori verbispofuimus. De Philosophia. Communia præmittit. ad literarias vitas tranfeamus, primoqueoccurrit Phi : atillapre caterisftatuenda,quefunt communia I omni I  De coniect. cuiufquemorib &c. omnilitterarioſtudio viteque:funtautemotiumftudiorumpro quiete ,quam exigiteneruare corpus, & animum remittere, quodanteadictumfuit:fecundumest studiaeademprodogma tibus, quæinferunt, mouere , acdisponereanimum,ſi quears Suadetlucroiugemoperam effenauandam, quiartiincumbitita fuadenti,adlucrumdifponitur. Silectiocomendetgloriam, in eamlectionemlongoſtudiointētusgloriecupidus euadit:idem quedecaterisdixeris. Tertiumdemumest voluptatem,quæ exstudijspercipiturſolidioreeße, quàmquæexmusica, &fal tationeperfenfushauritur, minusqueadeo ex ipfaremittiani mum: attamenpro tenore, quiin bellicispericulis requiritur amplius,quàmparfit,remitti. §. Secundus. DePhilofophiæinſpectricismoribus. His communibuspræmiſſis,adPhilofophiamdeueniamus, primoqueadinspectricem: hacergoprofuauißima, &puriffi mavoluptate , quafubindeprofundit animum ,ab illecebris fenfibilium voluptatum,acintemperatarumpræfertimabducit, item ab amore diuitiarum,quibuscontemplatorparum eget, ut Ariftotelesprohibuitquoque 1 0. Eth. .Rationeob iecti, veldogmatis,nonipsaperſecomponit, & temperatani ! fto . Lib.6.deIu mum; non enimadmoresextenditur: attamenPlatoexcaufali 1.Phificorú cognitionequadam,exemplarique inmores influere vult,& Inproemio AuerroesAlexandrumfequutus. Platoergoexemplariquidem م modocognofcereidealemiustitiam, & honeftatem,eamquede incepsin moribushominum, aclegibuspingere, &coloraredi cit lib.6. paulopostmedium. Eteodem libroinprincipio a pu fillánimitatelongèrecederePhilofophum vult,eòquod,cuiineft cognitionis magnificentia,& totius temporis,totiusquefub ftantiæ " LiberTertius. ſtantiecontemplatio,humana vita magnumquid viderinon potest. Quocirca neque mortem timebit. Vult effe veraces 131 prætereaPhilofophos,&temperatos, liberales,atnonexco gnitioneidillistribuit,fedexconcitato adrerum cognitionem, ac veritatemimpulsu, ardenteque veritatis uniuerſæcupidi tate . At Auerroes, Alexandrum utperhibet,ſequutus, aptiusque , &clariuseandemAlexandrifententiam afferens, Themistiusin Phiſicorumprobemio,(velquodfaltemThemi Stio adfcribitur) dicunt effe iuftum Philofophum, eò quodele menta, &reliquaspartes vniuerfifibi inuicem cedere, & fuumamarequamque ordinem,equabilitatemqueferuareGeo metricam videt : indeetiamab auaritiaremoueri: eße tempe ratum eò,quodcognofcit voluptatemnoneffe accidensfuapte naturabonum,fedpofterius quippiam, &fubfequens ,idque Undeconciliatur, multapræternaturamturpitudine effè com mixtum,& coinquinatum:effefortem,quod cognofcithomi nemexiguameffeportionem vniuerfi; hominis etatemad to tumtempus eßepunctiinſtar, ut paucisannis aut prolatare vitam, autanticipare,fatum nulliusfit momenti. Demum vitambumanam,cuminipfanihil videateßemagnum,despi cere; unde etfortem, &magnanimumfuturum: adpruden tiampræterea cognitionem animerationalis , quam ipſeacon templationedeanima confequitur, conferre. Itemcognitionem diuinorum ad Dei amoremducere. Hec,bisquefimiliababet Themistius, cui omninoconfentitAuerroes. Fateritamen opor.. tet remotas moralium dispofitionumcauſas potius,quàmpro pinquaseffequædiftefunt: cognitiopræfertim animeapruden tia, queinparticularibus verfatur, plurimumabest . AdDei admirationem,() amorem , &obferuantiam proximèrapit: at queDeusprobibeat,iubeatque attinentiaadmoreshumanos I 2 non 132 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib &c. nonaperit inspectrix Philoſophia, nisi ut inprincipijs . Na turalis Philofophia nobiliorem effe rationemconcupifcibili ,& irafcibili monftrat, undeillammagis,quamhas colendam,at exercendas has quoque nonextirpandas admittet,cum nibil naturafrustrafaciat, quousque verò,&quantum,nonest acontemplatiuapetendum . De Philoſophiæ actiuæ moribus . Ат Philofophia actiua admores iamipfosdescendit, t qui refti , acprobi, quiprauifint, monstrat:fuadet etiambo nos,damnatmalos; unde apertumeftratione dogmatispro Epift... bosipfam inftillare mores : & experimuromnesex moralium librorum lectione animatiores nos adprobitatem exurgere Horatius. : Laudis amoretumes? Suntcertapiacula,quete Terpurèlectopoteruntrecrearelibello : Inuidus, iracundus, iners, vinosus, amator; Nemoadeoferuseft, utnon nitefcere poffit, Simodòculturepatientemcommodet aurem. Vtilitasmo. Prudentiamfecundum communia principiaſubministrat, at næ. ralisdoctri- imperfectam, & adagenduminfufficientem,nifi usus, &ex perientiaaccefferit; undequiexotioſoſtudio moraliadagendū tranfit,nifiipfeſeſustineat,& peritiam interimquerat, of fenderegrauiterinterdumpoterit. : : Annotatio. §. Quartus. Dictahucufqueformalitereſſeacci 4 pienda, nonabfolutè. REPETENDA efthicnonfemelfactaiamprotestatio; lo qui menuncformaliter,&perſe,nempequi moresfequantur Philo LiberTertius . Philofophiaminſpettricem, aut aftiuamipsamperſeſumptam, 133 &quataliseftnonabfolutè,cumaliæ multe contrariæ caufa obſiſterequeant, temperamentum, educatio publica; interim priuata,&cauſe relique, &quoad aliquam virtutem ,pu tafortitudinem , Philofophiæ ipfius moralis Studium iuge , perenneob longamquietem,&roboricorporis,&animofitati præiudicio est . §. Quintus. Cauſaquamobrem,&tempore Pla tonis,&Auerrois, &noſtro Philofophimorum in famialaborauerint, laborentque. PLATOfatetur,t affirmatAuerroes, nosquoquevide mus,Philofophiæ profeffores, utplurimum ,ad agendum ine ptos,&morumetiaminquinatorumeffe. FateturpenesPla- Lib.6.deIu tonemSocrates,quiſetotos Philofophiæ tradiderint, eos ut plurimumabfurdos, arebushominumalienos,&propeiniquif Amoscuade fimoscuadere. EtAuerroes No. quoquecumprius oftenderitPhi lofophiamredderefuaptenaturahomines virtutibuspraditos, rum. fateturtamenfuatempeftatecontrariomodofehabereeiusprof feffores. Plato veròcaufamreijcit inid,quodingeniaſolum ſpuriaPhilofophiam aggrediantur , cumhominesadeamfacti, &natialiòimpellanturabillis caufis,quasipsedoctiffima, t eloquentiſſimaoratione enarrat, ad quemlocum ablego legen tem. Auerroesinlegescaufamrefert,exquibusanſamſuotem Inprohe mioPhiſico porecapiebant multicarpendiPhilofophos, utciuili vitapror fusineptos: noftroautemſeculocaufaPlatonicaprefertiminua- Philoſofia lefcit; cumenim Philofophiainepta, utplurimum,reputetur ſpernatur. cur hodie adciuilia muniatractanda , preſtantesnobilitate, &ingenio homines, utfunthonorumcupidi,&primorumin Republica lacorum contemptam,&reiectamadignitatibusdifciplinam, I 3 &ipfi  Deconiect.cuiufquemorib &c. &ipfi fpernunt in Italia Iurisprudentiafrequentesſetra dunt; bumilioreshomines, &queſtuarij Philosophie aggre diunturfeulacerantpotius;in gratiamenimmedicine,autal teriusfcientiæattingunt,utindelucrafibiparent; Gitarem Sanctam&venerandam degenereshominesturpifineaggre diuntur,prophanoque fudeturpant. Procul, òproculestoprophani. Additurpræterea, quodPhilofophiam moralem Pfeudopbilo fophi eiufmodi nequedeliminefalutarunt unquam,quodta menplurimumexagitauit Cicero, eumſe Philofophum appellare, quidefinibusbonorum, &malorum,ideftde vltimo vite fine,ftatuendo nihilomninonouerit. Verùm, quifepenitusto tumvitecontemplatiuedediderit,noniniuriaamuneribusci uilibus alienus ducitur, eomodo tamen, quo anteadiximus, cumdefelicitate,ibique de vitacontemplatiuadifferuimus:at qui &ingenioestphilofophico,&moralem,inſpectricemque Philofophiampulchrètenet,facile,fiadmuniaciniliadefcendat, non magnaque experientia,aptißimus euadetillis exercendis procognitioneprincipiorum,atque uniuerfaliumcanonum Plutarchus quamexftudijsbabetiamfuis.Idilliaccidet, quodinre milt cullo. etiam inLu tariLucullocontingit;dequoCicero. Itaque, cumtotum iter , atquenauigationem confumpfiffet,partim in percontando aperitis,partimrebus geftislegendis, in AfiamfactusImperatorvenit,cúeffetRomapro fectusreimilitarisrudis. PoftremumpericulumferioPhi in7.dIufto. lofophantiumilludest,quodtetigit Plato,impreposteretamen pbilofophantibus,ſequetemporeincongruo Dialecticefcilicet , Metaphifice applicantibus. Periculum verò est,fiquiingenio philofophico, &studioprefummaveritatis cupiditate nimij acuminisfeu ruento actusinfcepticam opinionem delabatur: tum 5 135 LiberTertius . tumenim,cumfpe ceciderit cognofcende veritatis, quemfibi finemftatuerat puramque ideo voluptatemintelligendi defpe ret,infenfibiles voluptatesfenexrecidet,quas iuuenis vita uerat; abſque enim voluptate aliqua nemo viueresustinet. Phauorinusin vigenteatatepudicus,insenectute vitamin Phauorinus obſcanamprolapfusest. DeIurisprudentia. CaputUndecimum . iamfenexfit obſcænus. no DIurisprudentiamtranfeamus. Hecquoquequietecor tantătamen,quantaPhilofophiapromul titudinelibrorŭ verſandorum: noneatamenexercitatioeftcor poris, quæipfiusroburferuet. Emmollituritaqueineoquoque Studiocorpus, &animusredditurimbellis: voluptas verdex Suauitate studiorumminormultoest ,quàmPhilofophia. At prodogmatefiPandectasipfasſpectemus,acCodicem,demum quelegumcollectionem, accongeriem,hacIurifprudentia deli Etorumpunitioneproponit, exteriorumtamen,perturbantium. D.Th.1.2. queciuilemfocietatem; habituumnonmultam geritcuram:in Uniuerfalibusfolumprincipijs; honeſtè viuere,neminemlede re, iusfuum unicuiquetribuereiubet. Verùm uthonorespu blicosStudiofisproponit, spemqueobtinendorumexhibet, cupi ditatembonorumpromouet: duminterpretes autem confidera mus,lucricupiditatemilliexcitant;namplurimos videas,pri mequefortis ,quiiactent lucrummagnumasefactuminma 9.96. art.2. teriafideicommiſſorum, velin aliamateria:quorumauctori tate incitantur studentesadeandem,quæindiuitijs,gloriam. Baldus. §.Primus . Moresalij exIuriſprudentia. ALTI pretereamoresfequuntur exSophifmatefecundum quid,&fimpliciter; cumenimIurifprudentia,qualisincolle I 4 Etione 136 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. Etione nunclegum traditur, ad iudicandi ufum, ) munus spectet,que estfunctioquædamprudentiaPolitice; Iurifcon SultiarbitranturſeadtotiusPoliticeprudentia ufumfactos, &aptoseffe: exquaignorantianonfimplicitumor multusna fciturſefufpicientium &reliquas facultates,licèt aptiores, contendendifrequentia, qualis eft Politica, defpicientium. Contentiofus etiammosna fciturexcontendendifrequentia, velvoce velfaltemfcriptis. Aduocati enimfcriptis concertantubique, acalicubi etiam, utpenesnos voce : Bononia, &Romefcriptisfolum Vo ce enim, quidifputant Procuratoresvocantur:nequeconten tiofolum difputatiuaest,fednegocioſa; namdealicuiusfemper. damnoagitur. 6.Secundus. DeMoribus conſequentibus peritiam : legum,cumlegumlatioperfectaeſt. QVODfilegumlatioperfectafit, nempe vniuerfalemiu ftitiamadeoqueomnes virtutes,&difciplinamadeascomple Etatur, eiusfanèſtudiumintegramexhibet virtutem, fiuead eamconfert. HacdecauſaPlato studiumlegum unà cumea rum prohemijs ideo commendabat. Verbafuntfapientiſſimi Philofophi deoptimaRepublica , tt) de legumlatione perfecta runà cum probemijs ; Non eſt præſtantis virtute ciuis perfecta laus,quadicitureum bonum effeciuem,qui legibus quamoptimè miniftrauit, & quammaximè paruit,fedperfectiorillaeſt, cum effe talem,qui le gumlatorislegesferentis,&laudantis, vituperantif queſcriptis, omninopertotamvitamparuit. Hæceſt ciuisperfectalaus, nempeoportet,vtlegis conditor legesnonfolumconfcribat,fedetiamdeclarationem 1 his LiberTertius. 137 his adiungat, quaquæhoneſta , turpiavè ſibi viden tur, fignificet. Studiumergolegum,ac probemiorum ma ximè iniungitPlato ciuibus, utuberem virtutisperfecta fontem: necAriftoteles,qui vniuerfalemiustitiam prefertre liquis virtutibus ,in hoc diffentire poteft; qui enim fiet,ut perfectam legum obferuantiam ciuis obtineat,qui legum Stu diumnonfitamplexus? A : DeRhetorica,feu Oratoriafacultatisprofeßione eiusý moribus. CaputDuodecimum . §. Primus . MoresOratoriæ antiquitus : continet . DOratoriamfacultatem Rhetoricamvétranfeamus:bac Aantiquitus patrocinabatur litigantibus , &reis reis , ut nuncIuriſperiti,ſedin confultationesetiam, & concionesde Scendebat, undemagnosgerebat ſpiritus,plurimumquetume bat. PenesPlatonemGorgiasafferit,Rhetoricam omnesfub InGorgia. ſevires, acfacultatescomplecti:contraquamopinionemdifpu tatibi Platofubperſona Socratis : & AristotelesinRhetorica damnat,dumRhetoricameffepropaginem Dialectice, )Poli Lib.1.cap.2. tice, nonautemPoliticam integramcognitionem includere af- munéfectio ferit;fimulquedicit; pluratunctemporis effeillitributa, quam ne. is effeillit propriacontemplatioferat. Nuncalicubieademferè,quean tiquitus, muniaOratorexercet, ut Venetijs, &inditione,ut plurimum,Veneta. Vndemultumquoqueeaipfafacultasft . bifumit; eofdemque morestribuendumestei,quos tribuimus proximè Iurisprudentia . A Secun ſecundúcó 4  Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. §. Secundus. Moreseiushistemporibusvnà&poe ticæ,&reliquæeruditionis. Атhistemporibus,exceptaferèditione Veneta,&facra functioneconcionatarum,dequibusnonloquor, in eruditionis Solamlaudemconceffit unà cumPoesi &finitimis ornamen-.. tis, cognitionefcilicet antiquitatis, & hisfimilibus,quæfacul tates, earumque Studiainhos videnturipsaperfe moresincli nare. Affectus validèincendunt,&commouent,namtum oratoria, tumpoefis inaffectionibusexcitandisplurimum labo rant, eamqueobcaufamdeoptima Republicaſummouit trage diam Plato . Boetiushanc prefertim labem affectuum exci Lib.1.conf. proſa 1. tandorumtribuit Mufis: PhiloſophiaenimficpenesillumQue (Musa)doloreseiusnonmodònullisfoueruntreme dijs, verùm dulcibusinfuperalerentvenenis. Hafunt enimqueinfructuoſis affectuum ſpinis vberem fructi busrationisfegetemnecant, Atpræfertimamorespoesis alit, non tam rationedogmatisquàmratione repræfentationiss ubiqueenimamoresrepræfentantpoeta,tumGraci tum La tini, tum Itali: at Latini& Græciturpes mafculorum, aqui busnostriabſtinent: quefortaffiscaufaetiamfuit,cur labora uerintea infamia aliquandopoete,quamAreostus in Satyris (vulgieiufmodifententiamfignificando) expreffits Rideilvolgofefente run, c'habbia vena Dipoefia . Certèlectioaffidua turpitudinum irritamentumeftineandem turpitudinem . Ariftoteles lectionem, &inspectionemturpi tudinis abadolefcentibus , &puerispræfertimremouit. Quo circacommendo eorumpietatem,quireſecauerunt a Martiali, Catullo, LiberTertius. idgenuspoetis omniaobscena. Eademratio, fedprætereaconfuetudo,&imperiumGrammaticosaliquosfe duxitadillam turpitudinem,dequaIuuenalis; Quotdifcipulosinclinet Amillus . Optimamfuiffet,fieloquentiſſimi bominesnon nifiproba, fanctafcripfiffent . Imbibiffent certe eloquentiæ quoque can didati uberes castimonia , &fanctitatis stillas . Reliquos mores exijs, quedictafuntdequiete corporis deducere licet. Addifciplinamtranfeamus . DeDiſciplina . Caput Decimumtertium. 6. Primus. Diſciplinadiftinguiturinpublicam, &priuatam . DISCIPLINA restat,fiueeducatio,quamegoduplicem Dfacio, aliampublicam, aliampriuatan, usernam hiin prafentiafonathec diftinctio,quodſonat Aristoteli in Politicis libris , & quomodoſumamego infequentiparte. Nuncitaqueprodifciplinapriuataintelligocultum &aßuetu dinemipſiuſmetperſona :pro publicaaccipio ciuitatis, locique vitam,&demumexemplumpublicumquodinterdumexRei publicaformapendet,interdumexalia causa. Pendetexfor maReipubl. mos auaritia in Oligarchia;cum enim inea ex cenfudignitatestribuantur, rapiunturquoqueciuesin admira tionem,&amoremdusitiarum. Nuncutrumque disipline membrumconfideremus. De diſciplina priuata, educationeve. DISCIPLINA , quamnuncpriuatamappello,postea dini deturpro cura,exquapendebitinpublicam, &in priuatam. Erit 140 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib. &c. Eritpublicaquidem,fiacurapublicaciuitatisfit : priuata dve rò,fia cura patrisfamilie , ac domestica procedat. Diſcipli na,educatiové eiuſmodi Græcè pedia vocata aPlatone, abAriftetele; definitur a Platone; Educatio puerorum , quęadeamviuendirationemperducit,quamlexre tameſſe dictat, &iuriæquitatepræſtantes,&fenio resvſu rerum, ficutrectam,verècomprobarunt. Ve rùmdefinitiohæcfitfoliusdifciplina a publica curadefcenden tis, anomnisdisputaboin s.parte, ubi Therapeutice explica bitur. Interimfatisfithicdifciplinamfignificare, educationem, ac affuetudinem perſona: cuius vires,que,&quantęfint, Lib.2.deaf- iamaperuimusin 2. parte. Quocircanibil aliudhicfubijciam; fectibus in communi. Epift.7. namquam, &qualemeffe oporteatadfequentempartemſpe Etabit, ibiquelatètradetur . §. Tertius . Depublicadiſciplina, ideſtpubli coexemplo. PVBLICAdifciplina, utnuncfumiturpropublicoexem plo,vim&ipsamagnamhabet,licètminorem,quampriuata: publicoenim viuitur, ut plurimum, exemplo . Quiin deli cijsBaiarumCanopivé,necnonlicentiaomniumvoluptatum viuebantadidem&ipfiexemplum,totiprofluebant luxu, t) voluptatibus; undeiubet ealoca vitare Seneca,qui &ra tionem affert, quamobrem publicum exemplum adeo promo ueat. Verbafunt. Vnumexemplum autluxuriæ, aut auaritiæ multum materialifacit. Conuictor delica tus paulatim eneruat, &emollit. Vrcinus diuescu piditatem irritat malignus,comes quamuis candi do ,& fimplici rubiginem fuam affricuit. Quid tu acci LiberTertius. 141 acciderehis credis, inquos publicè factuseſt impe tus , certèvbiluxuriæ,& libidinisvndique exempla occurrant, rarum,&admirandumerit,ſiquiscaſtus confpiciatur. ItaquePlatoquoquedixit verèprobumeffe CurAthe Athenienfemprobumcumcontrairritamentalicentiailliuspo- nienfispro pularisperſeprobitatemamplecteretur. Hincest, curPrinci- dictus pro pumexemplaadeopermoueant ,nampublicaeafunt. Utenim bus. Princepsgentemtotampotestate, &iurisdictionerepreſentat, itavita eius totius gentis vita instar est. Tantam idcircò vimexëplumobtinetPrincipis, utPlatoexistimaueritRem publicamillamfuamidealeminlibrisdeIusto confictam unius Principis exemplopoße induci . Cauſaverò efficacie exempli refertur in obiectum,cuiuspotestatemanteaexpofuimus3.par. Lib.2.c.8. teharumcuratoriarum . 142 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. Propofitio rerum, &methodi, huiusý, distinctio. Caput Primum . §. Primus. Quædicendaſunt, proponuntur . AvsAE morumexpofitæfunt,exquarumcom binatione moresdijudicaripoßunt,estqueidpri mumfignorumgenus,quodduciturexprocatar ticiscaufis , adcuiusfigniabſolutionem duo re quiruntur. Primumeft applicatiodictorum adindaginempro pofitam,fcilicet methodusindagandiexdictis mores. Secun dumeft inquifitio temperamenti . Cum enimtemperamentum, præfertimcordis, ex quomoresprofluunt, fit occultumfenfi bus,oportetex notis , atquefignis infenfum incurrentibus il lijudicare, ut mores extemperamentoproficifcentes conij ciamus. Signa verò,qua temperamentumindicant,ſunt,que inPhiſognomiamagnaexpartetraduntur: dico magnaexpar te, quoniamprætereiufmoditemperamentorumfignaaliaque damPhiſiognomiaincludit, vtfuo locointelligemus: verum Phiſiognomiampoftea,nuncapplicationeaggrediamur, acme thodumdeducedorumfignorumprimigeneris,fcilicetexcaufis. §. Secundus . Methodicapitaduoſunt. METHODI autempropoſite duofuntcapita; velenim omnes caufæin eundem moremconfpirant, v.g. omnes inmo rem venereum,tumnaturalestumaduentitiæ; velaliæineum morem, alice in contrariumducunt. Exemplo remdeclaremus. Temperamentumfitſanguineum, etasiuuenilis,regio calida, educatioin voluptaria ciuitate, quæqueſcateat occafionibus, il lecebrisque venereis, utquondamBaia , & Canopus: item inftitutioinfamilia, acdomointemperante,ſodales obſceni,for tunaampla,acdelitijs affluens: vitaotiofa, aut ſtudia volu ptaria, utmusica, modorum præfertim mollium. Omneshe morumcauſe ad veneremducunt, ac venereum morem. Hoc estprimum caput . Secundumeft cumalie cauſe in venerem, aliæin venerisodiuminclinant, v.g.temperamentum,regio, etasin venerem; educatio verò,autpublicadiſciplina , stu diumqueintemperantiam:velcontrailleintemperantiam,he invenerem : Etdemumcumaliquecauſe, autcauſaaliquain venerem,alique,autaliquain contrarium moremducunt. Eft fecundumhoccaputmethodi,cuiusiamapplicatio difficilioreft; oportet enim contraria momentalibrare , t) minusex maiore Subducere, utgraduspræualentisdemümorisfupputareliceat. Primum methodi caput continetcum omnescauſa confpirant . Caput Secundum . CV.M. causeomnesconfpirant,facilis est methodus; nam moremeumcertèconijcimus,quemfingula, &coniuncte cauſeexhibent,nempeinexemploproximicapitis morem vene reumpronunciabimus: tertiusautemestdemoreiudicium,qua deactione. Namactionisetiam pofthabitum contractumſu musdomini,utAriftotelesdocet 3.Ethic.cap.s.&nosfupras at moris,&habitusnonfemperdominifumus; undequiSar danapali vitam longotempore vixerit, Sardanapalimoresfa nèiscontraxerit: infingulistamen operandiex ea vitaoccafio nibus  Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. nibusſeſuštinere poterit pro libertate arbitrij: atdeponerein temperantiæ habitumnonæquèillifacile. Verùm anteaquo queremtotam explicuimus: exemplum,cum omnes caufa ad fortitudinemconfpirauerunt ,eſt Georgij Castriotte Scander beghTurcico nominevocati: temperamentum eius ad animo fitatemfactum; cöformatio etiammembrorum;procerusenim fuit, ) roborisincredibilis; natus eftinregionebellicofa,fcilicet in Epiro; educatus autemin militaridifciplina adhucephebus, veraspugnasgeffit,quasnumquamdimifit; perpetuoenimfuit bellandioccafionibus circumdatus; nobilitasetiam adanimofi tatemducebat,namexfamiliabellica virtuteprestantenatus Odifs. 24. est . Nobiles autem virtutesauitas,ac auitoshonoresemu lantur . Vlißes adTelemachumpenesHomerum3 : Nequidvituperamaiorumgenus,qui antea Fortitudine ornatifuimusomneminterram : Telemachuscontrà; Videbis,fivolueris,paterdilecte,hocinanimo Non vituperantemtuumgenus,ficutdicis. : Secundummethodicaput continet. Cap.Tertium. §. Primus. Cauſæmorumenumerantur, : &examinantur . ADfecundumnuncmethodicaput tranfeundum,quod cum multoscontineat anfractus,prolixioremquoqueora tionem exigit. Quoniam ergoinhocmiſcentur contrariamo menta,admorespraenoſcendosoportet,utmifceantur,utque librentur: &primò, quænambuiufmodi momentafint,repe tamus: hincautem deducemus. Mos, utexfuperioribuspa tet, est LiberQuartus. 145 tet, estdifpofitio quædamappetitus ,&in eiusmodidifpofitio nemosformaliterrefidet. Quoniam veròdiſpoſitioeaex acti buspreuijs comparatur; ideomosimmediateestexdifciplina, outexeffectricecauſa; utexformali verò, exhabitu , aut di ſpoſitionelaudabili, aut vituperabili . Habitus ergo virtutis aut vitij est mos. Rurfus quoniamappetitusfentiensſenſo riumfuumbabet,cuius difpofitio variè etiam admores incli nat , ut docuimus antea. Temperamentum, exquoſenſorij prefertimdispofitiopendet,in moresinfluit, momentumquead eos habet: atprætereaeademfenforijdispofitioexpartiumcon formationeintenditur, velrefrangitur ; etenim instinctus ex eaipfapartiumconformationenascens,inprimumſenſorium re fluit, fluit,fiquefimilisfit inclinationiextemperamento, eam auget; ſidiſſimilis,imminuit. Integeritaquemosnaturalis, integra quepropenfioex temperamento primiſenſorij, &ex refluxu instinctus,in conformationepartium refidentis,componitur. Quemintegrummorem naturalemegobreuitatis caufa infra momentum extemperamento,utplurimumdicam,licètnon totusextemperamentofit,quodpremoueo,ne quis me rece dere a meadoctrinareputet,quinonexſolo temperamentomo res naturales propenſioneſuenafci docui , ac doceo . Ad alia tranfeamus. Alteranttemperamentum,faltemadtempus,cli quæ tempe ramentum terent ma,folum,ſitus,regio; etatesquoque , &ſexus , exercitatio , &cibi; &horumaliquapartium quoqueconformationemal terant, ideohabentmomentumfingulaadmores . Appetitum pratereaafacultatecognofcente excitari vidimus ; unde im bibitadeagendisopiniones, & maximehabentipſe quoquead mores momentum. Diſciplinapublica,fiueexemplum publi- Quæhabeat momentum cumadhoccaputſpectat,& nobiltaspotentia, &diuitia,con- admores trariæquefortune; omnesenimeiufmodifortune conditiones, K primò  Deconiect.cuiuſquemorib.&c. primòincognitionem, & opinioneminfluunt, indein appeti tum:ſtudioautem,tumobcognitionemadmores momentaob tinent, tumetiam ob aliqualem temperamenticorporis muta tionemobquietem,motumové, &motuumrationem, veluti proximèiudicauimus. §. Secundus. Treseſſecomparationesmomentorum duasfimplices,&vnamcompoſitam . MOMENTAnuncdeclarataconferamus. Idautemprimò confiderandumest,duobusmodisfimplicibus collationemeiuf modifieripoſſe,fecundumgenusfcilicet , &fecundumgradus: fecundùmgenusquidem,ficonferamus momentumdifciplina, &affuetudinis cummomentodifpofitionisfenforij interioris, autcummomentocognitionis,& viciſſim:fecundùmgradus autem,ficonferamusdifciplinam intenfioremcumremiffiorez temperamentumcalidius, &magisadiracundiamfactumcum minu temperamento minuscalido, &minusfactoadiracundiam:at tertiomodo, *compofitofietcollatio, collatio,fi diuerforum di generum diuerfigradus conferantur,nempe,utexemploremdeclare mus,fidifciplina, utquattuorgraduum, cumtemperamento, outofto,comparetur,utquesehabeantinterfemomentaad mores,quæratur. Comparationemfecundumgenera continet. CaputQuartum. 5. Primus. Comparatdiſciplinæ,&tempera G mentimomenta . ENERAnuncprimumcomparemus: triaillafumma erant momentumaffuetudinis,acdifcipline,momentum dispositionis&affectionisprimiſenſorijextemperamento, & momentumcognitionis: quorumafſfuetudinis,tt) difciplinamo mentum, &immediatius, &formaliusmoremattingit, cum constituatappetitumipfum, cuiusdispositioeftmos . Dispofi tio verò, &affectioſenſorijprimi materialiterfehabetadmo res,ideoquenonequèimmediata ,necformalis mori,attamen utpendetextemperamentopertinacior illaestdispofitione ip ſaappetitusexaffuetudine;ſpiritaliora enimin nobisfluidiora funt, craffioraautem,& materiata confiftentiora: at oportet dilucidiusremhancipfamexplicare . Cumergo moremhicdi cimus,nonpræfentemaffectum SIGNIFICAMUS – “we signify” – H. P. Grice: “I signify” “he signifies”-- ire, aut cupiditatis, fed impreſſamappetitui diſpoſitionem adirafcendum,adcon cupifcendumvé,cumſeſeobtuleritobiectum , autoccafio: affe Etioautemfenforij,acdifpofitioex temperamento,in actupri mofemperinest,quousque temperamentumdurat; in actuſe cundononaquè. Ex.gr. cui corestdurum, )calidum,tale femperhabetfecundumtemperamentiſuigradum: at quodex ardeat,accenfa cordiscaliditate,nonhabet,nifipro occafione irafcendi, velexincenfisbumoribuscorpenetrantibus, velex alia eiufmodicauſa. Corcalidum, ) durum, utad exarde fcendumpronumeft,ita etiamadiramhabet momentum,vt accenfio cordis proxima eſt materia ira: attamenficontraria aßuetudo vicerit,comprimit virtusmanfuetudiniscor velin cenfum, & abaffectuire,faltemimmodico,&rationempro turbante, vindicat: verum restat adhuc temperamentum. femperpronumadmaterialiaillaire primordia excitanda, UE interdum,fifueritoccafio irafcendi acris , magna, &ratio aliorfumdistracta,minusattendatinitiamotus,poßitmagnus iraexcitariestus,in viroquoqueprobo,quitamenſeſeconti nebit . Concludamus comparationem . Difpofitiocordisad K 2 ira 148 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. ira materialia primordia tenacius beretcordi,cum tempera mentoipfibereat ,quam dispofitio exafſfuetudinecomparata, appetituicumfit hæc aduentitiumquoddam accidens, &licèt plurimum obtineat firmitatis ex eo , quod longa confuetudo imiteturnaturam ,dicaturquetranfireinnaturam,ipfatamen naturaeritadhucfirmior,&conftantiorex eamaxima;pro pter unumquodque tale ) illudmagis: at validior,etef ficaciorcontractushabitus . Comparatcognitionem cumaffue tudine, ac difciplina . い ADcomparationem nunc cognitionis cum affuetudine ac disciplinatranfeamus . Quid cognitioattuopereturin Etu operetur in &20. appetitumfentientem,expofuimus anteainlibrisdeaffectibus: Lib.2.c. 16. modò verò cognitionem in habitu veldispofitione compara muscumdifpofitione appetitus. Estoenim,qui credathonesta tem eſſepreferendam voluptati habitualicognitione,&cum occafiofe obtulerit , actuali : at idemappetitumhabeat in v luptatempronum,illiquecedentem,cumcommoditas, & pre fensillecebra occurrerit, eiuſmodique cedendidifpofitionemcon traxerit, estfanèdifpofitio appetitus validiorcognitione;que conclufioexincontinentiumſtatu,operationequepatet: Mul toautem clarior eft conclufiodeintemperantibus,fiquiforteex illis cognouerintPhiloſophiamoralem,eamqueadmiferint (Quo tamen modoadmittiabintemperantepoffit, &improbo homi neanteadeclarauimus;)eiufmodienim hominesinoperandonon cognitionem,fedappetitusdiſpoſitionemſequentur. Insumma ergo, cumex difciplina difpofitio appetitus immediatèdefcen dat,que mosipfeest,plus momenti affuetudodifciplina admo ش rem 149 rem,quàm cognitiohabebit. Verùmrepetenda eftdistinctio LiberQuartus. cognitionis agendorum anteatradita, quodaliafitrationis , & mentispractice, alia interiorumſenſuum : nos unius phanta fienomineinhocmoralinegotioomnes complexifumus,utan tea nonfemel protestatifuimus . Cognitio veròphantafie alia inphantasmateprimofistitur,aliaadphantasmafecundum excurrit . Conclufioproximadeprimiphantafmatis cognitione accipiendaest, nondecognitioneetiamfecundi; cum hac enim cognitioappetitus commotionemincludat, nonpotest inhabitu ipſoconcipi, quinin appetituetiamfentientefimilis aliquadiſpo fitio Statuatur , atidest contrapoſitionem; ponimus enim di ſpoſitionem appetitus repugnare cognitioni, nonautemfimilem eße . Nifitamen, utinincontinentecontingit,interpretemur cognitionemhabitueſſein mentepractica, &phantaſiaſecun dumprimumphantasma, attamenadſecundumetiamphantaf maextendi, cumnondumingrueritpeccandioccafio, &titilla tio: tum veròobscurari, &expiraredemùphantasmaſecun dum,restarequefolumcognitionemobumbratam,qualem antea incontinentiumcognitioneminactupeccandidefcripfimus . §. Tertius. Dubitationes contra dicta,acſolutiones. SED contraconclufionem allatamdubitatio oritur; vide turenimcontra cognitioprestareappetitusdifpofitioni. Plato in7. deIustoſpeciem hanc educationis affert . Adoleſcens rectè inſtitutus in honeſtis , iuſtisque actionibus , & officijs, qui etiamverasdehoneſtis opiniones rit, ſcilicethoneſta eſſe,quæ lexpræcipit, vicaptio iniones imbue numabaliquodifputatore,& peruerfore ſeducatur averaſententia infalſam,vtquod lex præcepit non K 3 magis 150 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. magiseſſehoneſtum,quam turpe,deincepscredat; ſeductus iuuenis invitam turpempræceps ibit. Ita ibiPlato . Ettamenappetitumiamad legitimas actiones di Spofitum habebat, verùm exſolacognitione mutata in contra riam vitam abit; ergocognitiopræualet diſpoſitioniappetitus, proindequeaßuetudini. Itemdocet, &rectèOuidius amorem extingui,fiturpisdetegaturmulierintimè confpecta, & per tractata, quàm antea, utpulchramdeperibamus. Lib. 1.de re med.amoris Proderit&fubito,cumſenonfinxeritulli Addominam celeres manetuliffègradus Auferimurcultu,gemmis,auroqueteguntur. Omnia, pars minimaestipfapuellaſui . Sape ubifit,quodames, intertam multarequiras , Decipithacoculosægidèdiuesamor Improuiſusades, deprendastutus inermen , Infelix vitijs excidetipfafuis . Adestergoappetitus difpofitioiamattamenafuccedente cogni tioneturpitudinis vincitur, &tollitur. Refpondeo ergodu bitationibus adductis, idquegenusalijs,bocfactofundamento. Difpofitioappetitusæftimaridebet , cenſeriqueex obiectofor mali, non materiali,quodanteaquoquenonſemeltraditumest, Inpropofitis itaque argumentis dispofitio ad materiale obie Etum, nonadformale mutatur : v.gr. inargumento Platonis difpofitio iuuenis erat adhonestum , & eadespofitiodurat etiä postseductionem;fugitenim legitimas actioneseo,quodbone ſtasampliusnoncredit,nonquodalienatusfitformaliterab bo nestate. Infecundopariterargumento mutaturpoft detectam turpitudinemamatorergafubiectam mulierem,qua riale obiectum, at nonerga fimulachrum, et effigiem pulchri tudinis,fubqua eamfibi repræfentabat , amabatque: eandem enim LiberQuartus. 151 enimformam,ficubi videret, perditèamaret. Hincprocorel lariodeducitur; eum,quifacilèopinione mutetur,etiamfiappe .. titusdifpofitionempertinacemhabeat,facilèpoffe mutari erga materialia obiecta,nempeergaperſonas, & etiamresformali, aſeque dilecto obiectofubiectas . Est auarus,qui omnia ad tilitatem refert: amatishominem,quemfibi utilemexper tus est,&credit: atfifacilisfitadmutandamfententiam,per fuadeillibominem,quem utilemcredit, eſſefraudolentum, & alios effe, quimulto magis ufuiillierunt, modo eos admittat, &primum reijciat. Mutabit is amorem,etiamſidiſpoſitio appetitus adformale obiectum eadem perfeueret . Aulici hoc modograffantur aduerfus competiores: adulantur, & applau dunt amoriformalis obiectifuorum Principum, atamorem ma terialis,fcilicetperfonarum demoliuntur. Maximaitaquepars buiusartis eftnoffeformaleobiectum amorisPrincipum .- §.Quartus . Comparatur cognitiocum tempera mentofenforijprimi. TERTIA comparatioreftat, quæestcognitioniscumtem peramentofenforij primi; &quoniamhicabſtrabimusagradi bus,ideodebemusintelligere utrumque membrumin eodem graduſumptum, v.gſummo.ExdogmateenimPlatoniscon fideratio, & collatioreruminfummafuipuritate effedebet : hic Collatiore in cõparationeprimòſeſeoffertfententia Platonis; quifententia fumnora primasdefert: cuiusfententiæmeminitAristot.in 7.Ethic.ut du. fupraetiam,cumdeincontinentiaegimus, diximus. Contraria SententiaestGaleniinlibro,quodanimi moresfequantur tem peraturamcorporis; exeoenimdogmatetemperamentumcogni tioneefficatius erit. Verum utfimpliciterprocedam,mediafen corpor K 4 tentia , fit in ,  Deconiect.cuiufquemorib &c. tentia, eſt meoiudicio verior. Eftautemmediafententia,in 3.part.libro quaPlatonemexpofuimus. Diximus veròfententiam perfe iximus . Etam, ) integramintelligi poſſe, cognitionemclaramfuophan taſmate,nedumprimo ,fedetiamfecundofultam; Eiusmodique cognitionemeffepraualidam: nuncquoquerepetimusipsam va lidioremeſſe momentoadmoresfiuepropenſionenaturaliextem peramentoprimiſenſorij.Exillis,quæ tumdiximus,patetetiam conclufionisnuncpropofita veritas. Atfi cognitionemſuma muscumſolophantasmateprimo,dicotum validioremeſſepro penfionem ex temperamento, quàm cognitionis momentumad mores,dumperſe, primoqueloquimur . Probo verò conclu fionem,quiamomentumextemperamēto,fiue propenfioipſaper Seaccedenteobiecto , effundit cupiditatemfentientis appetitus , quęadoperandumrapit:atcognitioabſquephantaſmateſecundo taeft ipſaperſeminus multoaptaeſt mouere voluntatem,Utnodum integra cognitioneque integrè obiectum bonumrepresentans. Eritautemfummarationis; quodabſoluto,&expedito, accon citato motumouetappetitumfentientem,plusmomentiad mo res habet,quàmquodleuiter debiliterque mouet voluntatem3 quoniam appetitus ipſe valdeconcitatus , validè etiam mouet voluntatem, inquahabitusnonſupponatur, utnunc: at pro plus penfioextemperamentoſenſorij abſoluto, & expedito, concita toquemotuappetitumfentientemmouet. Cognitio abſquephan Tempera- tafmatefecundo debiliter mouet voluntatem; ergopropenfioex potinmori teperamentoplus momětihabetadmores,quàmcognitioabſque bus introdu phantasmatefecundo.Adiunxitamenparticulamperfe,&pri cognitio. codis, quam mo,quoniam voluntasdūnondirectèinobiectumfertur, fedfu praseipsamreflectitur, vultqueexperirilibertatemfuam,fatis habetexcognitioneetiamfinephantaſmateſecudo, vnde resistat motioniappetitusſenſuum, utin primapartehorumaperitur. Com LiberQuartus. 153 Comparationes fecundùm gradus continet . Caput Quintum . SVCCEDITcomparatiofecundùmgradus,quabreuiexamine peragitur; namcertumesttemperamentumcalidum, midum cordis,quod est venereum, quotale magis fuerit,e maius momentumadmores venereoshabere . Idemquedetem bu peramento cordiscalido, ) duro, cuiusestiracundiapertinax; quocoreritcalidius, &durius, eo maiusinerithominimomen tumadiracundiammagnam, & diuturnam,pertinacemque , idemquedecateris. Cognitioquoquequoclarior, ) stabilior, defixiorque , eo maiushabebit momentumadmorem, inquem propendit . Appetitusdiſpoſitiopariter,quo maiorerit , &in tenfior,eomaius inferet momentumad mores . §. Vnicus. Decollatione appetitus ſenſuum cum voluntate,&cognitionisintellectuscum cognitione sensuum. APPETITVS tamendiſpoſitioaliamquandamN.com parationemfecundumgradusdifferentiam continet,eftque,quod appetitus aliusfitſenſuum aliusfitrationis,fcilicet voluntas; potestque conferridispofitio voluntatis cumdifpofitioneappeti tusſenſuum, utramaius momentumhabet. Verum,quoniam fatishanccollationem præftitimusfupra, ideoſuperſedeo nunc. Poffet etiam conferri cognitiomentispracticecum cognitione interiorumſenſuum, acquoniamdehacquoquecollationeegimus antea, poteſtque exdictis non difficilinegociodeduci, ideoilluc reijciolectorem,præterquamquodadcollationem,quamnuncin tendimus, 154 no affuefcit Deconiect.cuiufquemorib &c. tendimus,coniungi bacdebent,nonſeiungis nonenimaßuefcit, Appetitus appetitus fenfuum reali ipfa operatione, quinaffuefcat quoque fine affenfu voluntas,conspirando,imòiubendo ipfam operationem . voluntatis . Quaproportionesfintintermemoratamomenta. Caput Sextum . §. Primus . Proportionemexponitintermomen : tumexdiſpoſitioneappetitus,&momentumextem peramento. On poßettamenexdictiscollatiofieri, nifi, UtAstro logi planetarum dignitates in numerisaffignant , itat ) nos vimenumeratorumadmoresmómentorumnumeris diftin queremus . Išta enim mixtionis ratio poterit demum colligi. Rem veròbuncin modumprobabiliterdeducemus . Difpofitio appetitus , que ex affuetudine, cum totum appetitum afficiat, fcilicet &animefacultatem, &fenforium,ficonferatur cum temperamentoſenſorij ,adeoque momentumcum momento ad mores,dupliciratione excedit. Primò, utforma excedit mate riam,parsqueformalis exceditmaterialem. Secundo,utto tumexceditpartem, quatenus enim difpofitio ex affuetudine afficitfacultatem anime,quæestparsformalis, actemperamen tumfenforij afficitperſeſenſoriumfolum,quæ estparsmateria lis,eatenus affuetudo excedittemperamentum exceſſuforma Supramateriam. Secundoautemloco,cumtotusappetitus,quem afficit afſfuetudo &partemformalem , &materialem occupet, totius rationis babet adtemperamentum,quodafficitfolampar tem materialem . Quoniam itaque forma continet materiam totam,quam actuat , &perficit : continere autem totam , & non LiberQuartus. nonfolum perpartes,adminimum duplamrequiritproportio nem. Eftoitaquedispofitiofacultatis, utduo addifpofitionem Senſorij,quæfit itaque, ut unum. Rurfusverò,cumhanc etiam difpofitionemſenſorij complectatur dispofitio appetitus ab aßuetudine,ideodispofitiointegraappetitus addifpofitionem Senſorijfolius, quæ ex temperamento, erit , uttria ad vnum, adeoque triplamproportionem obtinebit. Eftnunc veròcolla tio dispofitionis ex affuetudineinſummoaddispofitionemſen Sorij extemperamentoinſummofititaque figura. Difpofitio appetitus ex affuetudine, eiusquemomentum ad mores 3 Diſpoſitioſenſorij extemperamento,eiusque momentum ad mores I §. Secundus . Proportio inter diſpoſitionem ap petitusexaffuetudine, &cognitionemabſquephan taſmateſecundo. Ат proportio inter momentum diſpoſitionis appetitus ex affuetudine, & momentum excognitioneabſque phantaſmate Secundoexhoccapitecolligetur. Cognitiocumphantasmateſe cundofuperatpropenfionemex temperamento,vt vidimus:at cognitioabsquephantaſmatefecundoapropenfione vincitur: cũ verò cognitiohæcagendorumabſqueſecundo phantaſmatea cognitione eorundemcumphantasmateſecundoproficiatur, inte greturque,videturfaltem alteras tantas vires addere cognitio Secundiphantafmatisadagendum. Sinos ipficonferamus in teriore examine,quantaluminisadcognofcendum, & momenti adagendumacceßiofiatexcognitionefecundiphantafmatis cer tènonminorem alteratanta ipfam existimabimus . Faciamus ergo Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. ergofex unitatumcognitionemfecundi uſquephantasmatis, triumcognitionemtantùmphantasmatis primi . Quoniam veròefficacior erat cognitionehac propenfioex temperamento, eademque minus efficax,quoniam cognitiophantafmatisfecun di,in medio eamharmonico statuamus,fcilicet innumeroqua ternario; utcognitiofecundi uſquephantasmatis, eiusquemo mentumfitſex unitatum ,momentum extemperamentofit quattuor , cognitio primiſolum phantaſmatis momentumque eius admoresfittrium,fitquefigura Cognitio practicafecundum usque phantaſma includens, eiusquemomentum Propenfio, acmomentumexſenſorijtemperamento 6 4 Cognitiopractica adprimüfolūphantasmaproueniens- 3 §. Tertius. Confirmatio probabilis ſuperiorum ex conſonantijsemergentibus,quę que exponuntur. CONFIRMANTVR nuncdicta probabiliratiocinio huncin modum . Quoniamdispofitio appetitus ex affuetudine, eiuf quemomentumadmores (appetitus uterque & rationis, & ſenſuumconiungitur. )quarum partium esttriumearum, est diſpoſitioſenſorij extemperamento unius: quarumergodispo fitioappetitus, eiusque momentum eft 1 2. earundemeſtdiſpo fitioſenſorij 4. & quarumhæc4.earum est cognitiopractica cumphantasmatefecundo 6. )finephantaſmateſecundotriū . Appetitusdifpofitio ergoadcognitionemcumprimofolum phan taſmatebabetproportionem 1 2. ad3.ideftquadruplam;adco gnitionemcumphantasmateſecundohabetproportionem 1 2.ad adpropension 6. ideftduplam; adpropenfionemex teperamentotriplam; co gnitio LiberQuartus. : gnitio veròcum 2.phantaſmateadpropenfionem extempera mentoſeſquialteram,quamfcilicet 6.ad4. atpropenfioextem peramento ad cognitionemcum primafolum phantasmateſef quitertiam. 4. ad3.quasproportiones,fiadharmonias refera mus,funtharmonicaomnes, utpareratinfuauiſſimamorum harmoniamolitameffenaturam. Inproportioneenimquadru placonsistitharmoniabiſdiapaſon quetotumſyſtema muſicum exPtolemeocontinet, eiuſmodiqueergoestconſonatiainterdi ſpofitionemexaffuetudineappetitus,& cognitionempracticam imperfectamprimifolumphantafmatis. Inproportione tripla compofitadiapaſon eft confonantia compofitadiapaſon diapente , eiuſmodique est inter dispofitionemappetitus, &ſenſorijdispositionemextem peramento. Inproportione dupla confiftit confonantia diapa fon: hecergoeftinter diſpoſitionem appetitus , & cognitionem cumfecundo uſquephantasmate:inproportioneſeſquialtera confistit consonantiadiapente,eiufmodique est inter cognitio nemfecundi uſquephantasmatis,& propenfionemex tempe ramento. Poftremoinproportioneſeſquitertia confiftitconſo nantiadiateſſaronipſaqueidcirco intercedit interpropenfionem extemperamento, seudiſpoſitionemſenſorijex temperamento, cognitionemimperfectamprimitantumphantafmatis. : 1 TABEL  Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. TABELLA. Proportio. Conſonantia. Difpofitionemappetitus,etcognitio-5Quadrupla. Biſdiapafon. nemprimiſolumfantasmatis. 4.ad1. Difpofitionemappetitus,&propen- Tripla. Diapason. fionemextemperamento. : 3.ad1 1.3 Dispositionem appetitus, & cogni- Dupla. Diapason. 2.ad1. Inter tionemfecundietiamphantafmatis. Cognitionefecundietiafantasmatis, 1 5Dupla.2 etcognitionëprimiſolifantaſmatis. 2.ad }Diapason. ad Cognitioneſecudietiäphantaſmatis, Sesquialtera. Diapente. &propenfioneextemperamento. 2 3.ad2. Propenfionemextemperamento, # Sesquitertia. Diateſſaron. Cognitionë  primi folú phantasmatis. 4. ad3. Mixtionismoditraduntur, quibus contrariamo rummomentacomiſcentur. Cap.Septimum. 5. Primus. Fundamentumpræmittitur. ANTEQVAM veròvlteriusprogrediamur,videamus,quot modis contraria momenta morum miſcentur. Confide randumitaqueestmomentamorumexcontrario uſu,acinsti tutioneinterdumexcindi , tradicitus tolliinterdum obtundi quidem, . quidem,reftaretamen. v.gr. tumoranimiexdiuitijspoteftin terdumpenitustolli, autdifcipline vi, altové contemptufor tunebonorum,autexeuentu,fidiuitiaexciderint: poteftetiam idemtumorretundi,ſedinterdum etiamſopiri, ut non am pliusaliquodfui indiciumpræbeat,restettamen occultè;ſique vehemensoccafioſeſeobtulerit, acpræfensobiectum irritetma gnopere,erumpat. Testimoniuminfigne reiaCiceronedeſeip Sobabemus: placet veròeiusipfius verbisexfcribere, Ego, Lib.r.famil. inquit, cum mihicumillo,Crafſo,magna iam gratia Epift.9. eſſet, quodeiusomnesgrauiſſimas iniuriascommu nis concordiæ cauſa,voluntaria quadam obliuione contriueram,repentinam eiusdefenfionemGabinij, quemproximisſuperioribusdiebus acerrimè oppu gnaffer,tamen,ſi ſinevlla meacontumelia fufcepif ſet, tuliffem: fed, cumme difputantem,non lacef ſentemlæſiſſet,exarſi,nonfolumpræſenti, credo ira cundia( namca tamvehemens fortaſſe nonfuiſſet) ſedcumincluſum illud odium multarumeius in me iniuriarum,quodegoeffudiſſemeomnearbitrabar, refiduumtameninſciente mefuiſſet, omne repentè apparuit. §. Secundus. Duofuntmixtionismodi,priua tiuus, &pofitiuus . Ex fundamento iactoiammixtionismodoscolligamus:duo itaqueilli erunt, alter,cumnihilcontrarijmomentireſtat; vo caboautemmixtionem priuatiuam; alter,cum restat contra riummomentum,radixvéeius; &vocabomixtionempofiti uam. Scioequidempriorem, acpriuatiuamvocatam mixtio Arift.1.de nemminusproprièdici; etenimin mixtione mifcibiliaferuaritex.vit. gen&corr. oportet; 160 Deconiect. cuiuſquemorib.&c. tione priua Nomemix- oportet; nonenim mixtafuntnullatenusexistentia . Verum tionisquara tamenutadmoralehocnegociumpertinet, nihilprobibet mix tiuæ mixtio- tionem vocare,cum aliquamexipfamoresrefractionem, &mi ni cóueniat. ſcellamfufcipiant, quamnuncexponemus. , §. Tertius. Mixtiovtraqueexponitur . MIXTIO priuatiuamorumin eoconsistit,quoddumne ceffefuit debellare contrariummomentum, minuspotuitpropa gari,&intendiid,quodreſiſtebat, nempehumilitasanimimi noresprogreffusfecit ,dumneceffefuitcum tumoreex diuitijs pugnare, quam,fieoobicecarens,potuiffet animusinhumilita tisſtudium, &incrementumſetotumeffundere. Pariterqui exmalaconfuetudinealiquam veneris infectionem contraxit, etiamfieamposteaiugicura eluerit, attameneo minusin tem perantiaprofecit,quo partem illam temporisinexuendo vitio pro virtuteconfirmanda,augendaquepofuit: atmixtio pofiti udutrunque momentumretinet; licèt alterum retuſum,acre fractum, interdumautemſopitum ex temperamento momen tum (utarbitrorego)folum hanc mixtionem difciplinafufci Acommu nibus,&na turalibusvo luptatib. ho monunqua tutus. pit,proindequecommunes, &naturales voluptatesnunquam penitus moriuntur . Quocirca tutiffimum estconfilium nunquamſetutumabearumimpetuarbitrari.Le gimusfanctiffimosAnachoretas omnesau fugiffe venereorum obiectorum vel leuesoccafiones,quodfacerein legeChriſtiana,inquafo mitem perdurare fempercostat, estneceßa rium . 4. Compa LiberQuartus. 161 Comparatiocompofita momentorum,ſcilicetfecun dumgenera,etgradus. Momentamorumfingula,& integrain octo gradus diftinguuntur. : HIS Isitapremiffis,iamadcomparationem tertiam momen torum,quæfcilicetfecundùmgenera , fecundumgra dusest, tranfeamus,in qua exercenda comparatione hec effè methodusdebet: oportetfingulagenera momentorumingradus diftinguere certos,ac numeratos,v.gr. Philofophi naturales Philofophi fingulas qualitates in octogradusdistribuunt: Mediciinquat- quibuunt diftribuunt tuor:nos quoquemomenta bacad moresaliquo certonumero octogradus graduumpartiridebemus:numerumitaqueoctonarium ralibus Philofophis mutuemur; intelligamusque eum momen tum,quodex temperamento eftintegrum, effe graduum octo, anatu refractumautem usquead vnicum gradumminui,nempead octauamfuipartem. Siadduosgradusrefrangatur,quartam folumfue integritatis partem retinebit,ſiadquattuor dimi diamtantùm . Siofłointegrosgradusretinuerit, eritinſum mo, idemquedereliquisgradibus concipiamus, &eodemmodo momentadiwiſaintelligamus &appetitusdifpofitionis,&pro penfionisextemperamento,&cognitionis. §. Secundus. Praxiscomparationis exemplo illuftratur . 1 DISTINCTISitagradibus,comparatiogenerum diuerfo rumfimulquegraduumhuncinmodumperagetur; exemplores L clarior Medici in quattuor . De coniect. cuiufquemorib.&c. clarior erit . Sit momentumex temperamentoocto graduum, fcilicetinfummo: momentumautemexdiſciplinaquattuorgra duum,fcilicetdimidiumintegri exdifciplinamomenti: quarum ergo partium integrum difciplinamomentum est 12.earum erit momentumnuncfumptumquattuorgraduum,partiumfex. Verùmquarumpartiumestmomentumintegrum,&fummum difcipline 1 2. earundem est momentum extemperamento 43 Utvidimusproximocapite; ergoquarūpartium momentum quattuorgraduumdifciplinaest 6, earundemestmomentum temperamentiinſummo4.quocircamomentum quattuorgra duumdifciplinæ momentointegritemperamentiestmaius,va lidiusqueſeſquialteraproportione. Vndegraduumnumerusfingulorum momentorumæſtimariqueat. SEDquereturiureque merito, unde estimarepoffimus gradus momentorum,fintnéocto,anquattuor, anduo,analij demuminteriecti aliqui, cuifatisfaciemus nos questionipro virili . Exordiamurautemextemperamenti momento. Мо mentumitaqueeiusex temperamento ipſo æftimabimus,vtfi temperamentumcalidum, &acrefitocto graduum,totidem afferatur graduum momentumadiracundiam: at gradus tem peramentiexfignisPhiſionomicis deprahendentur,quafigna infra afferemus,gradus veròdifciplina ex integra, &exacte difciplina cognitione deprehendentur , cenſebunturque; utfi ofto velpluresconditionesadexactam eiusrationemrequiran tur,pronumero, &qualitateearum,quedeficiūt,eſtimemus, quot illigradus ad integritatem defint. De difciplina verò infequenti, acquinctahuiusoperis curatorij partecognitionis pariter LiberQuartus. 163 paritergradus colligemusex comparatione eius cum integra , exactaquecognitione,&quoadfirmitatemfidei, accredulita tis , &quoadluciditatem notionum,aceasfubminiftrantium phantasmatum . Cognitioenim obfcurarecedit aclara, adeoque agradibus octointegræcognitionis: itemcognitiodubiaplus ve rò, autminusrecedit pro maiore, minorervédubietate, acma iore minorevéobfcuritate. Exeiufmodiitaquecollatione,ac cedenteiudicij, nonhebetis, aqua æftimatione,graduscolligen turmomentorum . De reliquis morumcaufis anteame moratis,quæ adtria momenta dictareducitur,quo modo adhibendæ fintadpropoſitampraxim. : ADtotamtamencomparationemfaciliusabfoluendampre ſtitiffet videre, acaeftimaremomentafingulorum antearelato rumcaufarum moriseruta intereiufmodi caufarum , & diſci pline integre, &exacte momentaproportione, eaqueinnu merosredactafcilicet climatum, regionum,fitus, ventorum, aquarum,ciborum, etatum, nobilitatis, potentiæ, diuitiarum, fortunefecunde, &contrariarumconditionum, Studiorumiti dem. Verùmpriorescaufæ adtemperamentum, utillud va riant,rediguntur; conditiones autemfortune, ut plurimum, adcognitionemreducuntur; ideononpoßunteiusmodicausacen feri,nisi utacceffiones alicuius extribus momentis,quæ iam retulimus, v.gr.cumiudicioPhiſſonomicotemperamenti,con iungereetiamoportebit climatis, regionis,ſitus,&reliquorum confiderationem: etatespræfertimadtemperamentumſpectats fedetiamadcognitionem, velutiſenectusmultapropter expe rientiamfacit . cit. Nobilitas,& potentia adcognitionemfere P. L 2 perti 164 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib &c. pertinent,adappetitusdispofitionemparumquid:t)he itaque omnesaduentitia cauſe,utacceffiones, vel cognitionis, vel appetitus estimaridebent, v.gr. cumcognitionis momentum eiusquegradusquafiuerimus,oportebit interponere confidera tionemnobilitatis , &potentia , videreque,quantum ex ea cognitioni accedat, veldetrahatur opinioni,quodfit nauanda honoribus, & magistratibusopera,fietexnobilitatisfenfuac ceßio: at contràexeademdetrabetur opinioniquodpræſtet di miſſis honoribus inſeceſſu aliquo viuere. Sunt verdipfaquo quein gradusdistinguenda, utex.gr. alia nobilitasfit octo graduum,fiueinſummo,qualisregianobilitas, Imperialisvé, Nobilitas velutiAustriaca,Valefia &c. aliarefracta, velſexgraduum Auftriaca,et velquattuor t Valeſia insú )c.Nobilitas eniminſummoeffectumcöfequen mogradu. teminfummohabet,refractarefractum: idemdepotentia,t de cæterisdixeris. 1 §. Quintus. Nobilitas. NOBILITAS honoris auiti cognitionem cumphantasmate fecundoexhibet, ruthonorisproprij nonnifi cum phantasmate primo,cotamenfatis claro. Quocircafifit temperamentum frigidum, &defesexeoanimus,abhonoribusque publicis ab borrens, at nobilitasiungatur, erit exdictis temperamenti mo mentum, utquattuor, nobilitatis momentum, uttria. Supe rabititaquein homine ceſſfationis ab bonoribus propofitum,re murmurantetamenadbuchonorumdefiderioob exiguum vin centis momenti exceffium. Nempefi mifceanturmenteduo mo menta, alterum, utquattuor , alterum, uttria,tota mixtio ما erit, utfeptem, inquaparspræualensſeptimatantumparte totius excedet : atdifciplina contrariaquantum præstet,pater exfuperioribus. 5 §. Scx LiberQuartus. §. Sextus. Potentia.  POTENTIAphantasma,nedumprimum,fedetiamſe cundumbonorum, &dignitatumexhibetpotentiæiuxtafupe rioremdiuifionemrespondentium. Quocirca momentum eius ad honoresad temperamenti momentum est,utſex ad quat tuor, idestproportionemfesquialteramhabet. Siitaque tem peramentumrepugnethonorumdefiderioinpotente , ineo tamë defideriumbonorumpræstabit, refractelicet, ut exmixtione contrarij momenti:fimifceanturenim cotrariainea momenta, mixtiototaeritquinque ,inquaparsprepolles excedetalteram quintatantumpartetotius. Nonconſiderohic,fiacceßeritdo mesticadifciplina reſpondens nobilitati,acpotentiæ; bec enim , fiaccefferit,debet librariipfaquoque,proquegradibus,quosob tinueritfupputari in collatione. : §. Septimus. Fortuna ſecunda. FORTVNAfecundabenèfortunatishominibusphantaf ma,nedumprimum,ſedſecundumquoqueboni,felicisqueeuë tus affert . Praterea, &idemphantasmaexhibet reliquorum fortunebonorum . Hinc fortunati adeabona momentum est, utfexadquatuor,admomentumextemperamento Quo circafiquisfitextemperamentoindiffidentiam, &defperatio nempronus,atbenèfortunatus,hic tandemsperandoexcedet quinta parte totius mixtionis. Inamoremquoque eorumbo norum valdepronus, utfacilèexeorumfubitaomiffione ob- CurSeianus Stupefcat,utcontigitSeiano, in quo cum bonafortuna ma- infubitamu obſtupuerit xima potentiaiungebatur, is ergoiuffionem LaconisConfulis,tatione for tunæ. C L 3 rut 166 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib. &c. ut adeumiret,etiamfirepetitam vix utfibiindictam intel lexit. §. Octauus. Diuitiæ. DIVITIAE, utin uſumdeſcendunt&commoditatis, ac deliciarum , utrunque phantafina exhibent, &bonorum etiam; namdiuites,qui ſplendore utuntur, prefertimfimu nificifint, honorantur; immoquandamin ciuitatepotentiam contrahuntexclientelis. Eandemitaqueferèretinentpropor tionem,quampotentiaadmomentumextemperamento.Quod fidiuitianondefcendantin ufum,fedin habitutantumfint , exploditurpotiusdiues, quambonoretur,estqueilludHoratij. Populusmefibilat,atmihiplaudo Ipſedomi,fimulacnummoscontemplorinarca: neque etiam ullamexperientiamcommoditatum viteaffequi-- Nefc tur rectè Horatius. is,quid valeatnummus,quemprebeat ufum Panisematurolus, vinifextarius:addo, Queis humanafibidoleatnaturanegatis. Inſtituta, acſtudia,acprimòPhiloſo phia,& lurisprudentia. PHILOSOPHIA moralisexhibetphantasmatantum primumipfaperſehoneſtatis,pariterIurisprudentia,quaexpar Deſtudio te illamedocet; undeinferiorestipſatemperamento. Atftudium Poetarum,librorumquealiorum,quiobfcenita Poetarum. tesincludunt,nedum phantafina primumearum rerum,quas graphiceexfcribunt,ſedſecundumquoqueexhibent,velme diumaliquidinterprimum, &fecundum;namresobscene de fcripta د LiberQuartus. fcripta,nedumcognofcentemfacultatem afficiunt,fedexreflu- Detrimen 167 tú,quodmo xuturgentepariternatura commouent appetitum, vel adhuc ribus affert virginum. Eftenimisfalpruriens,dequoanteaexMartiali obſcenapos diximus. Superatitaqueeiufmodicognitio temperamentimo mentumficontrariumfuerit; velcertèæquat . De motu,& quiete. Мотум corporis,exercitationemquecalefacerehumores, acfpiritus,demumque vegetarecalorem,nitantusfit,vtcolli quet, vidimus: quietemcontràrefrigerare . Flaccefcuntetiam quietepartesfolidæcorporis, motu roborantur. Adiuuat ergo demummotustemperamentumadmoresaudaces, &actuosos , adcontrariosquies. Qua veròproportione? Difficileestex plicatu: attamenin octogradus, momentoextemperamentoad audaciamdiuiſo vix unumex illisaffignarem motui . Confi dero eniminfluxumcalidiorumhumorum,& spirituumnon equèadmores poße atquetemperamentumipfumcordisfecun dumfolidaspartes, &fpirituscomplantatos, ut fiinfluenti demus tresgradus,nonpaucioresiustoafſignemus: verumca liditas ex motu & adinfluentesfolum humoresſpiritusque pertingit,&ficonferatur cumhorum caliditate,queplurimü adaudaciamducit,fcilicetcumira caliditate, nonexcedittertiä eius partem . Confulamus hacde reexperientiam. Utrum, quiiratus verèfit,triploaudaciorfiteo,quimultomotuvel venationis,velpugillationisexercitusfit,cumamboillihomi nes eiufdë ipfi perfedifpofitionisad audaciamanteacceßionem calorum coruminfluentiumfuerint . 1 L 4 §.Vn  Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. §. Vndecimus. Decaufisnaturalibusclimatibus ..... CLIMA adtemperamenticonftitutionem operaturpotius quàmadalterationem conftituti. Undeferoceshominesfero ciaminomnibusregionibus, t) climatibusfuamretinent.Ce farnonminusin Aegyptofortis,quàminGermania,Anglia que. Inconstitutionequoquenonfacit,utnafcinonpoßittë peramentumſummefortitudinisnaturalis incalida, & bu : ! midaregione, licèt minusfrequentermultoin eanafcatur.An teus in Africanatus eft, & Annibal, &luba, &Maßiniffa, climatecõie quifortiffimi virifuere. PlurestameninItalia, &Septen Quando ex trionalibusregionibusfuerunt ; undeexclimateconiecturam Etura duca- ducimustemperamenti,quandocontrarium exalijsfignisnon tur... constet: idemdenaturalifitu,habituqueregionis afferendum. §. Duodecimus. Decibis, &potu . CIBI verò,tt )prafertimpotustemperamentumalterant. De potuid apertèconftat, cum ebrijmagnammutationem praſeferant: inprimaquepræcipuetentationeebrietatis audaces plurimum, acpetulantesfiunt. Animaduertendumtamenest longèintereſſehac inparte utrum demoribus,aut utrumde affectibus loquamur; Ebrij inaffectumaudaciadeueniunt, at ebrioficontranon moresaudaces,ſedremiſſos,acin voluptatem eambibacemfufos contrahunt. Bibonesnostri haud multum armorumſpecimendedere unquam: verùmitadiftinguamus. Bibaceshomines,quiadebrietatemnonadducuntur,fed vinū optimèconcoquunt adcalidos exeare moresdifponunturobvi nicaliditatem,&eamobcaufaminfacrislitterisin vinoabun dare LiberQuartus. 169 dareluxuriamdicitur . Iuuenalis creditabebrietate quoque accendi venerem . Quid enim venus ebria curat? Etdeebrietateidegoquoquefaterer,atdeebriofitatenonæquès obstupefcunt enimdemumnerui,nonurgent, ut in venere exigitur . Eatenusitaquecibi,&potusmorummomenta mu tant, quatenus temperamentum alterant velcordis, velpar tiumactionedeſtinatarum, veluti cibi flatuoſi pruritandoſe minaliamembrain venerem incitant: atquenamproportio ? Confideremuscumtemperamentum prorfus alienumest, nihil facere cibos . Frigidi velnatura, velætatehomines non pro mouenturin veneremauxilio ciborum : contràincenfihomines etate,& temperamento agrèieiuniofranguntur,quinestuent. Cibus ergo adiuuat,nonfacitpropenfionem: Eftergoproportio, utadminiculiadagens, cibi adtemperamentum : atquodad miniculum? Remotumquidem. Primòenimcibus in ventri culoinfringitur, adque temperamentumeius membri plurimü fuecrafisdeponit, deinde abbepate mutatur, ipfumque vicif. fimalterat, quaratione, utfanguisexqualitatecibi , & alte ratohepatein corfluens, aliquamfufcepit varietatem,eatenus admorescibusfacit. Primò ergofacit, utinfluens,quodiam nonplures tribusgradibusex očtotemperamentiad morummo mentumfacere vidimus: deindead totuminfluens cumratio nemhabeat nonagentis , fedreagentis;fuapteenim natura chilus abhepateinſanguinem mutatur anatura,acvihepatis: contrà veròreagitipseprofuisqualitatibusinhepar, unde vim ba bet maiorembeparnonequalemchilo. Quocircaampliusest in eacomparationehepar,quàmfesquigradus, & chilus minor , quamfesquigradus . Rurfus cumcibus minorumfit virium admores,quàmchilus,quiaeſtiamin ventriculo mutatus , & refra Cibusnon facit prope fionem. 4 170 Deconiect, cuiufquemorib.&c. refractus adfummum,quoadmomentummorumbabebitcibus Unicumgradumeorum,quos temperamentumhabetoflo. §. Decimustertius . DeÆtatibus. : ÆTATESpartium adtemperamentumſpectant, eaque rationeinter causas naturales morumreponendafunt,partim rationecognitionis concurrunt,eaquerationeadcognitionis mo mentumreducuntur, &adcaufamaduentitiam,adexperien tiamnempe:fenectamergo, refrigerareiamconstitit,adeoque momentaad calidosmoresinfringeredicendum : atquapropor tione ? Primòfanefanguisrefrigefcit ,adeoquefrigidus,quă utadaudaciamconferat, efficitur, fi totusrefriguiſſeponatur ex oftogradibus momentiadcalidos mores,tresincontrarium cefferint . Eiufmodi crafiminſeipſodefcripfiffe videturpenes VirgiliumEntellus Nonlaudisamor,necgloriaceffit Pulſametu,sedenimgelidus,tardantefenecta, Sanguis hebet,frigentque effetęincorporevires. ! 1 1 Belifariusia lithoftes . Solidum cordistemperamentum, cuminfummofuerit,confta re uſqueadextremamſenectam videtur,utin Maffiniffam, Belisario,quidecrepitusiam repulithoftesaConstantinopo fenex repel- li: atinminusfirmis temperamentisfatifcere etiampartemfoli dam,&refrigefcerecredendum, ut mores contrarijpræualeat, refidentetamen,&resistentemorepristino,interdumetiamin antiquumaffectum, ) actu magnoexirritamentoprodeunte, out inPriamoexprimitVirgilius. Armadiufeniordeſuetatrementibusauo Circundatnequicquam humeris, & inutileferrum Cingitur,&denfosfertur moriturusin bostes . Diffe : LiberQuartus. 171 Differentiamomentorumacceßoriorumaprinci palibus . CaputNonum. Ddemumnotandumeſtdeacceſſorijs momentisadtria pri ID marianonpoſſeillaquocunque illaquocunque, & quantocunquemodo mul tiplicentur unquam excederemomentumfuiprincipalis unà etiamcum eoaggregata. Ex.gr. nobilitas,&potentiaadcogni tionismomentum reducuntur, potentia autem habetintegros eiusgradusocto, nobilitasquattuor,quifimuliunctiduodecim graduscomponerent,ſinumerumipſum ſpectemus : attamenfi quisipſeperse studio, & uſu optimecalleathonoremeffepre ferendum vtilitati,ſitqueidem potens , utexpotentia id ip ſumcognofcat,fitnobilis, utrurfus aggeraturex eoquoqueca pite eademcognitio,tamenin eiufmodi hominemomentumcogni tionis non erit vigintigraduum, fedottoſolum; bacqueestdif ferentiainterprincipalia, ) accefforia momenta,quodilla ſum mamaugent,utipsacrefcunt, athæcintragradusoctoſemper confistunt. Similehocest,atquein diuifionecontinuiinpartes proportionales, quediuiſepartes;firurfus coniungantur, etiä ſinumeroimmense (adinfinitumenimnonperuenitdiuifio)ta mennunquamadeamproueniunt magnitudinem,cuiuspartes Sunt. Hic ipfamAriftoteles vocat appofitionemdiuifioni re- 3.Phif.text. ſpondentem,eamquenonpertranfirefinitammagnitudinemaf. 59.& 67. ferit. VocantpracticiItalici eiuſmodioperationem infilzare, alij ineſtare,quenuquamadintegram Unitatemproducitur : estautem fumma minutiarum minutieſeſubindeexcipientiū, vtfummae etc. fednimiumderealteriusſcien tiæcontrapropofitum,ac moremmeum. Peroratio  De coniect. cuiuſquemorib&c. Peroratioprimapartismethodi . DOSSVMVS hincprimam methodipartem,qua caufis ex morum,earumquecombinationeemergit,infummamcon trahere ,atqueinepilogum; licètenimadhucexiganturadeius integritatemfignatemperamentorum adconijcienda tempera menti momenta,tamenquatenusadmethodipraxim pertinet, totaeacontrabipoteft,interim relegandoLectoremproindagan dotemperamento adea,quæfequentur. Connectit , etproponitqua agendafunt. CaputPrimum . Nproxima, ac primamethodipartefuppofuimus temperamentigradusnotos,indequemomentum exeisin mores confpicuum, quodpofteacumcon trarijs conferrereturmomentis. Verùm cum temperamentumfitfenfibusoccultum,nifiargumentaexhibea musipfumindagandi,exfignis aliquibusfenfu conspicuisva nuseritinfumptushuc uſque laborin elapfamethodiparteex plicanda. Signaautem temperamentitradere Phiſiognomie cu raest. Aliqui credunt nullumprætereaaliudmunus Phisiogno mieeffe: itafentit Baptista Porta , arbitratus omnia Phifio- Lib.1.Phif gnomicafignaadtemperamentüreduci: eandemquoqueſenten- cap.23. tiampreſefert IoannesIngenerius Epiſcopus Iustinopolitanus, quiomniafignaPhiſiognomicaadtemperamentumredegit: alij i vixtemperamentimeminere,interquos eftAriftoteles. Ada- IoannesIn mantiusin conformatione membrorum veltotum, velpluri- generiusoia figna Phi mumponit. Atopinionumdiuerfitatemhanc exfuperioribus fion.adtép. tumiudicarepoffumus,tumpaulòpostego examinabo: interim redegit,Adi adabfoluendam methodumpræcedentemproponohicfignatem formatione peramentorumfubiecturum, necnon conformationispartium, partium. mátusadcó tumfigna,quaexparteoccultafunt,tumfignificationes. Pre Stat verò, cumintegrampriusPhiſiognomia artempropoſue ro, eamhicpartempertractare,quæ adhunc locumſpectat, re liquaminſequentempartem methodireijcere.  ( .. De  Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. DePhisiognomia. CaputSecundum . §. Primus. Triacapita, tresvèpartesPhiſio gnomiæeſſe. PHISIOGMOMIAestnaturæcognitio, utvoxipſaſigni ficat, natura verònonefthicaccipiendaproforma,acsubstan tiaanimalis,fiue hominis,fedpropaffionibus, acmoribusnatu ralibus eius . Aristoteles inpostremo capitefecundi priorum Analyt. indaginemnaturaliummotuumirafeilicet, &cupidi tatis, &c. tribuithuicfacultati, idemquedicit lib.dePhiſiogn. cap.3 . ) licèt addataliquas aduentitiaspaſſiones,tamen quo modoidfitintelligendumaliàsexponemus: interimfatetureas quoquecumcorporis mutationeeffè,nonfecusacnaturales.Hộc ergo hicexArift.acPhisiognomorüreliquorüconfenfufirmemus Subiectum dogma . Phisiognomonicamindaginem eſſemorumaliquam Phiſiogno- corpoream mutationem importantium. Verum enimuero cor porearumduogeneraconfiderariin uniuerfumpoffunt,ſubſtan tiaipfa corpulenta, partesque eius, & motusipse corporeus, ad quem&actionescorporis,acpaſſionesreducuntur, mutatio er gocorporea, vel erit mutatiocorporis, partium paffionum, actionum vèeius, vel vècorporis:partes corporishumani,de quonuncagimus, aliæfolida,aliefluida, & vtraquerurfus bifariamdiftinguntur,folidæ enimaliafimilares,inquibuspre fertim temperamentum consistit aliæ dißimilares, inquibus conformatiopræcipuèattenditur:fluide aliahumoresfunt,alia ſpiritus: motus verò hicalterationis est, utpallescere velru befcere: hic localis est , quo attendunturdifferentia tarditatis, &velocitatis, &idgenusalie, ut triain uniuerfum Phi fiogno LiberQuintus. 175 fiognomiecapitafint. Primumtemperamentainquirit exeo- TriaPhiſio rumque varietate morum varietatem. Secundumconforma- capita. gnomiæsut tionespartium ,exillisque itidem elicit mores. Tertiummo tuscorporisconfiderat, & exillisrurfusmores inueftigarean nititur. §. Secundus. Eiuſdemtripartitædiuifioniscon firmatio ex ſuperioribus . HAEC eademtripartitadiuifioexfuperioribusdictiscon firmatur: vidimuseniminditamomētaadmoresduoeffe,aliud extemperamento; aliudex conformatione partium,ut dua priora artis capitaex illispariter defcendant, pateatque: ter tium verò, quodeft motus,pariterexprioribus poteſtdeduci. Vidimusenimmores cùmexcaufisaliquibusintrinfecispende re, tumeffectus aliquoscorporeospendere exillis:at effectus ex moribuspendentes incorporeconfpicuifunt motus,alijlocales, alij alterationis:fub alterationibus autemmotibus reponendus est mos apparens,cuiusnonfemelmeminitAriftoteles , estque mosapparensis vultus,eacorporisdispofitio,que confequiſo let affectumaliquem vehementem,præfertim cumconfirmata / est. Ex. gr.iram vehementemconſequiturrubortotooremul- Senecalib. tus,flagrantes,t )micantesoculi,pariterconcufſfidentes ,bor rentesque ,&fubrigentescapilli,fermopreruptus,&parum explanatis vocibus. Sibabitushicoris,accorporis in aliqui busconformetur, ut etiam extra insultum iræillum retineant, dicetur mosapparensiracundie:nonenim ut affectusirefi gnumaccipitur,fed ut morisiracundiindicium. §. Ter 1. deIraca. 1.  De coniect.cuiufquemorib.&c. S.Tertius. Non rectèomniaſignaPhiſiognomicain temperamentumreduci. FALLVNTVR ergo,quiomniafignaPhiſiognomica in tem peramentum, ut incaufam reducunt,nam conformationem partiumatemperamento nonpenderefatismonstrauimus, un Io.Baptifta dePortafententiareijciendaeft obdemonftrationes eo locoad Portarepræ ductas ;fedalioetiänomine reprehendedaeſt,fiad uſum ſpecta re effet viri opinio, nempesimoneretin temperamentumfi gnumomnere ipsareducendum effe; etenim estmorespendere omnes atemperamento;fignatamen morum proximea tempe ramentopenderenonestneceſſe,ſedamoreipsoutphantasiam, indeque partem motricem afficit. Quarum deincepsfacultatum noteinfaciem,atqueexteriorem corporispartemerumpunt,de mumqueeaminſident; undemotus, &habitusoris,quiirato conuenit,cum conftiterit, nonestfignumtemperamenti,peril ludquemoris,fedmorisproximè,temperamentiautemremotè Jedmorispi folum; adeo utforetincaßuslaborPhiſiognomi,fiexapparen temoretemperamentumprimòeliceret , deindemoremcummos ex eo immediate, &proximècenferipoffit , &debeat adeffu giendum inutilem circuitum. Aristoteles apertè aliquos, non omnes moresin temperamentumreijciendos oftenditde Phisiogn.cap. 7. cum dicitquafdamaliasproprie tates, moresfcilicet a caliditatibus, et fri : giditatibusfieri:nonomnesergofiút, fialiquætantumfiunt acali ditatibus,&frigidita tibus, fcilicet ate peramento.  Quar Nondiſſentireabhactripartitadiui fione, quam Ariftoteles affert, diuifionem nouena riam, quæexponitur. NEQVE verò,quam Ariftotelesaffert diuifionem, ab bacdiffentit ,licètnouenariafit . Ex' motibus,inquit,phyſi gnomizant,&ex figuris,&ex coloribus,&ex moribus infacieapparetibus,&ex' lenitate, t) ex vocet ex car ne, &ex partibus &ex figuratotiuscorporis; omniaenim adtriacapita, utinfundamentarediguntur,motusfcilicet,t moresapparentes,& voxſpectantadtertium motuscaput:fi gurepartium,&figuratotiuscorporis,&partes adconforma tionempartium: colores,lenitas, caroadtemperamentum:par tes etiam,licètadconformationem,utplurimum,spectent, ali quatameninterdumratione ad temperamentumreducuntur: coloresquoque t) temperamentumſignificant, & quandoque admoresapparentespertinent, utruboroculorumiramfigni ficaredicitur. Fontes ergofignorum enumeratiab Ariftotele adtria capitapoſitaànobis reducunturomnia. Dubitatio contra dicta ex duobus alijsfubiunctis abAriftotelemodis,quiafferuntur. AtdubitatiourgetexfubiunctisduobusalijsabAriftote lemodisphysiognomonizandi : altereftex moribusduobus, aut pluribusindagatis aliumdeducere : altereft exloco a contrario fignaalia compararemorum : neuterautem horum ad aliquod enumeratorum triumcapitum pertinerevidetur. Audiamus Utrumquemodum,utclarioreuadat,tumdubitatio,tumeius : M Solutio.  Deconiect. cuiufquemorib. &c. Lib. Phyfio folutio. Eft , inquit Ariftoteles aliusetiammodus,ſecun gnom.ca.s. dùm quem aliquisphifiognomonizet:nullustamen aggreffus eft. Vtſineceſſeſitiracúdum,&triftem,& paruumſecundùmmorem,ſcilicetpufillianimieſſe inuidum, colligere erithominem eiufmodiinuidú eſſe,etiamfinullúadfitſenſibileſignúinuidiæ.Alius modusexlocoacótrario eſt huiufmodifi iratus con fueuit intendere vocem, ergo SEGNIS remittit, &fi for tia animaliagrauemvocemhabent,timidaacutam habebunt.Idemqueinalijs. Neutraautemharuminda ginum videtur reduciadcapita enumerata; deque primofanè certum est. Quaenimrationeillaatemperamentoaut confor mationepartium, aut motupendet? Refpondeo obiectioniom nemindaginem physiognomicaminaliquoddemumfignumfen fibile,utinprimumfontemreduci,&omneeiufmodifignum adaliquod trium memoratorum capitumreduci,vtegoexpofui: at verònihilimpedire, quominusrationisinterioris viexde ductisprimoloco afenfilibusfignisaliadeducantur: illæ tamen indaginesad aliquodfenfibilefignum demumreducentur : & Omnisra- itafehabentduæ fubiunctæab Aristotelė methodi. Immedia gnomica re tio phyſio- tè ille a ratione proficifcuntur, at mediatè, utque a primis fignum ſen ducitur ad fontibus , ab aliquo trium memoratorumprocedunt . Ut au fibile. teminexemplis propofitis immoremur, deductio inuidi moris ex iracundia tristitia, &pufillanimitate estimmediatèara tione, at mediatèex fignis iracundia , tristitia, &pafil lanimitatis procedit . Idem deillationeexcontrariodicendum. Summafolutionis est. Adtria capitadicta reducitur omnis indagophyſiognomica, utadprima, &fummaprincipia,non utadultima, &propinqua. Signa cordis calidi aggreditur. Proponit,quædicenda . Dtemperamenti fignaaccedamus: attemperamentum Hæc4. par. 2 admoresp Vécaufaerat temperamentum cordis: reliquarumfolidarum ac morumnaturaliumpropenfionum. cap.4.lib 1. Partium temperamentumadmoresnonpertinebat,nifififorte adcorpertingebatexaliquorefluxu: erat deinde temperamen tumfanguinis,quiincorinfluit: tertiò ſpirituum, quitt ipsi incor penetrant . Primòautem temperamenti, veltemperar mentorumcordisfignaperquiramus . Quot autem tempera 4 mentacordisfint,quotque, &quibusqualitatibusdiftinguan tur,fatisexplicuimusfupra:quique moresfingulacorum con. Lib.eodem Sequantur. Quoniam autem primo lococalida temperamenta cap.f. antea diftinximus,primoetiamloco nunceorumfigna inuefti garetentemus. §. Secundus . Signa cordis calidi afferuntur exGaleno. 1 ( CALIDYM cordistemperamentü,vel.cum duritie, mol litieconfideratur,&cum reliquis differentijs, velipſumperſe, utabalijsabstrabitdifferentijsomnibus,quonunc modopri mumconfideramus,accipimusque . Calidiergoin univerfum Artismedi cordisfignahæcaGalenohabentur. Magnitudorefpirationis . : Pulſus, velocitas,&frequentia . f са Signum. Signum. Thoraxbispidus , &præfertim pectus,&quæcunque 3. Signum. M 2 partes 180 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. 4.Signum. partes hypochondrijs propinquioresfunt. Signum. Lib.theor.1 Exfigura pectoris . Expilis. Latitudothoraciscumparuitatecapitis. Exmoribusquoquefignumdeducittemperamenticordis. Corpustotumcalidum, nifibeparfrigidum obstiterit; calor totius corporis caloremcordisconfequitur. . Tertius.Signa eiuſdem exRafi ,&alijs. RASISfignacordiscalidifacitpulfum,acrespirationem velocem,pectus multis, craffisquepilisrefertum,taltuqueca lidum; itemeffeaudacem, iracundum, obstinatum. Idemferèfentitrecentiorille,quificfcripfit.Cordis com plexioſi fueritcalida,pulſus eſtvelox,pectus aliquan tulumeſtpiloſumvltra ætatemadolefcentiæ,incar neeſtcalidus,eſtboniappetitus, in factis audax, in verbisaſper, indadotenax,obſtinatus,fuperbus, ira cundus,luxuriofus. HalyAbbashæccordiscalidi figna refert. Exactionibusquidemſiſpesvehemensfit,&pul ſus identidem,fitquehomoaudax,iracundus, ma gnanimus,membrofus. Si pectus ſitlatumcumparuitatecapitis,&ſpon dilium ſignificatcalorem cordis; caloris enim eſtdi latare; arctare autem frigoris &c. Quod fi latitudo pectoris ſitcummagnitudinecapitis , &magnitudi neſpondilium, noneftcaloriscordisargumentum . Cumautem latitudopectoris eſtcum ſpondilium magnitudine,&capitis, ſi reſpiratiofitæqualis pul fui,corcalidumerit: contra,ſivelocior,acdenfior reſpiratio, quàmpulfus. Sipilifintmulti &nigriinanterioribuscorporis, &his,  &his, quæeisſubſuntinventre,caloremcordis ma nifeſtant. Si fuerintpectus,&circumvicinatactu calida, fi- Extatu. gnificantcaloremtemperamenticordis. Auerroes calidicordisfigna, &ipfeeademferèadducit vi- .Coll. delicet . cap.2. Sipulſus fuerit fortis,velox, autſpiſſus, exceſſum caloris in cordeſignificat. Excipit tamen,nificontingeret ispulfus obangustiamnatu- Exceptio. ralemarteriarum, etſieiufmodiangustiararòaccidatincomple xionecalida,quia naturacalorisestaperire, &extenderepar tes,nifiextenſionireſiſterentob ficcitatem . 2 Sianhelitusexuberetfignumest caloriscordis; dummodo nonis accidatobarctitudinem pectoris,aut pulmonis,fiueco rum viarum . 3 Sipilifuerint multi,fignum eftcaliditatis cordis . 4 Sicorpusfuerittactu calidum, eiuſdemcaloris cordisfi gnum eft . Etenim calorem cordisſequiturcalor omniummembrorum, Ratio, nififitrefiftentiaaccidentariaa membris dominiumhabentibus in corpore,ſcilicet abhepate, & cerebro. §.Quartus. Sententiaauthorisdeſignis adductis incipitexponi, primoquedepilis. HORVM virorumfententias,&dictacollegiſſefatisfit, nuncadductafignaexpendamus . Primòautemfignaexmo ribusducta . Hacigiturinpropofitohocnoſtrodeferuirenequeunt; fecus Cenfura fi enimpetitioprincipij admitteretur: namhicadmoreseliciendos moribus. M 3 anni gnorum ex  Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. annitimur, mores autemextemperamento conijcimus:quodfi temperamentumexmoribus coniectauerimus a primo adulti mummores exmoribuscolligeremus,quæeft petitio principij. Equidemfateorpoffenosex more aliquoconfpicuo temperame )extemperamentoconijceremoremoccultum , atin vniuerfumeiufmodi progreffus petitioneprincipijlaborat. Cenfura fi gnorum ex pilis. tumquærere,t Omnesin eofignoconueniunt,fipilifintinpectore, &fub iectispartibus multi, &præfertim duri,accraſſi,ſignificarica loremmultumcordis , & vulgoetiamidempartim creditur . Primòautemnotandumindoctrinaquoque Galeninoneffèfi gnumconuertibile, adeo ut, etiamficorcalidumfit,pectuscoB tinuòfithirsutum, achifpidum . Verba Galenifunt lib. z . detemperament. Gallis enim , inquit, & Germanis , & omniThracio, &Scythicogeneri frigida, humida quecutiseſt, ideoqueetiam mollis,alba,&pilis nu da: omnisverò naturaliscalorinviſceravnàcum fan guinehisconfugit,vbidumagitatur,&premitur, & feruet,animofi,audaces,&præcipitis confilijreddun tur. En ergo, utalij calidi cordisglabrifuntin pectoreex doctrinaGaleni, quefirmiſſimoſanènititurfundamento. At videamusnunc, numfit vniuerfalefignumcalorisexcedentis cordispectus hirsutum, craffis præfertim, acdurispilis, utque Lib.s.dege HalyAbbasadditnigris. Ariftotelespilosex cuteoririfacit , nera. anim. cumhumorexea euaporat, atqueexalat: eftautem aliuspin cap.3. guis,aliusaquofus: nafcunturcraßipiliexcutecraffa, prefer timfirarafit, adeoqueporos habeat magnos. Ex fumida exhalationepilos oriridicit,cumcriſpifiunt,exeaquecaufacri ſpitudinemderiuat : at verò,fihecdoctrinaaccipiatur,multi tudo, & craffitiespilorumcutempectoriscraffam,&raram, &humoreaquoso, autadfummumpinguiimbutam fignificabit, cuiufmodicutis nullomodo estneceffariumfignumcalidita tis cordis, imocontracutiscraßa, &humoreaquofoimbutafri giditatempotius ,nonneceffario licet, probabilitertamenfigni ficaret . Galenustribuit cutificca, &calide copiofampilorum Lib.2.dete generationem, materiam veròponitvaporemfuliginosumo, per.cap.s. craffum ,acterreum,exquodogmate nec esthirsutumpectus neceffarium caliditatis cordisfignum ; nonenimestcutispecto ris,& cordisipfiusfimiletemperamentum, cumproximèex Galeno viderimuscuteminborealibus hominibus effefrigida, accorcalidum: copiaetiam vaporisfuliginoficrafſſi, acterreinõ indicatexcedentem calorem,imointerdumfubdebilem; nam fumi maiorcopiaeleuatur, cumcalornondumpreualet materia ruſtibili,quam cumiameamobtinuit; ideoquemulto maiorfu micopiaexcitatur,fiignis palea udefubijciatur,quamfiari da. Accedithuicexamini,quodexcutecapitisplures,&craf fiorespilioriuntur, nequetamenfubiectapars estcalidiſſima, imocontràfrigida; frigidiſſimumenimcerebrumex Aristote le, &exGalenoestfrigidius cerebrumpartibus carnofis, & fanguineis Concludoitaquefignum, nedumnonconuerti,fednequene- Conclufio. ceßarium, ac runiuerfale effe, utprobabiletamenfufcipi po test; quoddamenim calorisargumentumeft : acex calidacute vicinicordiscaloremconiectareitemprobabiliterlicet. Cenſuraſignorumexpectoris latitudine. LATITVDO pectorisipfaquoquepersenonestfignum neceffarium caloris cordis, nequeratio,quodcaloris eftdilatare, fatis eftefficax,quin contrarium potestnonminusfignificare M id 4 De coniect.cuiufquemorib&c. idfignum; quoniamidemcalorinamplioreloco minuscalefacit, quàminangusto,proindeque corparuum calidius effè quàm magnumfuaptenaturaantea exAristotele vidimus. Adra tionem autemcontrariamdistinguidebetproportio; Caloriseft dilatare; fienimloquamurdeconceptaculoiamgenito, t )con Stituto,inquocaloripſecontinetur,ampliaturidmagis amagno calore,quàmaparuo; undeficordaduoæquèmagnafuerint, abinæqualibus autem caloribusinformata, calidius corattolle tur, &dilatabituramplius altero. Idemdearterijsdixeris.Ve rùmfiloquamurdereigeneratione,cum calormaior maiusetiä alimentum, feuplus materie attrahatcraffiora , torofioraque potius, quàmamplioraconceptaculaproproportionefacit. Sit hacpriorinstantia: ataliaetiam efficacior; quoniamcalor in Strumentumfacultatis altricis,ac vegetantis,cuius eftetiam molem maiorem , minoremvécorporisfacere, &nutrire, & augere, &caloranimalis cordis, exquo mores,&propensiones admores procedunt,nonidemfunt,velfaltemnoneodemgra duprocedunt; videmus enim maiora multo animaliaminoribus ignauiora eße, utanſerem,&olorem accipitribusillis prefer tim,quosſmerlinosdicunt,qui& minimocorpore, &audacif fimoanimofunt: interhominesetiam multiingenticorpore, t inualido animofunt.Vidi egoPatauij hominemignauiainfamë, qui proſtituebat ſquevxore,Italiceque, Ilgran Becco, cabatur,procero corpore, &magno,boniquehabitus . Non apudAreo RexOrani infulseAreostusRegemOranidefcribit molecorporisinfignem, ſtum corpo attimiditatedeſpectabilem . Estoigiturprobabile,nonneceffa animo pu fillus . remagnus, riumfignum . EratPatauijinterScholares,dumftudiorum egocauſaibimorabar , iuuenis Taurinus,quipectusaltitudinis confpicue habebat ,attamen nemo unquam a periculis , tab armisalienior:fuam ipſetimiditatemfimpliciterfatebatur, ut Ari LiberQuintus. 185 Ariftotelisdemagnitudineconceptaculidogmaadamuffiminco agnofceretur . Adde verò,quodcauitasmagna pectoris ma gnumetiam pulmonem,quorepleatur, exigit: atmagnuspul mo obmaioremaeris vim,quamattrahit,magis etiam corre frigerat ; adeoquecaloremeius refrangit. Aliaveroratione latitudinem pectoris moresfignificare excapiteconformationis intelligemusinfra. §. Sextus. Cenſuraſigniexcaliditatetactus occurrente. ALIVD eratfignumextactu,cumfcilicetcalidumoccur rittangentibus corpus,præfertimpectus, & que circapectus : at nonest conuertibilefignum, neque etiam vniuersale, necef fariumque. HocexGalenoipſopatet,dumfateturGermanis, Germani, Scythiscut calidiffimum. Si cutis itaquefrigida, noneruntilli tangenti- cutehabent Gallisque, Thracibus , &Scythiscutemeffefrigidam , at cor bus calidi, ) tamencordeferuent. Nonconuertitur, itaque autem cali fignum: atnequeneceffarium, ac uniuerfale; fienimfrigida dum. cutisnonindicat corfrigidum,nequeetiam calida cutisindica bit corcalidum neceßarid,præterquamquodexfundamentoibi Galenicontrarièpratenſo idemdeducitur. Utenimfrigiditas ambientisinborealibushominibus frigidamcutemreddit,inde quecalorrepercutituradcor, ubi intenditur,pariter caliditas aerisinregionibus calidiscutemcalefaciet, acrarefaciet , utinteriorcaloradexteriorem partemferri,in dequeextrorfumelabipoßit,relictocon fequenter cordefrigido, idest minuscalido,quàm parfit.... Galli,Thra ces, Scythæ frigida , cor 9. Sep 186 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. §.Septimus. Efficaciffimum fignum expulſu,&ex reſpiratione haberi, qui pulfus ,&quæ refpiratioſi gnumfitcaloris incordeexcedentis. EFFICACISSIMVMfignumcaliditatis cordisexpulſu, & respirationeducitur; exrespirationequidem,ſiſit magna,tum ininfpirando,tuminexpirando . Siquisin Statuquietocorpo ris, &animiinstarirati efflaret , calidiffimumin eo corfateri neceffeeffèt. Inequoanimali audaciſſimo , Virgilius; Collectumque pramens volvitſubnaribusignem . Pulfus itidemfialtus,isprefertim,quiinpectorefenfiturcor dis, acmagnus,proqueproportione altitudinisfrequens; dico autempro altitudinisproportione,quiacertum estex altitudi nepulfusfrequentiamimminui,ficutexdepreffioneintenditur; cumenimnonfemeltantum aeris in depreſſo pulſuattrahatur, quantumfufficit, iterareoportet attractionem , ut frequentia repetitionisfuppleaturfingulariuminspirationumdefectui. Aliaadminiculaadeiufdem caloris fignificationem . VERVM dictorumpulfus, &refpirationis adfignifican dumcaloremincorde magnum validaadminiculaerunt primò quidemlatitudo, t) amplitudopectoris; namfitauitaspectoris magna,proindeque etiampulmonesmagni, ) tamencalorcor distantus adhucest, ut refpirationem magnampræstet, t pulſummagnum;oportetergo ipſum valdeexcedere,quamduo refrigerantia, conceptaculi magnitudo, & pulmonum refri geratio nontemperent. Aliudadminiculumeiufdemfignifica tionis  tionis erit,ſipectusfuerit birſutum, fcilicet maiorem calorisgra dumfignificabit; cumetenimiamexcalorepilostum nafcicon Stet, is calorisprædominantisgradus, quimultumfumum ele uet, nonnifiexurendo,portionemterreameleuare poterit: ter reaportio uſtaacrimoniam vehementemcalorisaffequitur,que acrimonia inradicem uſqueeleuantis calorisrefunditur. Vi demusenim,fifumumextinctum occurfusfuperiorisflamme accendat, accenfionem uſqueadfumiradicem defcendere, ut binc conftet vim , & acrimoniamfumiinſubiectum usque, &excitantemcaloremfecundùmaliquamparticipationërelabi. De moribus,qui temperamentum cordis calidumſequantur . QVI morestemperamentumcordiscalidumfequantur,di ximuslib.1. buiuspartis Signa cordiscalidi, etficci. Afferunturprimò ſignacordis ficci,ab ſtrahendo a qualitatibus actricis. GAL ALENS cordisficcifignaaffert,pulfusduriores;iram non promptam, fedferam , necfacilè placabilem; corpus uniuerfummagnaexparteficcius, niſibeparobstiterit. Ha lyAbbaseadem. Auerroes maciempectoris, &ficcitatemcor poris . Michael Scotus pulfus duros; corpus musculofum in carnismacredine; venas manifestas;piloscraffos, acbreues. Rafisduros ,&ipsepulfus; uniuerfum corpus musculofum ; pectus nigrum,macrum, &hirsutum; venas manifeftas; cu tem 1 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. Signum. Pulſusdu- tem duram,craffamque. Egopulſius durosfignum apertißimum rus ficcitatis ficcitatis arbitrorexratione, quaminfraboceod. cap. §. Secundus. Signa Galeni Artismed.c.33. GALENVS fignacordiscalidi, &ficcihacrefert; Pul ſusduros, magnos,veloces,&frequentes, reſpiratio nesmagnas,veloces,&frequentes, &quimultoma gis advelocitatem,&frequentiamvergant, thorace nonaucto eademproportione,quacorcaliditate,ſci licetauctum eſt : pectuspræ cunctis maximè hirfu tum, & hypochondria. Dicitprætereaeffèpromptosad actiones iracundos, celeres , &impudentes , & morestyrani cos habentes; etenim funtiniram precipites,nonfacile verò placabiles . Signa, que Haly Abbasaffert 1.Th.cap. 12. Sipulfus vehemens erit, velox,&continuus,reſpiratioqueiti dem,ira celeritatis multæ, &homovelox,follicitus, &tumultuoſus, eius ſignificatur cordis calida, &fic cacomplexio . Signa,que Auerroeslib.4. Coll.cap.2.affert. Iraperma nes, maciespectoris, &ficcitas corporis . Signa, queRafis. Pulſusdurus,velox frequens,re ſpiratio magna , &frequens, corpus tactucalidum , toroſum, venæmagnæ,& cofpicuæ, iracundia, ac pertinacia . Eademferèfigna MichaelScotusaffert. Suntautëpulfus ve lox, durus, &fortis,pectusaliquantulum pilosum , pilis tor tis, anhelitus magnus, tactusin carnecalidus: cito mouetur ad iram, iracundusmanet, & obstinatus. §.Ter LiberQuintus. 1 189 6. Tertius. SignaexAuthorisſententia. Egoidprimum Statuo,cumarterieexcordeoriantur; eandeminduritie, t) molitiecumcordecrafimhabituras, un deduritiespulfusduritiemcordis mihi aptiffimèfignificat. Cum itaquecumpulfibusdurisfignificationes caliditatisiunguntur, corcalidum, & durumpronunciaridebet. Pulſusitaquemа gnus,&velox, &proportionealtitudinisfrequens ,itemre ſpiratiomagnacumduritiepulfus,corcalidum,&durumpa tefaciunt, proindequeinillos moreserit homo propenfus,quos ex cordeduro, &calido anteanafciostendi, cumque altitudo pulfus iūgiturduritiei,fignificatur maioradhucincordegradus caloris ,quoniamadattollendamduriorem membranam, maior calor requiritur, utrectèconiecitGalenuslib. 1.de caus.pulf. cap.3. licètnonrectèfentiat,dumdurasarteriasnunquampof ſemultumattolliaquacunquefacultatedocere videtur. Pe Etorismacies,quainficcitatecordisin vniuerfumexigitAuer roes, noneftaßignandacordicalido, t )ficco; pectusenimcon tratorofumcalorismaioriseſtſignum, vtipſumſua caliditate corroborat, &nediffletcohibet:macies contra aperitporosdif flatui..Equusanimofumanimalacgenerofum torofumpectus obtinet,utenimVirgilius, Luxuriatquetorisanimofumpectus . Nequeverò,dùcorficcumdicitur,fignificatur extrita hu miditate omni euanidum,ſedcompreſſum, &durum,utan teadeclaratumfuit,adeofiprofimilitudineprincipij velitAuer Quomodo roesreliquaspartesconftituiadfimilitudinem cordis,erittoro- intelligatur cor fum,nonexficcumpectus. Si veròactionem caliditatisficcae cum. quifpiamrespexeritinitadicendo; caliditasficcicordis poterit pingue  Deconiect. cujuſquemorib.&c. pinguedinemforteeliquare,atcarnofum , &torofum habitum nequaquam, imòpotiuseumefficit,&conferuat,utexemplo animaliumcalidiffimi,&ficci cordisconstat, Equi,&Leonis; huiuspræfertimcorpustorisrubiqueabundat.Hoa * §.Quartus. Quimoresſoquantur calidum, &ficcumcor QVI moresfequanturhanc cordis temperiem, diximus Supralıb.1.huius4.partiscap. 6. D. s. &fexto. Sequuntur autem illi inexceffum corpilosum, quoniampilicordisfignifi cantextremametiamduritiem,cumcalore coniunctam... Signa cordis calidi , &humidi, &primo cordis humidiipfiusperfe. Caput V. 5. Primus. Cordishumidi ſignatraditabſtra hendoaqualitatibus actiuis. ? hec affert; pulfusmollessmoresiniram Gprocliues,fedquæfacileſedaripoffit,&vniuer fumcorpushumidius , nifi hepar obſtiterit ..Haly Abbas;pulfusteneros , ac mollesiram velocem,atcitoceffan tem; pauiditatem præterea. Rafisaddit pectus leue,carnem mollem,ac delicatam . Auerroes mollitiem pulfus. Michael Scotusadducitprofignis capillorumabundantiam,prolixitate que eorum,&rectitudinem,qui coloremalbum, autblundu, utipfevocat,fcilicetflauum,babent: multispræterea pilis , exceptopectore, carotractamollis,coloreautemalba, autfufca, pinguis aliquantulum . Dicit item hominem eiufmodi fatis timi Liber Quintus. 191 timidum, pauidum , &hebetem,atquedebilemin laborando. IudiciumAuthoris. : EGO admittointerfignahumiditatiscordis timidatem , ut verumfignum; nammollities contra tenorem eiusfacit mollia,fiquidemfacilèconcidunt, &collabuntur,fuapteergo Daturamolliacordaintimoremprocliuiafunt, nifiacalorepo fteatendantur. Quarationecorcalidum,&humiduminaus daciampotius,quàmintimiditatempropendit, exfuperioribus becpatent; interimtamenlicètfit verumfignum,non tamen estaccommodatumnoſtroinstitutoobpetitionemprincipij,qua includit , veluti proximè monuimus. Signum ergo mollitiei cordis est mollities arteriarum , acpulfuumob eandemratione, quaminficcitateattulimus : glabrumautempectus,quodpro figno mollitiei eiufdem affert Rasis, et sequitur Michael Scotus, nonfacilèadmitterem,fedpotiusmollibus veftitum pilis crederem, probabilitamen, nonneceſſario nexu,quoniam ficaloradfit,iam estagens,quod vaporeseleuarepoffit ,acfu mos,testcopiosamateriaque eleuetur; inquabumiditatem arbitrariparest: humidiorautem materiapilosetiam molliores facit,respiratioobcaloremmagna, &obmollitiemminuscon citata,præfertimque expiratio blandior, quod minus efferue Scatattractus aerinmolli, quàmindurocorde,quia&calorin denfiorefubiecto acrior est,&nifipluriumgraduum, maioris tamenpotentia, utdiftinguuntPhilofophinaturales. Acrio resergofuliginesexfiniftro cordis ventriculoper arteriam ue nofaminpulmonememittuntur,indeqne expirantur,cumcor calidum,&ficcumfuerit, quamcumfueritcalidum, &bu midum . S.Ter 192 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. §. Tertius. Signa cordiscalidi, &humidi, ideft Artis Medi mollis fimul,quæGalenus,&cæteriafferunt. CORDIS veròcalidifimul,& humidiGalenushac af cx cap.34. fertfigna. Minus funthirfuti , quam calidi,& ficci cordis: promptitaméadactiones: animusnon fe rus, fedad iramtantùm procliuis. Pulſusmagni,ac molles,veloces , & frequentes exiftunt. 'Reſpiratio cumthoraxfueritcordiproportionaliseiufdemcum pulſu tenoris: ſi vero thorax minorfuerit,quam ve proportionalis fitcordiscalori, tantorefpiratio erit pulfibusvelocior, &frequentior, quantothorax ini norfuerit. Expirationes maioresfunt inſpirationi bus ,&arteriæ fubmiffio,ſeu ſyſtolein pulfibusve lox. Quando maxima fueritin haccomplexione euerfio, præfertimque inhumilitate, contingentex putredinemorbihis,quiinipſis fuerint humoribus corruptis, &putrefactis. HalyAbbaslib.r. Theor.cap.12. Sipulfusfueritvehe mens , ac temperatusinceleritate,&tarditate,mol lisque,&fpiritus ſimilis,&ira eiusvelox,placatioque eius celer, calorem ſignificatcomplexionis cordis,& humiditatem. Differtisa Galeno inceleritate,&tardi tate . Auerroes dicto lib. 4.Coll. cap. 2. Mollities pulfus, & fortitudo cordis ſignificant corcalidum,& humi dum: itemmagnitudopectoris,&aliorummembro rum; &ideoinquit animaliaquamfuntcalida, humidas funtmaioris cordis ceteris, velutianimalianafcentiain locis bumidis. §.Quar 1 LiberQuintus.  §. Quartus. Cenfuradictorum . ALTITVDO pulfus, &mollitiesſuſcipiendæfanèfunt, utfignum certumcordis calidi, &humidi,fiue mollis,dum ambeiunguntur,quoinſigno videmus conuenireomnes, & coherentcumdiftisfuperius: at in velocitate,&frequentia potiusadhereoHalyAbb.quàmGaleno,aquo pariterin velo citateSystolis recedo. Ratio autemfumiturex neruis, chordis quefidium,quæcumintenduntur,feutentafunt,velocius mul to percuſſeadfuum locum redeunt, quàm cum remiffafunt. Pariterergo arteria molles, ut chordaremiffe, restituuntur tardius ,acreciduntpercuße, acfublata , quàmarteriæ dure . Velocitas ergo multò magisdurisconuenit,quam mollibuspulfi bus arterijsque. Quoad velocitatem quoquecumnontantum Velocita's magis con uenitduris , ferueatcor calidum, & molle,quamcalidum, &durum, neque qua etiam eadem velocitateegebitillius pulfus,atquehuius.Satius quammol itaqueestponereipfumtemperatumin velocitate , &tardita te, etfrequentia, quamexcedentem : altiorem veròpulfum huiccraficordis,quamcalide,&ficcedandumarbitror;etenim magis attollitur arteria mollis,quamdura, ficut etiamchordafi diumremiſſa,quàmintenta: altitudineergo,t)magnitudine pulfuum vincitcalida,&humidatemperies,at velocitate, & frequentiacedit. : $. Quintus . Quimoresſequanturcalidum, & humidumcor . : QVI moresfequanturcorcalidum, &humidum antea diximuslib.1.cap.6.§.7.8. : X Signa  Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. COR Signacordisfrigidi. QuæGalenus,&cæteridicant. ORDIS frigidi fignúfuntpulſusminores,quam modonaturæconueniat, nontamen neceffario tardiores,velrariores.Reſpiratioitidemparua & re ſpondenspulfibus,fitantominorthorax,quanto fri gidius cor : quodfithoraxmaior,quampro modo frigiditatis cordis , refpiratio & minor erit, quam pulfus,&rarior,etiam,actardior. Signa etiamcor dis frigidifunttimiditas,ſegnities, &pectusglabrú, thoraxetiamparuus,&caputmagnum,&corpusto tumfrigidum,nifiheparcalidumobſtiterit. HalyAbbas. Refpiratio,&pulfustardi,& fingul tuoſi,timiditas item,&fegnities,&iræ exiguæ effe fignafuntcordis frigidi:iremtotius corporis frigi ditas confequitur, hæcenim cordisfrigiditatem,ni ſi heparcalidum obſtiterit, arctitudo item pectoris, cumcaputnonfueritparuum, nec paruiſpondiles, در eiufdem frigiditatisfignumeft,&glabrum pectus, actactu frigidum . : Quidam,hac habet. Si cor fuerit frigidæ comple xionis, pulſus eſtei tardus ,pectus nudum apilis ,ta Etus carnis frigidus , duri appetitus, debilis fortitu dinis, anhelitus arctus,voxfubtilis, &debilis , quafi pigerin factis, inverbis : nonbeneplacidus, leuiter pauidus, nonbenecomedit,&raròbibit,& raròlu xuriatur, nifiper accidens. §. Se LiberQuintus. 195 §. Secundus. Cenſura,. SIGNORVM horumcenfuraexfuperioribusfacilededu citur. Pulſuum, &respirationisparuitasfignumadequatum exhibentfrigiditatiscordis, atcumeaconiungipotest,tum ve locitas, &frequentia pulfuum , tum-raritas,&tarditas ,ut dicit Galenus , & intelligemusinfra. Pectus glabrum perſe nonestfignumcertum, utanteadiximus, &nuncfubiungo. Scioego MazatortiumnobilemRomanum, equitatusPonti- Hiftoriade ficis inhacprouintiaPrefectum, virumfortitudinis, &auda Mazatortio nobili Ro- cie infignis, &in bellisGallicis exercitate , qui glabrumpror- mano. fuspectushabebat : atnuditas pilorumcumreliquis coniuncta fignismaioremfacitfignificationemfrigiditatis. Deparuita tequoque thoracisquidſentiendum, iamdixi: itemdecorpore in exteriorepartefrigido. Interfigna Scoti exponendaest pa uiditasillaleuiter, quamdicitpro pauiditatenonleui , acpar ua,fedpropauiditate,quenascitur exleuibuscaufis devoce Subtili:postea, cumde voce, acfignis, de illaagemus. Quimoresſequanturfrigidam cordis temperiem . QUI moresfequanturcordisfrigidamtemperiem iam vi dimusd. lib. 1. cap.6. S. 15. Signacordisfrigidi, &humidi, acfrigidi, &ficci. Caput Septimum. Signa cordis frigidi & humidi. GALEN QuæGal.&cæteri. ALENVSfignahechumidi, &frigidicordis affert. Pulſusmollesfunt,ipſiquemoribus nonauda 7 X 2 ces,  De coniect.cuiufquemorib.&c. ces, fedtimidi,&ſegnes:iramminimeretinent, ne queetiamadiramadmodumpromptifunt. Pectus glabrumhabent,tactufrigidi,&molles,nifi hepar caliditate obſtiterit:Thoraxfuaptenaturaparuuspo tius quàmmagnusadcapitisproportionem . Quidamex recentioribushæc habet. Pulſus tardus ,& debilis, pectus nudumapilis, anhelitusparuus &tar dus , tactus incarnemollis, &frigidus, non facilè irafcitur,&facilè iram remittit . SententiaAuthoris. PVLSVS fanèmollesfunt,humiditatisidest mollitieicor disfignum: paruitasautem ipforumfrigiditatis; quoniam ta-- menmagis,acfacilius extenditur inhisarteria,quaminficci tate, ideoaltior est illispulfus,quàm, quicordisfrigidi,&fic cifignum est . Rursusminus velox estijfdemſyſtole,quoniam lentiusdefcendit,acrestituitur : mollis arteria instar remiſſe chorda,refpiratioparu . . Tertius. Deſignis cordis frigidi,&ficci. CORDIS veròfrigidi,&ficcifignumeritpulfuspar mus, at durus: velociorautemhisſyſtole, quàmcordi bumi do, &frigido,pariterqueetiamfrequentiorpulfus: respiratio parua, utfuperioricrafiproxima . §. Quartus. SubiungunturGaleni,&reliquorúfigna. GALENVS dietacordiscrafishacaffertfigna; Pulfus duros,&paruos, refpirationemmoderatam, ſi tho raxparuitatem proportionalé cordis frigiditatiha buerit: LiberQuintus.  buerit:atraram,& tardam, ſithorax maiorpropor tione fit , quàm frigiditas cordis: minimè omnium promptiadiram, atcoactiirafci retinent iram :pe Etusglabrumhabent. Auerroespulfusparuosaffertprofigno,raros,tardos,duros, refpirationemfimilem,tactumpectorisfrigidum...... Quiveròmoresfequanturduoproxima cordistëperamen ta,iampatuitdicto libro, ) De cerebriinfluxu . Quæ ex Ariftoteledicendafunt, & videturſuffragari Galenus HÆc signa, funt quæ adduximus temperamentorum cordi'inditorum:at diximus etiamdiftinguiineopoſſetem peramentuminflues,utfcilicetexinfluxuhumorum alteratur, &exinfluxupretereacerebri, naminfluxushepatis unàcum humoruminfluxuconfunditur. Nuncitaque detemperamento huiufmodiinfluenteagamus,primoquede cerebriinfluxu. Ari ftoteles arbitratur cerebrumadtemperametumferuorem cordis fuafrigiditate pertinere, acfacere; quofufceptodogmate,quò cerebrumamplius, ac maiusfuerit, eò magistemperabit cor,quò veròminus,eòintenfiorpermanebitcordisferuor . Nihilaliud itaqueoportebithacrationede cerebroobferuare,quàmmagni tudinemeius,&paruitatem, feumultitudinem,&copiam,hof que ponere Canones; Cum multumfuerit cerebrum , tempe ramentum exeoincor influensremittere cordiscalorem; cum paulum, relinquerecalorem cordisintenfum,& irrefractum , velparumomninòrefractum; illoenim modo morescordiscali N3 di 1  Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. diremittuntur hocmodoinſuovigorepermanent. Hoc erit, quodGalenus dicit; Caputexproportione magnum adcordis dicaturma Quodcaput frigiditatem spectare, &paruum adcaliditatem . Dico ex gnam, proportionemagnum, cum magnitudinem capitis,que reliquo paruum. corporiconueniret,excedit : paruumcontrà,cum abeadeficit. NonmetamenlatetaliàsGalenumnonadeòconfentireattem Libro 10. perationicordisexcerebrifrigiditate, adeoqueſequacesGaleni Anath. c.4. Aristotelirepugnare, interquosAndreasLaurentius,quietia profecontra Ariftotelem adducit Albertum libro 1 2. animal. cumtamenAlbertusibicap. 4. tract. 2.inprincipiocumAri Stotele fateatur calorem cordis, & hepatis afrigore cerebri temperari. §. Secundus. QuæHalyAbbas lib. 1. Theoric. cap. 10.habet. HALY Abbasexcraficerebri,nedumſecundumactiuas, fedetiamfecundüpaffiuasqualitates,&fimplices, &compofi tas moresfingillatim deducitnonfecus atqueex cordistempe ramentis. Cerebriergo calidihomines,impigrifunt,accele res ad omnesactiones, non ſuntadmodum conſtan tes incodem ſenſu,funtpauci fomni,& multorum verborum. Qui cerebri frigidifunt, pigri,&tardifunt, con ſtantes, ac tardimotus. Quicerebrihumidi,funttardi,hebetes,obliuiofi, multofomnodediti. Qui cerebri ficci funt, celeris motus funt,leues, multumvigilantes,parumdormientes,acmemores. Quicerebricalidi, &ficci,funtceleres,temerarij, parumconſtatesincodemſenſu, iudiciovè,rapaces, vaniloqui,paruiſomni. Qui cerebricalidi,&humidi,funtmultorumſom niorum,acmultiſomni,medijqueintertarditatem, ac velocitatem. Quicerebri frigidi&humidi,funthebetes,parui intellectus ,obliuioſi,tardiad intelligendum , tardi adagendum, multifomni. Qui cerebri frigidi &ficci,funtpigri,&tardi,funt conftantes,funtqueexiguiſomni. Cenfuracorum,quæfuperiusallatafunt. TEMPERAMENTVM cerebriadmoresexdictisnonperti net,nifi autrationecorporis,&partis organice,utincor re fluit,eiusquetemperamentum alterat, autrationecognitionis, Utadcognitionem:immediatequidem cerebri crafisnonper tingit admores,at mediantecognitione,quæ cognitionis-va rietas morum varietatemaliquamafferrepoteft. Atnon adeò cognitionisquaquedifferentia mores variat,utcontinuòcoba reantcrafis cerebri, &crafiscordisinmoribusexfeferendis; nempèficcitas cerebri , accaliditas tenacitatem quidem memo rie,& opinionisaffertaduerfusrationes contrarias,atnonco ftantiaminpropofitoaduerfuspericula, &timores , quodfacit ficcitas,acduritiescordis cumcaliditate ; cum veròHalyfa- ErrorHaly in moribus cit calidi, &ficci cerebrihomines temerarios,rapaces, vanilo- diiudicadis quos transfert ea,quæfuntcrafis cordis adcrafimcerebri,quafi cerebricali ambaideminmoribusefficiant:atcum cerebri temperamento di,&ficci. calido, & ficcolongèaliudtemperamentumcordis coniunctum effepotest,utfateturetiamGalenus,quoincafu,quisnegabit N 4 mores Deconiect. cuiufquemorib &c. 200 mores eßequalescrafiscordisimputat,non qualesimportatcra fis cerebri? Nequeetiam qualitates paßiuæ cerebri incorex bri? Neay tantadistantiainfluunt , ut actiuefaciunt, quarum actiuita tis ſphæralongèestfinedubiomaior,utinrenaturali Philoſo phiæ naturalis terminis utar. Pretereaquod dicitex humi ditatecerebri hebetudinem naſci,nonest usquequaque verü: fiplurimumexcefferit, verum eſt dictum;atfiatemperamen to cerebri eucrato in humiditatepotius,quàminficcitatemcra fisdeflexerit, eritbomo acutior, & docilior, &contrà,quiin ficcitatem tardior : neque veròuſquequaque vera doctrina animi mo Libro,quod Galeni,qui arbitratus eftfummamficcitatemſummæpruden res fequan- tiæcaufameße,ideoqueaſtraſolaeffè prudentißima interani cap.4. tur temper. malia ,quoniamfolaomnem excludunt humiditatem : at reli quaanimalia, cumhumiditatem aliquamparticipent,tantum etiam dementie habere,quantumhumiditatis : ducit veròex Platonedogma; Platoenimdicit puerosexfluxu , & influxu magnonutrimentiperturbari mente; atcum parciusiam eiuf modiinfluitflumen, tumfubindetranquillioremhabitum men . tis reddi, &adintelligentiam aptiorem; priusquam dixerat animam noftram, cumprimumincorpusdeſcendit, amentem ... ex eo contactu fieri . Exhis ducit Galenus humiditatem in temperamento existentemcaufam eſſetotius amentia ,at certè iniuria;fienimprimum  dictumattendamus, quodanimain corpusdefcendens amensefficiatur, noncomparattum Plato hu miditatemcumficcitatecorporeafedcorpus, quodvocant oftra ceum Platonici, nempècorpushocterrenumcumanima pura,ac Secreta a corpore, velſiplacet, vehiculo tantum induta. Si veròfecundumrespiciamusdictum , ineononest mentio hu miditatis, queintemperamento ,ſedhumiditatis alimentalis, quæ in puerisabundat, cumlargo illialimentoprofundantur. QuodfiveramPlatonishacderefententiam perquiramusex Theeteto patet , ubi ceram illam interiorem, quamdefcribit Animacere conceptaculum specierum , fcilicetſenſibilium , cumdurafue- Platonem. rit, aptamadretinendum,atnonadfacilèrecipiendumdicitur, apud cum veròmollisfuerit, aptamadrecipiendum,queest docili tas, atnonadretinendum, quæeſt memoria, pronunciat. Ve rùmfi mollis, &rectèſubacta, ac multa, tumaptiffimam,& adrecipiendumpræ mollitie, &adretinendumpreprofundita teafferit ; quæ excellentiffimacrafisnonin exceßuficcitatiscon fiftit,fedin copianonexiguahumiditatis. Aristoteles quoque humiditatemcircaprimumfenfitiuum exigitadreminiscentia , quepræclarorumingeniorumeft. Maximèautemremini ſcuntur, inquit, quibus humiditas fuerit circa locum fenfitiui ; &resipfa adidemdicendum cogit; cumenimex motureminiscentia fiat, non ficcamateria ,ſedhumidamobilis eft : quocircaficcaadmemoriam, at humidaadreminifcentiam adeoqueadingeniumrequiritur . DictumtamenGaleni, dum deprudentia loquitur, propius a veritaterecedit, quàmfide fapientia ageret . Alia estobiectio aduerfus dictaHaly Abb. quamnuncin meafententiaexponendafubijciam. Sententia Authoris. ! EGoigiturineafententiaperſisto,quam in primo§. in nui: verumnuncdistinguorepetitadistinctione,quam proxi mèpoſui; cerebrum ad mores concurrit, quà adcognitionem immediatèdeferuit,& quà incor influendo temperamentum eius attemperat primo modo, ut clariorem veritatis cogni tionemaffert admoresetiamprobos magisdifponit,ac bone Stos: ... : Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. 202 Stos: at clarioremcognitionem, &penitioremafpertioaliqua melancholiaexhibet, utfupraoftendimus,uthacrationepau lòfrigidiorbabituscerebri, quamfrigiditatemex melancholie leni afflatu confequitur,&paulòhumidiorexfuaipfiuscrafi, admoresgenerosos,&audacesex vicognitionis intimioris, &intentionisdifponat:repetatur declaratioex indicatoſupe Primaparte rioreloco . At rationetemperamenti,quodin corinfluit, cere lib. deaff. incomuni, brumfrigidum adtimiditatem, & remiſſionemmaiorem,mi norem véprofrigoris influxigradibusfuaptenaturainclinat: Frigiditasce duplextamenhicdeclaratisexigitur. Primaquidem, quodfri rebri nafci modis. giditascerebri maiorduobus modisnafcitur; altera exquanti tatecerebri, quoenimmaius,eo magisrefrigerat;namut ma iorignis magis, quàmminor calefacit , &maiorniuis moles, quàmminorrefrigeratamplius ,itamaiuscerebrum magisre frigerat,quàmminus,etiamfieiuſdemintersecrafisfuerint: alterautem modusestexqualitate;licètenimcerebruminomni hominefrigidumfit cu () cumcorde,&ceteris vifceribus , comparatum, attamennibilprohibetinhochomine frigidius, in illo minusfrigidum extemperametoeffe. Secundadeclaratioefts cerebrum, cumincorinfluit, vellongèpreualere,estque, cum accarne cerebrum mole, & qualitatefrigidißimüincor,nonadmodum calidumingenereſuo, agit, velcontracoradmodumpræualere cerebro, cumfcilicetcorcalidiffimum, cerebrumque, & quali tate , & paucitateparumfrigidumfuerit, vel moderationem quandamex contrarijsactionibus eoruminterfeconciliari.Pri mumfifuerit,ex temperamento cerebripoffumusdemoribus fimpliciterpronunciare,fcilicet hominem in timorem propen Sumetc. Sifecundumnullaexcerebronascituriustamorum astimatio. Sitertiumtemperatosmoresin timore,& audacia conijciemus ; exqualitatibusautempaffiuis cerebritemperame tum LiberQuintus. 203 tumcordisnonmutatur,nisiut illiusfrigiditatemautinten dunt, autremittunt: atnonmultumexea reincrementiſuſci pit,quoniamincerebrodemumhumiditasfemperpræftatficci ! tatiobmollitiem, acficciusdiciturcerebrum,ut minuseftmol le. Cumergoficcitasnonpoffit unquampredominaribumidi tati, nonpotestexdifferentia paßiuarum eiufmodiqualitatum frigiditascerebri maximamdifferentiamfufcipere intenfionis, &remißionis. Hecratione temperamentiincorinfluxi; at rationecognitionis magispoffunteadifferentia alterare mores; ficcitas enimdiuturniorem retentionemphantasmatum opera tur, undepertinaciamopinionumquoque, &perfeuerantiam odij, amorisque: at mollitiespenitiorem , &lucidiorem cogni tionemprestabitnifi multumexcefferit, undehoneftatis quo que auiditatem maioremingeret, &inmultisprobonestateho noris,&gloria. Cefarisbeccrafis videturfuiſſe. Atexpo- Crafiscere fitisfundamentismorumexcerebro,nuncadfignaeiustempe briCæfaris. ramentiaccedamus. §. Quintus. Signa temperamentorumcerebri. VARIAafferunturſignatemperamentorum cerebri,qua dereGalenusinart. med. cap. 1. 13. 14. usquead20.Haly Abb. 1.Th.cap. 10. Auerr. lib.4.coll.c. 3. Rafisin contin. lib.1.funtautemexfomno,&vigilia,exſenſibus, &fun- Cap.4. Etionibusſenſuuminteriorumprefertim,ex colore, &ex pi lis; prætereaexmagnitudinecapitis. Nonrecenfebo,quafin gulidixerunt, neprolixioriuftofiam, atexfundamentis ego breuiterdeducam, & primdexsomno, & vigilia. Quoniam ergo somnus sit, cumalimentalis vaporex cere brifrigiditate concrefcitinftargenerationisnubis, aquein aere; } 204 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib &c. aere ; Frigidum cerebrumfuaptenaturaadſomnum propensos naturaa reddit , vttamen vaporesad ipſum alimentales accedunt Quodfi prefrigiditatecerebri angufti adilludductus eſſent, Utexiguus vaporeleuaretur,minusinsomnumpropenfusbo mo eßet. Arbitroregoitaquefrigiditatemcerebri exmole, non exqualitate, ut,quiplushabent cerebri,&vafaadipsum tendentialatiora , fomniofiores,quàm,quicontra cerebrum ex crafifrigidum habent: patetexpueris , &fenibus; pueri cerebrum multumhabent,accalidius,quàmfenes,quibusiam refriguit;fomnolentiitaquepueri,infomnesſenes.Iofephus,& Bonifacius Martinellifratres, & nobiles noſtre Ciuitatis,bo minesftrenuiambo,&hicliteratiſſimus, multifomni illefuit, hicest,qui adhuc viuit , &tamenmultumcaloremin omnibus Canon1. cap.17. illi partibus expilis, excolorerubro, &fuffufco exhabitucar nis toroſæpræſe tulere. Sitergo Canon . Somnoabundantprimò,quicerebrumfrigidumhabent, non exqualitate,fedexmultitudine; qualitateautempotiushabent calidum, &humidum,utlatefint vie, & multus vaporum illuc confluxus . Secundo loco abundantſomno ,quifrigidum qualitate ha bent : atquineutrohabent modofrigidum, illiinfomnesfunt, hocest breuisfomni . . Humiditasautem cerebriipfius perſe, idestquetempera mentumeiusingreditur,nonfacitfomnum, ſedbumiditasad uentitiainfomnoquidem naturali alimentalis ,infomno pre Artis med. ternaturalimorbofa . Videnturautem multibacinreexequi uocolapsi,ut Galenus, Exfunctio nibus fen- rum. Galenum ſequutiferèomnes. Excellentiafunctionuminteriorumſenſuum pendetextem fuumiterio- peramenta craficerebri , inquoilla elaborantur,licètprincipa tumineaquoquerecorretineat,utin disputationibusde ani ma LiberQuintus. 205 madeclaraui : atſiexceſſerintaliquæ qualitates , exeoexceffio vitij aliquidprogradu exuperantiæ contrahunt, disparitamen modo; nempèfiexcefferitficcitas , duriad apprehendendum homines redduntur , atretinent diù. Si contrahumiditas, mollitiespræftiterit,recipiuntfacilè,at citò etiam dimittunt: ni miademumficcitasadiddeuenire poffe videtur; ut imper uium reddatfermèanimumcognitioni, contraque immodica mollities adid, utfubipſoapprehenfionis initio speciesdiftor queatur, &euanefcat. Verùmomnes operationes animales a calore animali,utaprimoinſtrumentoprocedunt, inquibuser goisdiminutus eft,diminuta quoquefunt omnes operationes interiores , dequibusnunc dicimus,quam ob caufam ex longo morbo conualefcentes nequecontemplari,neque reminisci va lent. MeminiIacobumMazoniumconterraneummeum, immortalis gloriæ hominem,cumineam egritudinemtenderet, exquademum mortuuseft,maledeſeominatum,quodmemo- riapræftitit. ria,quaplurimum valuerat, deficeret. Sit Canon . IacobusMa m zoniuspluri Tarditasadapprehendendum, &memoriætenacitasficci- Canon2. tatemcerebrioftendunt excedentem; Facilitas appræhendendi, thabilis memoriahumiditateeiuſdemfignificantexcedětem. Facilitascontemplationis, &eneruèacumeningenijfrigidi tatem,feudebilitatemcalorisfignificant . Excolore faciei albofrigiditatem cerebri argumentantur Excolore, paffimfcriptores : contràexruborecaliditatem: at cutemnon usquequaqueinterioricrafirefpondere visumest . Nonegre dituritaquefignumeiufmodiprobabilitatem,fatisetiamremo &pilis . tam. Cafarfuitalbidi coloris infacie , &tamenoperationes Cæfarerat colorisalbi ingenij acutiffimi &folertiſſimi , &memoris, calorisabsque dil dubio copiam, & nobilereliquarumqualitatumtemperametum adfuiffedemonstrant . Sedde colore cutisinfrain uniuerfum age  De coniect. cuiufquemorib &c. agemus,pariterquedepilispræterea,que antea, cum decorde locutifumus, diximus : neque veròprorfusrecipiendafunt, quadicunturdefignis temperamenticerebriexpilis , fcilicetpi losnigros,&criſposfignificarecerebricalorem, &ficcitatem, Exmagnitu &parunate. promißos verò, &rufosfrigiditatem, )bumiditatem . Ex illis,quæ de cordediximus,patereinftantiapotest,feduberius infrafuoloco. Caput magnumindicatcerebricopiam,fipræfertimfitrectè dinecapitis, conformatum,dequaconformationepoſteas undefrigiditatem quoqueeiusexcopiaſignificat,nonneceßario autemexqualita te. Sed, cuminhumanocerebrodemumfemperfrigiditaspre ualeat, plus minus-vé,ideo copiacerebri magna frigiditatem certafignificationedemonftrat . Dico autemmagnam propor tionereliquicorporisattenta; nampoteft effecaputmagnum,fi ctuofiores , tiores. cumcapitibuscommunisnotæhominum conferatur; attamen , ficumcorporereliquofuocompareturparuum,cumfcilicet cor pusmoleexceditconfuetamhominummenfuram. Sed rurfus, Quihomi- cum exconformationefigna petemus. Paruumcontràcaput es fint a caliditatem,hoceft minoremcerebri frigiditatem,quàm,quead quàmfapie- cor temperandum requiratur, ostendit; unde actuofiores illi funt,quàmfapientiores. Dehepatis,iecorisvèinfluxu, adeog humorum, & Spirituumincor, deg,procedentibusinde moribus. Caput Nonum. : §. Primus . Fundamentaſtatuuntur . Ncorrurfusinfluitbepar iecurvé,temperamentumqueeius quoniamnoninfluit,nifiperhumores,qui percauam venamabhepatecorpetunt ,ided idemestdeinfluxuhoc hepatisin cor agere,atquedeinfluxuſanguinis, &humorum incor , deque alteratione, quam exeo influxucor recipit . In- Suprahnius fluxusfpirituumpartimexhumoribuspendet,ut ex materia, partimexcerebro, utſpiritusindèanimales refluunt,partim par. libro 1.. cap.6. exaere,quiinspiratur, utexcerebro, pertinetconfideratio ad influxumcerebri,dequoproximè, utexaere,pertinetadaeris in moresactionem, quaderefupraintercaufasexternas.Nunc itaque temperamentumhepatis , eiusque signa confideremus . Qualeenim temperamentum bepatis, talesarbitramurhumo- Canonex res,utplurimum. Dicoautem,utplurimum,quoniamalique ceptio. Funtexceptionesrationepartium preparantiumbepati im, ex.gr. ventriculipræfertim, ex. gr.fiiecurcalidumfuerit,at ventri culusfrigidus , iecurquidemfuaptenaturafanguinemcalidum efficit , at refrangitur actio eius a frigiditatematerie,quam fuggerit ventriculus: pariterfiidemmateriæ crude acfrigide vitiumnafcaturnon ex ventriculi intemperie ,fed eximmo dicacrapula, exuperante vires,etiamfi iuftas, ventriculi. Atfupponamus primònullum inmateria vitium, faltem graue ; leuia enim vitiaipſummet heparcorrigit,eruntque canones. §. Secundus. Canonesponunturadmorumexhepa tis temperamento ,&influxu. Sı heparfitcalidum, &ficcum,ſanguinemetiam calidu, &ficcumgignet, quem biliofum dicimus. Qua rationecor calefaciet influxu eiufmodifanguinisratione caliditatis , at ra tione acrimonie, calidaenim &ficcaacrimoniam obtinent,ex timulabit ,punget, adeoqueiniramfacilèdifponet, acamaru lentiam . Si  De coniect. cuiufquemorib.&c.  Siheparfit calidum , &humidum,ſanguinemquoqueeiuf modi gignet,quicoringrediens ,ſcilicetdextrumeius ventri culum,indequeinfinistrumpenetrans, ipſum ratione calidita tisfuecalefaciet, ac rationeconiuncti caloris humiditati blan dofouebit contactu,quafititillationequadam, adeoqueinblan dam vitamatque voluptariamreddetpropenfum. Sibepargecurvefitfrigidum, &ficcum,ſanguinem eiuf demcrafis conficiet,quiin corinfluens refrigerabit,adeoquead moresexfrigiditate pendentes difponet, &rationeficcitatis acrioreſenſu. corquogu Siheparfitfrigidum,&humidum,ſanguinemeiufdemcra fis elaborabit,quicorquoque refrigerabit, adeoque ad mores frigidosdifponet,sed rationehumiditatis obtufiore , ac bebe tioreſenſu . §. Tertius . Deſpirituuminfluxu. 4 QVAE, dehumoribusdiximus,poffuntadfpiritustradu cirationemateriæipforum. §. Quartus . Annotatiodelibrando influxuhepatis cuminditotemperamentocordis. VERVM, quæhic diximusde hepatis ,humorumque in corinfluxu, deque vi, acefficaciaipfius ,ſuntformaliter, non fimpliciterintelligenda, acre ipfa distinctionem antea attuli, &explicui. Nempeſanguiscalidus ,&ficcusfuapte natu. ra, &quiataliseffectus memoratosin cordeoperatur; verum firealemipsumeffectumquaramus,interdumcorcontraria erit temperature, adeoque efficacis, ut vincat, acreijciatſangui nisinfluentis aftionem. Cum autemactiofanguinisnonmuta bit mores cordisfrigidi,fedretundetpaulisper,nifi tantade morLiberQuintuscio  mumfitcontrariain corde qualitas , ut rationeanthiperiſtaſis intendatur . Sintergo Canones. Sibepatis , &fanguinis incor influentis temperamentum cumcordis temperamento conuenerit,tum intendentur exin fluxu cordisqualitates, acmorespariternaturales. Si ergocor calidum,&ficcum,&beparcalidum,&ficcum, adeoquefanguis calidus, &ficcus influatin cor, mores tum erunt admodum iracundi, mores inquamnaturales . Pariter dealijs crafibusdicendum.daum . Sidiffentiant cordistemperamentum, &fanguinis,hepa tisque temperamentum, libraretum oportet,utrum utripre Stet. Sanèfuaptenaturatemperamentum cordis inditum pra ualet aduentitijs, attamentantapotesteffe aduentitij intentio, Utinditumfuperet; ratiotamen id erit,adeo utpotiusrefran gat moresindisos,quam contrarios ingerat. Quodfi tamen tantus effet qualitatum exceffus in aduentitio, utfuperaret prorfusinditum,tumquoque mores obtruderentur aduentitio temperamento respondentesindito ... ۱۰ Deſignistemperamentiiecoris,hepatiſve. : Caput Decimum. 6.Primus . Signacalidihepatis,&primòſecundùm SIGNA Galenuminartemed. SIGNA calidihepatis bac a Galeno afferuntur. Venarum latitudo,flauabilisabundatior, in consistenti verdatate etiamacris,calidior ipfisſanguis,atque eaderationecorpusvni uerfum,nifiobftiterit cor:His veniet ) hypochondriahirfuta. HalyAbbas venarûlatitudine,& ipseinterfigna accipit, 0 &craf Deconiect.cuiufquemorib &c.  craffitiem, itemgenerationem bilis iniuuentute; bilis enim copiafignificatferuoremcaloris : item pilorum circa ventrem multitudinem; ponitquoquetactum ventris calidum: itemco lorisflauitiem,quodis colorfignificetbilis multitudinem. Auerroes duofignaexrelatisfolummeminit;generationem fcilicetmulta bilis vocatcumHalyAbb. choleramrubram,t coloremadcitrinumdeclinantem . Secundumquendam veròexrecentioribus . Amplitudo venarum , naturalishominisfortitudo,faciescolo rata , copiabilis ,& multitudo pilorumfub hypo Cenfura. chondrijs . Generatiobilis estfignumquidemcalorishepatis,atnon conuertibile; nam, cumheparestcalidum, &humidum,gene ratſanguinem,nonbilem : verumtamenquandocunque gene rat bilemcopiofam,estcalidum. Amplitudo venarumestfi gnumfuaptenaturaconuertibile , ac reciprocum. Dicofuapte natura, quoniamexrepugnantiacordis, autpinguedinis vene interdum velnonfuntlate,velnonapparent;caliditasfan guiniseffetfignum euidens,fiipſe manutangi poffet,at quo niamnonnifipercutem,nibilprohibetfanguinemintus effèca lidum ,at cutem exteriusfrigidam, ut anteaexGaleno ipso vidimus . Hirsutum ventrem, &bypochondriainterfigna probabilia,nonautemneceffariareponereoportet. Decolorein frafuoloco . Interimego credocolorem cutismagisfignificare hepatiscrafim, quàmreliquorum viſcerum : differentia verò interceditinterHaly Abb. Auerroemque ex altera parte , Michaelem Scotum exaltera: illicolorem inflauumpropen dentem calorisfignumfaciunt, bic rubicundum colorem : id enimfibi vult coloratafacies . Egopotius in Scotifententiam concedo: quaratione autem,infraſuolocointelligemus. Signafrigidihepatisſecundùm Galenum. SIGNA frigidihepatisſuntangustia venarum, pituita abundatior,fanguinis,totiusquecorporishabitusfrigidior,niſi corobftiterit, bypochondriaglabra. AtHalyAbb. propituitacopiammelancholiaaffert,albe dinemprætereacolorisfubijcit. 1 : Auerroespræterea, &MichaelScotus eadefignafubijciūt. Angustiavenarumfignumefficaxestfrigiditatis hepatis; Cenfura. generatio abundantiorpituite eſtſignumnonconuertibile,ficut etiamgeneratio melancholie ,quandocunquefanècopiapituita gignitur,indiciumestfrigiditatis hepatis,atnon conuertitur; namfrigidum hepar potest etiam generare melancholiam: quandocunqueitemgigniturcepiamelancholia,fignumestfri giditatishepatis,atnonconuertitur; nampoteftetiamgenerare pituitamfrigidum hepar. Glabrities, quodfignumfit,antea nonfemelannotauimus. §. Tertius. Signaficcihepatis,necnon& hepatishumidi. SIGNAficcihepatis aGaleno, &areliquisponunturdu Cap.39.40. rities venarum,& reliquicorporishabitusficcior. Subiungit etiamGalenus, fanguinem craßiorem,&minimè abundan tem: contrabepatishumidiprofigno adducunturmollities ve narum,fanguisabundantior, &humidior3itemtotiuscorpo rishabitusmollior . Durities, & mollities venarumnullumfignumbepatisdu- Cenfura. 0 2 ritici Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. 212 ritiei mollitieivé habebitur abillis, qui venasab hepate oriri nonexiftimant , inquorumnumerofunt, nedumAristotelici, fedetiäMedicialiqui . Diftinguuntenimprincipium originis, Andr. Laur. &principiumradicationis, &principium dispenfationis: ne lib.4. anath. ganthepar eßeprincipium originis venarum; estautemprinci piumoriginis,excuiusſubſtantiasubstantiam haurit respro cedens, undeexsubstantia venarumnon licebitfecundùm Heparfan- hosarguerefubstantiambepatis, etiamfibeparponaturſangui guinisoffici na nis officina, utegoetiampono, iamfufcepi,quatamen di Stinctione alibi declaraui , interimfatisfit dictume accedere proximèadfententiam Auerrois. Signahepatis calidi,&ficci Galenus SIGNA calidi, &ficcihepatisfunthypochondriahifpidif fima,ſanguiscraffior, &ficcior,flauabilisplurima, &proce denteatate plurimaquoque atrabilis, venarumlatitudo,& durities ,habitusquoquecorporis vniuerficalidus , &ficcus, nifi cor obstiterit . HalyAbb.cap.eodem . Venælatæ, craffe, &durę, ſignificant hepatis caliditatem,&ficcitatem , pili in hypocondrijsmulti, &aſperi, tactus corporis cali dus,&ficcus . Auerroes cap. eodem 4. Piliin hypocondrijs craffi , tortuofi,& nigri fignificant caliditatem , & ficcita temhepatis,venæmediæinterlatas,&anguftas; an guſtæ autemfrigiditatem ſignificant, latæ,& craffæ caliditatem,&humiditatem. Signa hepatis calidi, & humidi Galen. c. PLURIMVMſanguinis, venæamplæ,habitustotius corporis calidus,&humidus;isenim crafimeiuſmo dıhepatisfequitur niſi corobſtiterit: hypochondria hyſpidaquidem, minus tamen, quamcumheparfic cum,&calidumfuerit. HalyAbb. cap.eodem. Venæ amplæ,&molles,pluri mumſanguinis ,pili non permulti,&lenes, tactus ventris, & circumiacentiumpartium calidusabſque ficcitate tamen, rubor cum albedineadmixtus . Auerroes . Venæ latæ, & amplæ, plurimum ſan guinis, &humiditatis,pilimulti inhypochondrijs, Tedfubtiles, &plani. §. Sextus. Signahepatisfrigidi,& ficci Galen.. PARVM fanguinis, anguftia venarum , corpus frigidum tactu, &hypochondria glabra, nifi cor obftiterit. HalyAbb. cap. eodem. Venxarctæ, &duræ,genera tio,&multiplicatioatræbilis, cumadſtatumiuuen tutis peruenit, tumque ſanguinis incraffatio ,&ni grefcentia, venter,&fubiectæpartesglabræ , ac fic cæ,nonlenes, tactuautemcorpusfrigidum,&afpe rum, colorliuidus, autplumbeus,decliuisvè, inni gredinem . Auerroes, cap. eodem. Generatio atræ, bilis nonnatu ralis, venterglaber, atquedurus,venarum anguftia. 0 3  Se  De coniect.cuiuſquemorib.&c. §. Septimo. Signahepatisfrigidi,&humidi Galenus  HYPOCHONDRIAglabra,ſanguispituoſior,vena rum angustia; debemus autemfubintelligere mollitiem ex cap. 40. Galeniipfius; habitustotius corporisfrigidus, &humidus,niſi enimcor obſtiterit, ſequiturhepa tiscrafim . HalyAbb. Venæarctæ,&molles,venterglaber, & lenis, item idem tactu frigidus, & mollis , albedo gypſea ſuntſcilicetſignahepatis frigidi, &humidi . Auerroes. Generatiopituitæ , ac ſanguinis crudi, glaber venter ,&mollis,albedo adeòmagna , vt in gypſeamtranfeat . Proponitdicenda,fundamenta repetit, ac tracta tionem diftinguit . Caput Primum. Dfecundammethodipartem,queex conforma tionepartiumprocedit,tranfimus. Fundamen tumpragmatie, acnegociationishuiusest, quod prohabilitate membri cuiusque admunusfuum inditus est instinctusanimali ad illam ipsam operationem . Remantea explicuimus. Inhomine autem, & innegocio hoc noſtroprefertim,instinctus arguitur, & colligitur ; cum pars peculiarem,nedum communem obtinuerit adfunctionemeam babitudinemirritamenta , &impetusconcupifcibilisfacultatis illi , quos emendat temperantiaexconformationehuiufmodi ge nitaliumpartium,&gula, ac ventriculipræfertim nascuntur; acſpeciatim ;fundamentum enim commune,acprimum,quod estcupiditas,in cordeipſodefidet, veluti anteadeclarauimus. Atferricupiditatem in venerem, autferriin cibum, &cupe diam eft ex partiumadeasfunctionesaptitudine. Quocirca puelli,cum nondumpartes vllo modoin veneremturgent, ni hiletiamde venerelaborantanimo,nullumquecupiditatis eiuf modięstumexperiuntur. Diftinguereautem oportet commu nemillumfenfum veneris,quem omnespatimur, &peculia rem,acconcitatum,exquo venerei, aclibidinofi naturali pro penſione aliquidenominantur. Exordiamurexconformatione buiufmodimembrorum, exquibusfcaturigines morum, acpro penfionumadeoeminentiumpendent:pofteà,fiquæaliæpartes conformationeſuainstinctumadmoresfundant,percurremus. 0 De 4  Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. Departibusgenerationideferuientibus . EMBRORVM generationi deferuientium,tumin mare, MEMBRORVM tuminfæmina,conſtructio ut etiam reliquorum mem brorum admiranda est. Latèrem profequitur Galenus &in lib. 1 4. De usupartium, &inprimiscapitibuslib.1 s.inali quibustamenhominibus communem specieiaptitudinem pecь liaridifpofitionefuperat, qui etiamin veneremfunt peculiari ter propenfi . Confideremus nunc,quibus ex rebusnafcatur exquifita eiufmodiad venerembabilitas,atqueineamfingula re irritamentum . Nafcitur ergo,tum exfolida parte,eiuf quefigura, tüexpartibusinfluentibus: vtrumquegenusfoor fumconfideremus. §. Primus. Solidæpartesvirilispudendi,&primò de trunco, quod græcè dicunt γαυρόν. PVDEN DVM virile, utab hoc exordiamur, &ip fumperfeconstatextrunco, &glande, &habetteftes annexos cum vafisadiunctis utrinque, & aptitudinem, &incenfio nemfuamobtinet. Exfuoergoipfiuscorporein veneremrapi tur, quodfungoſeſubſtantiæ cumfit,ineosporos, ac meatusex fubingredientibus vafisflatus quidam inquirunt, undetur getmembrum,&exturgorepruritus.Hincfit, utquibusfun gofiorfubftantia eaest, & inſperſa vaſalatiora, acplusflatuo fefubfiantiæfuggerentia ,illiexhoc capite acrius rapianturin Qui fintin venerem; unde oritur, utquibuspenis extrairritamentum penfiores veneris magisconcidit,fintilliin venerempropenfiores,quàm quibus LiberSextus. quibuspenispropiortenſioniperfeuerat; nempeporofior illi, 217 fungofiorfubftantia,huicminores, &arctiores meatus. §. Secundus. DeglandegræcèΒάλανος. GLANSexquifitioniseſtſenſus,&eius præfertimfrica tione voluptas venerea paratur. Obducentispelliculatenui tas, quaglansipsategitur, adfenfus in eaparte acumenfacit: dicoautemintimam,accontinuamipſiglandicutem non exte rioremillam , qua & denudari potest,quam vocant Latini preputium . Quocirca,quibusglansaspectunitefcit,acfplen defcit, atqueplurimumrubet, magnamearatione voluptatem ip coeundo experiuntur ; tenuitas enim ,&puritas cutis eiuf modi, atquefubiecteſubstantiæſenſationem exactamfaciunt, quam maiorquoque voluptasex obiectofuauiconfequitur. . Tertius. Devafibusſpermaticis, acdeteſtibus. Ат maiusproculdubioirritamentumad veneremex teſti bus,ac vafis fpermaticis cumſeminedistenduntur, oritur Nonhicdisputo, vtrumtestesfint adgenerationem neceßa • rij, Ut afferit Galenus,negat Arist. neque utrumfeminifint teftesperuij, an deferuiantfolumad vaforumdiſtenſionem , tanquamtextriciumpondera,qua estfententiaAriftot.feddi fputationes naturalesnonfunthuc congerenda: fatis eft,cum vaſaſuntdiftentaſemine, &teftes ,ſiteſtesſemenſuſcipiant, urgeri hominemin venerem. Diſtenduntur veròillisteftes, quibus maior visfeminisgignitur,atqueexmeatuumlaxitate in ealocaconfluit: velaptius dicamusrem aliquanto altiusre petentes . Excauavenavaſaſpermaticadiſcedunt ,addex trum 218 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. trumquidemtestemex venaipfacauainfrarenem,atadfini ſtrumtestemex venacava,fedperemulgentem:quibus ergo maiorfanguiniscopia, maiorestinruaſaſpermatica confluxus in illisque,&in teftibuscum conficiaturſemencalorepartium, quibusfuntcalidioresteftes , acpartesilla , ijquoqueſemine amplius affluunt: atfanguinis copiaexhepatiscaliditate ,& bumiditate præfertimnascitur. Atdefanguine,&partibus influentibus poftea interim de testibus,ac vafibusſpermaticis, Seufeminarijsdictum bocfit,quocalidioresfuerint, eòmagis , ftes annexi &pleniuselaborarefemen,adeoque &magis in venerem Quibuste. reddere propenfumhominem . Aliaratio, cumexteftibusred fune,ij ſune damurpronioresin eandem voluptatem, eft, cumteftes magis falaces. annexi ventri funt , adeòvtcumintusfunt , velutiauibus, ea animaliaparatiorafintadcoitum,quem celerrimeexpediūt , utAristotelesaßerit 1.degener, animal. cap.4. t ratiofuf fragatur: calidioreenimlocopofitifunttestes, quiintra,quam extrapenduli. Praterea,quòperlongiores ductusfemeneftdu cendum,eòlaboriofioreft eius confectio, &transmißio. Pid terea,cum in coeundoteſtesſurſumretrahantur, quòlongiusilli pendent , eò laboriofior eorum erit retractio . Laxaturitaque amplius maioreexlabore animal, diutiorequefrictione,&con cuſſione eget adſemen excernendum, utetiam minuspoßitite rare venerem : atquiteftesminuspendulosbabent, minorela borenegocium conficiunt, acfaciliusſemenreparant, utfacilè etiam instaurare,ac iterarecoitumpoßint, utOuidius,quino uiesſe intranoctis vniuscurriculumvenereexercuiffeafferit . Exigereanobisangustanoctecorinnam, Etmemininumerosſuſtinuiſſenouem . Feminaquippe,quæteftesintushabent,paratioresquoque adreplicandam venerem,quàmmaresfunt . §. Quar LiberSextus. 219 §. Quartus. Departibusinfluentibus. INFLVENTESpartesfuntſanguis,quiinſemen dein ceps alteratur,&fpiritus: fanguisex venisin spermatica vaſaconfluit, Spiritusexarterijs,quedemuminſubstantiam ipsam,&corpuspenis definunt; pereasenim, &ex earum ofculis fpiritusinfungosampenisſubſtantiaminfluit, unde erigitur acturget. ItaGalenuscuiſubſcribereinprafentiapar eft . Quibusergolatiores vene, utfanguispereasabundan tius fluat, &heparcalidum, &humidum,acperspiratum , nullaqueobſtructione impeditum, ut copiofiorgenereturfan guis,funt illihacrationein venerem pronioresob materieco- Qui fintin piam. Quibuspariterarteria latiores,acprincipium arteria- Venerepro niores. rum,nempècorcalidius,illis penes ampliuserigi, acfrequentius poteft; arbitratortamen Ariftoteles melancholicis,quippequibus Sectio. 25. Sanguis magisinflatusdifflariqueat,erectionem etiam penis ef- Probl. 31. Lepromptam Sepromptam, frequentem,acturgoremin veneremconcita tum; libidinofienim melancholicifunt. §. Quintus . Exdictis gradusvarij propenfionis in venerem diftinguuntur . QVI ergocorcalidumhabent,heparcalidum, &humi dum, vafa ampla,calidosteftes, ) annexos, non admodum pendulos, penemfungofum, glandemrubicundam,&pellucen tem, hipenitusin venerempropenſiſunt. Excalorecordis acritercupiunt; excopiaſanguinis,indequefeminisfacilè ve nerem, acfrequenterreparant:prætereaqueextestium retra Etione . Sicutienimexcopiaſpirituuminpeneminfluentium turget penis , &irritaturadexcernendumid,exquo prurit . Quod 220 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. Quodfinonconfentiantbecomnia,minuiturimpetusin vene rem,qui,quantusreſtet,libratiscontrarijshincinde momentis, inuestigandumerit, v.gr.fi corcalidum,acfrigiditeftes, &fi calidi testes,&frigidum cor, ambahiminus multòferunturin venerem,quamcum utrumqueprincipiumcaloreferuet. Ta menlibido ampliorin illis,quibas teftes calidi, &corfrigidum; quàmcontra,quodproximuminillisprincipiumad venerem propendit, inhisprincipiumremotumtantum. Quodfi calidi teftes,&calidum cor, atheparfrigidum,autficcumadeò,ut parumfuggeratfanguinis, velangustiavaforum, &meatuŭ prohibeat confluxumſanguinis adtestes, &vaſaſpermatica, ferunturillidefiderio at impotesfuntreparande veneris; citò enimlaxantur, &fatefcunt . Exhisdiminutis gradibusreli quis pretulerim eum,quiheparcalidum, &humidumobtinet , acteftes calidos, licèt corfrigidum habeat: &principium enim proximumilliaccommodatum,&materiæcopia parata. §. Sextus . Graduseiufdeminvenerempropenfionis exGalenodeſcribuntur . ? GRADVS propenfionis eiufdemin venerem extestium Art.medicæ temperamentisdeducitpræfertim Galenus . Dicit autemtem c.45.& feq. peramentumtefticulorumcalidum ad veneremprocliuemeffe, &fecundum: frigidamcrafim contrarium efficerehumidam multo,t) humidoſemineabundare,ficcampaucum,&modicè craffumfemen gignere . In temperamentis autem compofitis calidam, &ficcamtemperaturamſemenhaberecraſſiſſimum , &fecundiffimum, &celerrimèabinitioadcoitumexcitare animal. Petulcamdemü,& adlibidinempronameſſebuiufmo i di temperaturam , Statimtamenfatiari, &ficogatur, offendi, 1t LiberSextus 221 Atcalidam,& humidamtemperaturamplusdicitfemineabun dare, nontamenplusceteris appetere , & minori detrimento prætermodum venereisindulgere. Quodfitamencaliditas , &humiditas magiscreuerunt,nonfinedetrimentoa venereis abftinet . Frigida, &humidatemperaturaſemineaquoso, tenuiabundat, infecundoque(utprofrigiditateparumfera tur in venerem, pro copiatamenſeminisminus abexercitio eius ledatur)frigida,&ficcatemperaturacraffiusfemen, ب venerempropenſa,propaucitatefeminis,&ftatimfatietur , fi cogatur ladatur. omninòpaucumgignit, utfcilicetprofrigiditateparumfit in ن §. Septimus . Cenſuradictorum Galeni. VERVM nonpaffimegoacciperem, queGalenusdifferit; namficcitas tefticulorum calidorum,dumheparfitcalidum,& humidum,adeoquefanguiniscopiam vafisſeminalibusfugge rat,nonimpedit, quominùsſemencopiofum elaboretur,acrepa retur adnouam venerem,quinimòcumconcoctiofitcaloris,& calorficcitaticoniunctus magis, & validiusoperetur,quàm coniunctus humiditati,teftes calidi , ficci, modocopiosama teriaprestòſemperfitexpeditiusinfemeneamalterabunt, J concoquent,quàmteftescalidi, & humidi. Suffraganturmee Arifto.Phy •fententiæ multa, quæexobferuationedicuntur,fcilicetquibus fiogn.ca 9. gracilia, neruosacrurafunt,libidinofioreseffe,ea verò cruriū crafisfimilemindicatintestibus crafimpotius,quamhumidă. Gracilitasquoque,quamdeſeipſo attestaturPropertius,ficci tatempotius, quàmhumiditatemfignificat,&tameninagone venereofortemseprædicat. Sed tibifiexiles videortenuatus inartus Falleris,haudunquamestcultalaborevenus. Per 222 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. Perconterelicet,fæpeeft expertapuella Officium totanoctevaleremeum . §.Octauus. Declaratioquædamfubijcitur. SVPPLEO quebicdixidepartibusinfluentibus; dixi autem, curacopiofus eftfanguis,adeoquecum beparestcalidū, +)humidum,baminem excopiamaterie in veneremincendi; atalibietiamdixi, cumſanguisacrisest, estautemacris,cums hepar calidum, t) ficcumfanguinem biliofiorem generat, ex mordacitatefeminis indegenitiirritari in venerem animal, quod &hicrepeto . Verùmblandusſanguis, &copiofusex humido , &calidohepateprocedens, veneremiterabiliorem facit; at biliofius humor acriusquidemextimulat, atfatiatur quoquegenitusexeoappetitus,nequeadeòpromptèreparatur, quod&aliàsdixi . Departibusadcupediampertinentibus. CaputTertium . 6.Primus. Restotaremiffiuèperagitur. PARTES Es adcupediampertinentes,quafint,& unde irritentur,iamnunc dicendumeffet ,niſiſatisanteadixe rimus. F. 3.quibus nibilest,quodin prafentia adijciamus . Diximus etiam departibus veneride feruientibus,dequeearum irritamentis,atnonparicopia, plenitudine , utiustumfuerit totamremaprincipiorepetitam exactius explicare,utinprecedenticapitefecimus. §. Sc LiberSextus. 223 §.Secundus. Quæſignademonſtrenthominem : veneri, velgulæ addictum . Dvo funtiamexplicatifontes proximi concupifcibilis , quaexpartea vera &abexactatemperantiacorrigitur,nem pèfontes concupifcentia venerea,&concupifcentiacupediofa. Primumtamen principiumeſſe cor antea vidimus, ) nunc repetijmus . Quæ veròexteriorafignaſignificantcrafimven triculidictam,acpalati,tumpartiumgenerationifamulantiū, eaconcupiscentia velveneris,velgulemancipatumhominem ostendunt,fecundumnaturaleminquampropenfionem . Quatractandarestantcapitamethodiphyſiognomi camemorat. Caput Quartum . Dreliquasnunccorporispartes tranfeamus,fiqueex hibeantinchoamenta, acrudimenta morum,perfcrutan tes . Methoduseademerit,nempèconfiderare,que membra adquamuniafactafint, &quambenè,&aptèadeaipsafint fabricata. Verumphysiognomipluresadidem methodosinue xerunt,quænon equèexproprijsfunt: altera proceditexfimi litudineanimalium : alteraex repræfentatione masculini, aut fæmininigeneris: alteraexfimilitudinenationum,quifcilicet fimilesfintÆthyopibus,quiGermanis. Quarta,quamadhi bentexapparentibusmoribus,magisexproprijsest,atadfe cundammethodipartem,quæexeffectibusadcaufasprocedit, pertinere potius videtur. Fatendum eft tresillas methodos nonexcedereprobabilitatemadmodum, ut alibi declarabimus , nuncautemcumphysiognomiamnon ipfamperſe,ſedalterius facul 224 Deconiect, cuiufquemorib.&c. facultatis occafione tractemus , parest ab euidentioribus eius principijs non recedere, atque circumciderealiena, minùs, quàm urgentia. Conſiſtemusitaquein confiderationefabrica , con formationisvé membrorum,ut adſuamunia fintillaapta : adbibebiturquoque confideratio apparentium morumin ijsdem, in quibusfcilicetapparerepoffunt, membris: quemethodicapi tarestant extribus anteapropofitis, abſolutoeo , quodextem Cap.2.lib.s peramento pendet . Quesignaex moribus apparentibus de fumuntur,pertinent verèadfecundammethodipartem, atta men,utin partibus Stabilimodofigunturinfronte, inoculis, infacie, poffuntadhancprimampartem pertinere,utincap. moxdefronteexplicabo . Decapite. De magnitudine, & paruitate capitis. : Aput idtotumeft,quodcolloimponitur; attamenduode capite in uniuerfumconfiderantur, queinfra, infrafrontem nondefcendunt, magnitudofcilicet &figura:funtposteapar Canon 1. Canon2. 1 tesfingulefubiectefaciei , &quæ exillis demumexurgitef figies . Exfuperioribus patetparuitatem capitis paucitate cerebri conferre ad calorem cordis, ut eiusferuorem nonrefrangit . Contrà,magnitudinemadcordisfrigus, utob multitudinem cerebri valdeipfum refrigerat,pertinere: bec ergoimpulfum velfuppeditat, veladiuuatadmoresexfrigidocordistempe ramentoprodeuntesillaadcontrarios. Animaliaquoquebru tacapitemagnoinertiafunt, & pigra. Boues, &Afinifua ptenaturatales, nequein illismagnacapitadetestamur , quod pigros moresetiam admittamus: atinequis,cumftrenuiillieſſe dibeant, LiberSextus. debeant,caput magnumreprehendimus,paruumexigimus;un dedeequoegregiefactoVirgilius; Argutumquecaput. Cummagnitudononmultumexcefferit,ingeniohomoabun- Canon3. 225 dat: Iacobus Mazoniuscapitefuitmagno, verùmcrafſſoetiam aded corpore,utnonfacilèdixerimcaputproportionemcorporis exceffiffe: ingeniocertèpolluit, atque memoriapræfertimexcel luit. Hectamencrafispotiusadinfpectricem,quàmadagibi lemcognitionemaptosreddit. Quodfiexcessus demum magnitudinisfuerit immodicus, Canon4. ceßatingenium, &fuccedit stupor; adedenim retunditurcalor acorde promanans,tantaque etiam eft locorumcapacitas, t ) amplitudo, utnonpoßintſatis incalefcere,proindequeaftiones animales, queipsequoquecalore , licètpuro,egent,ceffent, aut imminuantur, vitienturové . Hincfit, utbubo , atqueotis , que valdecapitataanimaliafunt,ſtuporem præſeferant, in ter piscesque barbus, mugil,qui,& capito,acGræcèdicitur κεφαλος, ut Italicècefalo. Caputparuumnomultum a mediocritaterecedens, adactio- Canon 5. nem, &adcognitionemrerumagibilium difponit,adeoquead prudentiam; cumpreceptiuum effeoporteatprudentem . Reftè itaque Ariftoteles capiti paruo prudentiam tribuit,atnontri- In Phiſiog. buiffetfapientiam . Verùm aliqui confundentes actiuam,& inſpectricem cognitionemlaborantintuenda veritatedictiAri ftotelici, cuiustamenplanus eft,&obuiusfenfus. Siparuitas immodicafuerit, inferitatemdifponit , &ratione perturbati iudicij,dumfpiritus exangustiaconfunduntur, &ratione ca loris irrefracticordis . Caput mediocreomniabonaconiungitnatura, &cordisca- Canon6. loremtemperat,fedmoderatè, undequodadipfumattinetin P medio  Deconiect.cuiufque morib. &c. mediocritate interaudaciam,t)timorem constituit,& ingeniu perfpicax, atqueaptißimumadomnemcognitionemreddit.Al bertus timiditatem illitribuit, quodeius dictum, fi conferatur cumparuocapite, atquecumaudacibusnaturahominibus, rectè Sehabet; nammediocre,ficonferaturcumexcesu,defectus ra tionemfubit : atfimpliciter,&perſenoneft verumexdictis . QueGalen.demagnitudineac paruitatecapitisphiloſophatur ex multitudine materia, autrobore virtutis, penesipfumvi deanturDeart. med. cap.1 1. EgofumhacinreſequutusAri Stotelisdoctrinam,arbitratus nempè, utplurimum,inagnum, caput plurimumcerebri obtinere , & paruumcaputparums. Quodfiinterdum molesprocefferit ex copiaofſfacee materia,aut idgenusalterius; queGalenusdifferit verafunt; cumenim copiofior affluxerit corpulenta, terrena eiuſmodi materia,op preſſionemfignificat spirituum ,eorumque etiam naturam ex commixtione impuriorem; underudemhominem, &ſtupi Additio ad dumportendit . Ariftoteles tribuit capitiparuo prudentiamfect. 30. pro 3. Canone blem.3. atinlib.Physiognom. cap. 9. capitiparuo stupiditatem tribuit,verbafunt; quiveròparuumcaputfcilicethabent, inſenſati , referunturad Afinos : at iuremeritòinterpre tes mendum in litterafufpicantur , nequeenimAfiniparuum caputhabent,fecusfiparuumimmodicècaputaccipiamus,poffis mus, & debemus concederefuturum eſſe hominem inſenſa tum, iudicijfcilicet perturbati admodum . Auicenna capiti paruotribuit infidumeffe,ira velocis,&in omnibusrebusdu bium; D.Tho.lib.defenf.tt/fenfililect. s .patrocinaturdicto meo; cumenimcerebrumoppofitum cordidixerit , uteiusfer uorem temperet,hæcfubiungit verba; Etindeeft, quod illi, quihabentparuumcaputfecundùm proportio nem 1 Liber Sextus . 227 nemcæterorummembrorum,impetuoſi ſunt,tan quam calorecordis non ſufficienter reflexo per ce rebrum. §. Secundus. DeFiguracapitis. GALENVS figuramcapitisnaturalemeſſevult ſphæra Libro 1.de instar, utrinquefcilicet a temporibusleuiterdepreffam, ex 1. lib.9.cap. offibus,cap. quadepreſſione etiam affequitur inanteriore, posterioreque partdevu capitis parte prominentiam aliquantulo maiorem, quamforet Spherica ipsa curuitas . Figurasnonnaturales idemGalenus quattuor enumerat. Primamcumeminentia anterior deperijt Saluapofteriore . SecundamcumeminentiapofteriordefijtSal uaanteriore. Tertiamcum perijt utraque. Quartam cum temporaeminentdepreſſis occipite,&fincipite,quam postre mamfiguramexcogitaripoffe, verùmnondariidemGalenus dicit ; licèt Veffalius aſe vifam Venetijs in puero bardo, amente, etiamqueBononiæ profiteatur. Nonhabetfiguracapitisinstinctüimmediatèadactionem, Canon1. fedadcognitionemperti pertinet,pereamque eamqueadactionem. ١٠٠ Figuranaturalis aGalenoiudicata,quamproximèexpofui- Canon2. mus, probabiliffimumestfignumaccommodataad intelligendu dispofitionis,non conuertibile tamen. Prima affertionis pars multa inductione conftat. Claramontes Claramontius Pater Claramontes Claramó meusexquifitèfiguram eiufmodiobtinuit,&acutißimo inge- tius Autho nio,acfolidainfciétiÿsdoctrinafuit,pariterquemagnoinrebus ris Pater. agendisiudicio. IacobusMazonius inlitterarum uniuerfitate magnus, acceleberrimus,figura eademfuit. Peraliospræterea multosinductioducipoffet. Atfecunda afſfertionis parsexem plisquoquealiquibus confirmatur. Periclesacuminatofuitca- Periclesca put acumi pite,&fecundißimoingenio,acfummaprudentia. Ianuenfes natuhabuit P 2 bac  Deconiect. cuiuſquemorib.&c. Canon3. artemedic. hacnuncfiguradelectantur,& acumineingenijfaltem inrebus agendispollent,cuireiratiofuffragatur ; figuraenim eiufmodi turbinataparuitatiscuiuspiam vicemſubit,ideoque minus ex eacalor cordis refrangitur , undeactuoſiorhomoredditur. Prominentiaposterior capitis,feu prominentia occipitis , eius-védepreſſiopropenfionemadactionemipſe perſe, ferunt, vel vitiant: itaſenſitGalenus,estqueratio,quoniam exneruispendetmotus voluntarius,quorumprincipiumestce rebellum , ideoqueinoccipiterefidetprincipium voluntarij mo tusinſtrumentarium, utproeius variaconftitutione,variè etiamad motumfithomodispofitus. Cumitaque iuſtapromi nentiacaloremfignificet,depreffiocontrafrigiditatem potius, inde ex protuberantia moderata roburfacultatis motricis ex Galenusde depreffioneimbecillitas arguitur,&augeturconiecturaroboris, cap.11. ficumprominentiaeiufmodiconiungaturceruixcraffa , & ru bicunda; nameaquoquefignumeftcaloris, utceruixgracilis, #pallida,velſubalbidafrigorisest indicium . Attamenfi hecomniaexGalenidoctrinaſuſcipiantur,adhucnoneritfignü moralis alicuius actionis,seupropenfionisproximum; nam ro burvoluntarijmotus aliudestadferuiles actiones,aliudad ci uiles. Et distinctioAriftotel. Polit..verbafunt; Vultautem natura ,&differentia facitcorpora libe rorum,&feruorum,aliaquidemrobuſtaadneceffa riosvſus, aliaverò recta , &inutiliaadtales operatio nes,verùm vtiliaad ciuilemvitam: hæc autem diui ſa eſt inbelliopportunitates,&pacis. De fronte. . : FRONS imaginemanimi multam continet, &exceptis Foculis, omniumcorporispartiummacam must Frons Fronshominitriſtitiæ,hilaritatis clementiæ ſeuerita tisindex. Cicero adfratremdepetit. Conful. animi ianuam appellat, que dicta,idque genusalia affectusprafentes verè fignificant; interiores enim animi affectus,ac paffiones inocu los,&infrontemerumpunt,ira metuscupiditas,odiumamor: attamenfi cuiisfitnaturaoris habitus,qualis eftirafcentibus, conijciunteiufmodihominem effenaturainiræ affectumpropen Sum. Vocatbos moresapparentes Arift.lib.Phisiogn.cap. 2. Fugaciailla affectuuminfronte,oculis , &orefignaadfecun dammethodihuiuspartemſpectant: at Stabiliahæc,quæ nunc dicimus, adhancpartem pertinerepoffunt. Licet enim cause nonfint, morum caufis tamenannectuntur; quafienimnatura eas notas imprimat adinteriorum propenfionumfignificatio nem, nexumquendamcumcauſafinali continent,fiuemelius dicamus:quoniam diſpoſitioad operationem pendentemexfe, utadfinemdirigitur, cumoperatione,adeoquecum caufafina li mutatiooris eiusquehabitus coniungitur, ut adidfignorum genusreducaturhoc, quodab effectuadeffectumfumitur, cum abeademcauſapendent. Obnexumautem&bac, & illaex moribus apparentibus multafignaponemusinhacparte aliqua tamentertiæ partireferuabimus. Eandem methodum vfurpa uit Arist. inpred. dequalitate. Cæterùmfronsconformatione ſuanullumperſeprabetad moresinſtinEtum, cum neque mo rumfitfedes: adcognitionemamplius pertinet. Quoniamer gocaputſphericumexactènonoporteteffe,fed leniter utrin que compreffum,frontisquoqueperitex eacompreffione sphe ricitas exacta, eiusque vicenasciturfigura, quaquadratăvo cant,inquaanteriorparsfrontiscumtemporibus nonconiungi tur in orbem,fedillaaßurgit ,hacdefident. Illiusitaqueextre maaliquantulumprominent , ut cudeuexitatetemporumcon P 3 ferun ; 230 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. feruntur, concaua illafrontisdicipoſſent : accertèprominen Canon1.de drata. tie debent vocari. Aboculisquoque adcapillos deficit exa Etasphericitas . Figuraquadratafrontisfignum eftpræftantisingenij,aciu figura qua- dicij; nafciturenimexfiguranaturalicapitis in anteriore, cuius parteiudiciumperagitur,confertquoque adprudentiam, utad agibiliumcognitionemdifponit, rectumqueearum iudicium . Multibominespræclarifrontis eiufmodifiguramobtinuere. Sifigurecapitis,nonnaturales vocataaGaleno , iudicij, Canon2.de figuris non quadratis Canon3.de magnitudi- ingenij vitiumſemperimportarent,frontes etiam aqua dratarecedentes earundemfacultatum vitium indicarent , at cumneceßariumnonfintillefigure,argumentumeiufmodi vi tij, neque etiam receſſusaquadratafronteeſt index certus iu dicijdeprauati, autdifpofitionis adcognitionem vitiate: exfi militudine tamenanimaliumPhiſiognomiconijciuntrotundita temfrontisacapilisad oculos indicare Stupiditatem; ea enim eftfigura afininefrontis. Rotunditasautematemporeadtem pusdicuntfignum'ira. Sediamegrediorexftatutis mihi li mitibus. Magnaeftfronsbumana,ſietiamintramediocritatem bu ne,&parui- manemenfura contineatur , eiusmodique magnitudo ad diftin tatefrontis- Etam , & dilucidamcognitionemconfert; ratioque est, quo niaadcognitioněeiufmodifinceriorfanguisexigiturqualis non eſtſanguiscalidior,quamobremcognitioelaboratur in cerebro, etiamfiprincipium eiusfitcor. HecomniaexAriftot.lib.2.de part.animal. cap. 10.fronsautemmagna, utdetecta, efficit , out confluentesin anterioremcerebripartemhumores ,&spi 1 ritusperfrigeratioresfint, adeoque etiamaddistinctionem,& lucidioremcognitionem conferant. Quodfimagnitudofrontisexcedat,perfrigeranturplusiu Sto Spiritus ijdem,undetardi adcognofcendum,ac iudicandum fegnesqueideohomines redduntur: refertArist. adBoues . Atfifronsparua, spiritus obtegumentumcapillorum , t ) bumoresin anterioreparte minus perfrigerantur, quàmparfit; ExArift.di calorautemceleritateiudicijfacit, ob agitationemfentiendi , lib.2.depar. ſtin.cap. 10. &iudicandipuritatemintercipit, atquerefringit: refert Phi- animal. lofophus adſues inPhifiognom. mobiles vocatin historiaani malium, &congruitaffertioobceleritatemiudicij . : Incapillorum afronte adtemporaflexu , velangutus effi- Canon4.de citur, isqueconspicuus, velangulusquidem,fed non ad mo- capillis. duminfignis, velorbis abſque angulis reſultat. Hiccapillorum babitusfuitin Philippo Burgundiæ Duceexeius icone. An gulosconspicuos, &eminentes Ferrantes Gonzaghius,Pro SperColumnius, & proximèHenricus IIII.RexGallie: Ex togatis acliteratis hominibusIacobus Zabarella , Claramontes Patermeusmemoriameahabuere . Iudicium angulieiufmodiindicant,nifienormesfuerint; te nuiusenimesteainpartecalueos, quàmfrontis,adeoquecum estibidetectum, magispatentperfrigerationi ſpiritus anterio ९ rum ventriculorum, fincerioresqueideoreddunturatquefince riusiudicium efficiunt . Quifrontemrugosamhabent,cogitabundi;dumenim cogi- Canons.ex tamus,inrugaseamcontrabimus; quitriſtem, meſti; quine- parentibus. bulofam, audaces; quiauſteram,feueri;demiffa lamentabun- Arift.inPhi dum; exporrectahilaremfignificat; undeilludComici, Exporigefrontem . Cumrugeinaltitudinemfrontisprotenduntur,nonin lon gitudinem,iracundum SIGNIFICANT; inira enimeomodo contra moribusap fiogn.cap.9. bitur, &corrugaturfrons. Polemo infiguraacerbitribuitil lirugas. P 4 Frons Canon6.de frontisafpe ruate . Canon7.de frontis. i  Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. . Fronsafpera denotatprius impudentiam,quodfiadhucma iorfit, indicat uſqueferitatem; namhominiobanimæ eiusno bilitatemnaturadedit, ut magis multo dominareturcorpori, quàmanimebrutorum . Senſaitaqueanimiin ore effulgent, prefertim inoculis, &infronte. Quodfieafit cutis, &fubie Etacarnisdurities, utnöprestentfulgori eiufmodianimi adi tum;fiquidemparumprestent,impudentiæfignumidest, cui frontemduram, &calybeamtribuimus, undeillud; Nonos Esttibi velduroduriuseft calybe . Atfinullumdemumpræftetaditumab humana, utitadi cam, tenuitate, in belluinam craffitiem , terrenamquefera rum impuritatem transijfſfe videtur. Polemo , & ipfefe rohominifrontemasperamaffignauit: coniungoautem ipſedu ritiemcumafperitate; quoniamduritiescutis non videturab foluiabimpuritate, adeoqueabinæqualitateea,quæ cumduri tie coniunctafacit afperitatem . Adamantius doloſo homini tribuit, interdumfurioſo . Frons inæqualis, que ſcilicetfoſſulasquafdam, ac inequalitate monticuloshabet, argumétum præbet hominisim poſtoris , ac fraudulenti ; ita Adamantius . Ratio verò eaest,quoniameiusmodiinæqualitas nonexoffſefrontis,fedex muſcolorumtorisprocedere videtur,quitori robur eorundem muſcolorumfignificant: at mufculifrontisid munus habent, ut variasfigurasfrontipro arbitriotribuant, nunceam con trahendo,nuncexplicando . Sed variarefrontempro arbitrio eſt verſipellishominis; uthocfignumcuidaminnitaturinftin Etui,quodfermèfingulare estinſignisfrontis . De LiberSextus.  Defupercilijs. CaputSeptimum . Canonesexmoribusapparentibus. SVPERCILIAarcuatahominemfuperbumindi- Michael cant, etenim arcuantur ſupercilia in elatione fu- Scotus. perbientisanimi. AchilliPhilostratus , AndronicoNice ta, eatribuere. Contraergo, cuminrectumporriguntur mol lemanimumfignificant Arist. incap. 9. 1. dehist. animal. Cumiuxta naſum inflectuntur, austerumfignificant, acerbum. ibid. Aristot. Ratioforte & hec ex apparente more emergit; etenim cumirafcimurex corrugationefrontisfuperci lia coniungimus . Cumiuxta tempora inflectuntur, deriſorem, diſſimulato remqueindicant . IbidemAristot. Ratio occulta,fifignumfit perpetuum . Superciliademiſſa,ſcilicet verſuspalpebrascadentia ,inui dumhominemfignificantapud Aristotelem . AV Deauribus. Caput Octauum . VRESadactionemnonhabentordinëperſe ullum,sed Exconfor adauditumſolum. Ex conformationeergoearumnonlicet rium none instinctumadmores, nequeetiam adcognitioneminteriorum, licitur.co.. fenfuumelicereperfe, acprimo. Eaunaconiecturafuggeritur, ctusadmo quodfigrandioresexistant, quàmparfit, corpulentamateria copiam redundantemindicant,exquacopiaopprimifacultates animales coniectamus , cum fpiritaliorem illæ materiam exi gant,&perspiritus,utperprimum ac verum inſtrumen tumabfoluantur. EstitaqueCanon. Aures, guitioinftin res. Canonpri mus. 234 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. Aures,fimagnitudineexcedant,bebetemhominem,acobtu SumingeniumfignificantAriftot.inPhisiogn. ubi afininaseas vocat, &inlib. 1.de hift. animal. cap. 11. hæchabet. No ram morumoptimorumhabentaures , quæmedio cres funt, atquæmagnæarrectæque vltramodum , ſtultitiæ indicesfunt,autloquacitatis. Hecille. Canon2.& 3. Canon4. Mediocres ergo auresexArift. laudabiles, toptimosmo resindicant; parue autem admodumprauos mores, &fallaces, atquedolofos bominesfignificant; quicanon tamen paruamex diftis obtinentneceffitatem :probabilitatem tribuit fimilitudo fimie, &multomagisauctoritasfummorumvirorum; Arift. adAlexand.Galen. quodmor.feq.temp.corp.Polem. &Ada mant. &omnesferèconfentiuntPhiſiognomi . Vixullus videtureffe Teaffectuŭinauresrefluxus,quibuf damtameninirarubefcunt,aliquibusinangore, ettimore.Bal thaffari Tiberto in arcenostradetento cum adarctiorem custo diam traduceretur,indequefufpicaretur morteſedamnatumiri, utverèdamnatusfuit, auriumfummitates erubuißeobfer uatumfuit. Pudori tribuit Ariftot. auriumfummitatis erubefcentiam . Deoculiseorumý,aspectibus. Caput Nonum. §. Primus. Duobusmodisoculimoresindicant. CVLI nullum habentadactionem impulfum, atfunt velutianimifeneftra; in illisenimmirumin modumaf fectuselucent,nificomprimantur. Caputergo ex apparentibus moribuspræcipuuminillislocumobtinet: atetiamfuntcerebri temperamenti indicia , uteaquoque ratione mares indicent, quo LiberSextus. quomodo ex cerebri temperamento licet mores naturales,feu propenfionesadillos elicerefatisremotenempe. Praſlatitaque 235 exmoribusapparentibusexordiri. Primumautem apparentes affectus inoculisipfisdiftinguere,&defignaretentemus. §. Secundus. Obtutuumdiſtinctio, acaſpectuum. ASPECTVVM, acobtutuumdifferentiaplurima . Verùm exhispræfertim capitibus deducuntur omnes; ex proiectione quadamradiorum , & retractione; exoculi quadam explica tione, ac contractione declarabo differentiam:noneftautemex plicatiohæc ,quæ ex palpebrafit,ſed in pupilla ipſa,eiusque obtutu confideratur . Tertiumexfitupupilleeiufdem,utvel rectàafpicit, velexobliquo; quiaspectus limisoculisfieridi citur. Quartumexmotu, &quieteoculi; est verò motusdu plex,alterperſeoculi , alterob palpebras , ut ille alterno, ac cito motununcpupillam aperiunt ,nunc claudunt : oculus verò aſe habet, utveldefixus, &immotusſpectet , velhucilluc voluatur, & modòinhanc,modòinillampartem refpiciatpo Stremumerit ex humiditate quadam , & ficcitate afpectus. Singularepetamus, &declaremus . Proiectioergo radiorum a menunc ufurpaturnonpro eaproiectione, dequa est inter Opticos,ac Philofophosantiquiores,& poſteriorescontrouerfia, viſione fiatextramittendo,anintusſuſcipiendo. EgocumAri Stot. & recentioribus Opticis,Alhazeno, &fequentibusfum: fedradiosnuncappello efficaciamquandam spiritalem, quæex 1 aduerſoprofpicientium oculos, &animospenetrat: Efthicfer uentis cupiditatisafpectus. Ouid.in Epift. Helene adParidem. Tu modòmeſpectasoculislafciueproteruis , Quos vixinstantesluminanoſtraferunt. Hanc 1 236 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. Hancegoprorectionem voco,quamOuidiusinftantiamvo cat, & meiudiceappofitißimè, utegoquoqueoculosinſtantes, quiita refpiciunt, appellaturusfim . Iniraidemest afpectus, Jedinftantiaperturbatior, &visustoruus, utexanimo ul tionemquærente, non voluptatemeius,quiafpicitur,procedit. Minacesitaqueoculi vix&ipfiferuntur,curiosèquoque, & anxièaliquidquæritantes, eadem instantiarespiciunt. Inhis veròomnibuscupiditaseft,etenimiraquoquecupidi tas quædamest; uthacrationepetulcosoculosadhos etiamre digerepoßimus . Contrariumafpectuumretractum voco; re trabiturenim vis,quæincontrarioafpectu emittitur, in mo deftis hominibusergaeos,quosreueretur; inpudibundis adole ſcentibus aduerfusfæminas. Erga quoqueres inuifas,dum ultionis defiderium non ſubest, eodem afpectu retracto uti mur, cumnonlicetalidoculos auertere. Stupentes uſqueoculi redduntur atqueattonitiadeiufmodireruminuiſarumpreſen tiam . Reiconuicti coramPrincipe, aut magistratu ita afpi ciunt,fi eos cogantur afpicere. Contemplatores quoque homi nes, & aliaetiam ex caufacogitabundiitaobuias resrefpiciunt, ut velinterdumnonanimaduertant,nequeagnofcant. Quandoque contrarijeiufmodiaspectus ex contrarijs affe Etibus emmiſcentur,v.gr.fiquis ardenter amet, &etiampu dore magnodetineatur , pudor retrahitaspectum, at concitat amor: ineaperturbatione afpectus quoqueperturbatur & nu tat, velenimlimisaspicit,ſicommoditasadfit, velinstarſo lisperraramaliquaexpartenubemerrumpentisinstans inter dumafpectusaperitur, interdumobducitur . Hecubamixtum eiufmodiaspectumerga PolymnestoreminHecubatribuiturab Euripide; exodio enim intuerinon poterat , at ex fimulatione debebat . Inobliquumergoafpectumcontrariæ ipfam rationes addu LiberSextus. 237 adducebant,quem aspectum ipfamet excufat, falfamfcilicet caufamadducens, Pudeatteintueri exaduerſo, Polymnestor,inhuiufmodiconſtitutamalis . Adfecundumpardifferentiarum tranfeamus. Explicatio nemoculiego voco,cumoculus, utdicitQuintilianus,bilari tate eniteſcit: contrahi veròdico, cumtristitiaquoddam ducit nubilum. Contractionemautem, & retractionem differentes ſtatuo: in retractioneinprofundum receditrepræfentatiofermè animi,in contractionecogiturinſemetipfumanimus : interbas contrarias dispofitiones,estmediusconstantiehabitus, cum nempèoculus nequehiſcit,nequecogitur. Inhoc gradu graui tas afpectus reponitur. Aliadifferentiaeratexrectoafpectu, autobliquo: aspectus obliquus,qui &limusnuncupatur,vel limisfieri oculis dicitur , excupitatenafcitur, cum velpudore impeditur, velpudorempratendit. Femellahocaſpectuama- Quo afpe toresplerunqueirretiunt: nos vulgooculo caudarefpiceredici- tufæmine amatores mus: atinuifosetiamhomines,quibusque irafcimur, ita quo- retiant. queinterdumrefpicimus. DidopenesVirgilium,feu Dido nis Umbra Aeneam eomodointuebatur , Talibus Aeneasardentem, t) toruatuentem Lenibatdiftis animum, lachrymasqueciebat: Illafolofixosoculosauerfa tenebat. Ettoruusafpectusplerunqueextoruointuitu dicitur.Quar tadifferentia ex motu oculos mobiles, & contrafixosdistin guit; namfihuc,illucusque vertantur oculi, mobilesfunt,fi in eodem obtutu perfeuerent, fixi, & defixi dicuntur. Hic eft motusipfeperſeoculi,at expalpebra, cum apertaipsa ma net, intenti, &rigentesoculi, conniuentescontrà, cumclaudi tur: cumalternatautem vicesclaudendo, &aperiendooculos, nutare 238 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib &c. nutare dicuntur . Poffunt veròt modicenutare ,t)immo dice . Ariftot. differentiam expreffit incap. 10. 1. de hiftor. animal. Et autnimiumconniuent, autrigidi,intenti queconſtant, autmodicè nutant. Poftremumpar differentiarumest humiditas,&ficcitas oculorum: bumidioculi apertèfunt, cum lacrymisfuffundun tur, at verò ante exitumlacrymarumoculiin affectibus ani mumemollientibus imbuunturbumore quodamnon erumpen te, qui tamenreddatoculos interna humiditate vuidiores:fic citascontra omnem eiufmodi humiditatemab oculis excludit . Heomnesdifferentiæficonbinenturinmagnumnumerumex crefcent; adharumque aliquas reducunturomnes,quæcunque memoranturabauthoribus . Arguti,acuti,proterui,cupidi,im pudici,inftantes,pollicentes, minaces,afperiadprimam differen tiampertinent,ficut & contrarij torpentes,ſtupidi . Lati,ri dentes, triftes, mæsti,grauesadſecundam differentiam redu cuntur. Vagi,mobiles,fixi, rigidiquoque,acrigentesadquar tam. Recti, limi, ) tranfuerfi, velextranſuerſoadtertiam: adquintamturgidi, vuidi,fuffuſi, molles; duri ,rigentes ad hanc quoque differentiam,sed &alioinſenſu pertinent.His itadistinctis,fubijciamus Canones. Canonpri mus. Annot.r. §. Tertius . Canones continetexmoribus apparentibus. OCVLI instantes,fiuequorum afpectusinstantesfuapte naturafunt, cupidumquoquefuaptenaturahominemfignificat. Cuminstantesoculiminacesfunt,iramcertèſignificant,& hominemiracundum. Toruusafpectusisquoquedicitur,licèt cetera rectusfit; afperitas enim &feuitieseminenstoruitatem prafefert. Non : LiberSextus . 239 Nonæquèafpectus retractusfignificatdefideriorumceffa- Annot.2. tionem, nampoteftalius affectus veltimoris, velpudoris co gere defiderij fignificationem ,quod tamen vehemensfit, ) Sublatocomprimenteaffectu,ſit infigni modo erupturum . Si quishorum Plutigalea, velannuloGygisinduatur,non minus acupiditateraptabitur,quàm,quicupiditatemfuamliberius in dicabant . Potest etiam excontemplationis habitu retractus eiufmodi aspectusnaſci, etiamfivigeantcupiditates . Aspectuslimi,acfurtiui, incertiquoque ,ac viciffitudine Canon2. quadamproiectionis, &retractionis agitati, cupidumbomi nem, & viciſſim veltimidum, velin vniuerfumobnoxium cohibentialicui affectui indicant. Timiditatemfumo in vni uerfum , utetiampudoremcontinet, quiest timor infamie, utque etiam ad timorem reuerentia extenditur : qui verò fittimor, acaffectuscohibens , exalijs estconiecturis inuefti い gandum . Hilaris, acridensfuaptenaturaafpectusfignificathominem Canon 3. fimplicem, acbonum, bonitatenempèilla, quænonbenèaudit, utrectènotat Plato : eftautem cum leuitate ac imprudentia quadamconiuncta. Namintamfrequenti contrariarum re rumoccurſu lætumcontinereaffectum,quemridentes oculipre ſeferunt, vel ab altißimaeft virtuteanimi, quamnemo na turaobtinet, velaiudicij leuitatependet . Marcus Antonius M.Anto- Brigantius oculos ridentes naturaobtinet , &virficcinè bo- nius Brigan nusest,nontamen bardus,nam )litterisoperamnauauitnon ſquequaque infelicem. Polemo, ) Adamantiusimprobi tatisfignumftatuunt: adiunguntetiamſplendorem , aquopo tius,quàm abbilaritate,acriſu improbitas arguatur: namfplen [HUS. doris,fi ab igneocalorenafcatur,ficcius , &calidius eße cere- Feliumtem brummulto, quàmparest, indicat,que eft,felium tempera- peratura. turaد 240 Deconiect.cuiuſquemorib &c. tura,feritatemquepreſefert; cum cordis calorirrefractusper fiftat, & calor etiamimmodicus cerebriexfuperiusdictis co gnitionemperturbatam reddat:fedhocadoculi crafim potius, quàm adaspectum,acaspectuumſpeciespertinet. Annotatio. Atfioculi, nedumridentes,fedinftantes etiam,acprocaces fint, indicant cupiditatem, &bonitatemproximèdictam,que tamenacupiditate refrangatur, & aliquantulum eidem acri Canon4. monieaddatur . Oculi mobileshuc, illuc,fcilicet volubiles, inconstantem, ac inquietum animihabitumfignificant. Cum palpebre rigent, audaciæfunt indicespenes Polemonem,nec malè; calorem enim commostrant . Annotatio. 1 Atnutantesoculi ex alternatione palpebrarumfrequente: funtinditiumcontrariorumaffectuum,Aristot.timiditatisno tam afferitin Phifiogn. Canons. Canon6. Canon. : Defixi, &intentioculi, &præfertimpalpebris quoqueri gentes, autſtupiditatis, autimpudentie notafunt. Atcum admediocritatemacceditintentio illa afpectus,fiinmediocrita te conſiſtat exactè, eſthomoprudens, &placidus, &laudabi liummorum, ac laudabilis conſtantie. Siamediocritate ali quantüinrigoredeflectat, estgrauitatis nota:fiquemagisin tendaturfuperbie. HucpertinetilludSenece; grauefuperciliū. Oculificci durumhominis animumſignificant , crudelem , &ferum; contraria enim humiditasaffectus emollientes a nimumindicant . Polamonipeßimos, &flagitiofos homines monftrant: nonabhorrenthacanoftris. Oculi humidi affectum mollem , &emollientemanimumfi gnificant,voluptas,& venereaprefertim,molliseftaffectus, animumquelaxat, )emollit; undecumreipfa, velanticipa tione exafpectu,aut alia eiufmodi cauſainfidetanimo,oculitum maxi LiberSextus. maximè dilutifunt,acfeipfos inundantes etiam Polemoni. Anacreon 241 humidū o culumvene Anacreonhumidumoculum veneritribuit . Taffius nosteraffectui, acprope voluptate venerisaffecto ritribuit. hominioculum tribuit , tremulo , e laſciuo , Prior Ouidius dearteamandilib. 2. Aspiciesoculostremulofulgore micantes Vt Solinliquidaſaperefulgetaqua . Commiſerator quoque, t) mifericorshomo humidos habet oculos; undepropenfi inliberalitatem,ac beneficentiam, id quegenusalijhumidosoculos obtinent; auari, maleuoli ,ſaui, alijqueeiufmodificcos. Quoniaminterceterosaffectuslaxantes animumesttimi. Annotatio. ditas,quæ laxat nedum,ſedinterdumſoluit; timidietiamоси loshumidoshabent: atcumtimiditatepotesteßeconiuncta no cendiocculta voluntas, utfæpèetiam coniungitur;fitqueilla maleficentiaexinfidijs,quæproditoribusineft . Humidi ergo eiufmodi oculi, &eorumlacrymefuntprorfuscauende. Sunt enimcrocodililacryme . ; Deoculorumcoloribus . CaputDecimum . §. Primus. Coloresdiftinguuntur: opinionum varietas affertur . ADcoloresoculorumtranfeamus,exquibus tamen multo paucioresCanones, quàmexafpectibusnafcuntur, id temprimò, deillispremittode colorumhuiusnobiliffimæpartis cauſaduascapitalesextareopiniones: alteraque estAristot. Galenicauſam reijcit inhumores : altera,queestpofteriorum anatomicorum,prefertimVeſallij,reijcitin vue;quedeprimi au tur,  Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. tur, tincturam, quamnuncflauam,nunccefiam,nuncnigram dicunt,proqueeiusmodi varietate etiamiris oculorum variè tincta infpicitur . Verùm antealia hac distinguere oportet. Trescolorū Tresfuntcoloruminoculisfedes, pupilla,quæ estin medioocu in eculis fe- li, estqueomniumcirculorum minimus:iris,que ipfamcircun dat: &tunica alba, veladherens,barbarisconiunctiua , quæ reliquamoculiabiride partemobducit . Pupillecolorinomni busestniger; adhærentistunica albus : at iridis varius, bu iusque varietatis , accolorum causa queritur. Vefallius ergo tincturam vuæindepreffafui parteiridis colorumcaufam sta tuit, utdiximus , & RealdusColumbus eandemfententiam Sequitur. Varietatem eiuscolorationis admittitquoque An dreas Laurentiusrecentiffimus anatomicus . Galenusin arte medica, & GalenumfequiturAuicennaincantica,tribuunt humoribas varietatembuiufmodicolorumoculi. Tribuitglau cedinemquattuorcaufis,autfcilicet magnitudini,autſplendori bumoris chrystallini,autfituiprominentieiufdemfcilicet chry Stallini, cumpropiorpupilleest, contrariomodofehabet, quàm cummagisinprofundo onditurautpaucitati, acpuritati aquei humorisinpupillaexiſtentis,quibus caufisomnibusconcurren tibusfit, inquitille,glauciffimus oculus . Niger contraoculus fit velobparuitatemchrystallinihumoris,autpropterprofun dumfitum , velquoniam splendidus ,&fulgidus exquifitè nonest,velquoniamhumoraqueusautfuperabundat, autest impurus. Singulecauſe oculum,ſeu iridem nigramfaciunt , omnesnigerrimum Arist. abfolutènigritiem multitudinihu moris,glaucedinempaucitatitribuits.degen.animal. cap.1. §. Secundus. Opinionesrelatæ expenduntur. GALENIopinionunquammihiprobari potuit,quain parte Liber Sextus . 243 partechrystallinum humorem intra pupillamadmifcet;namfi chrystallinus coloremoculialiquemproduceret, nonnifiin pu pilla, acoculimedioproducere eumpoffet, quaperuius eftoculus chryſtallino: pars autem vue, inqua iris effingitur,estopaca, &nullumpræbetadchrystallinum, velachrystallinoaditum. Quomodo ergo poteftachrystallinotingi, autabhumore intra chrystallinum, &vueam contento? OpinioitaqueVeſallij,& Sequentiumanatomicorum multoprobabilior,imofidifeftio re abilio ſpondet, utipfiprofitentur, certa , ) neceffaria eft. At quid deArist. opinione? Eftipfaquoque cumlaudata anatomicorum coniungenda, nempèfaciamus vueaminparte iridis (dehac nuncagimus) effècaſiam,acglaucam,ſihumoraqueus,quiin ter vueam, & corneamcum multotamen Spiritu commixtus intercedit,fit multus,obfcuriorem colorem eaipſa vueetinctu raexhibet,fipaucushumor,glaucioremex Ariftot. ratione: experientiafuffragatur;ficæruleocolorifuperponamus cartam olea unctam,proindequediaphanam,obfcuriorapparebitfub iectus color,quàmfinecharta: atfiprime chartæ aliam itidem inunctamfuperpofuerimus, obfcuriorapparebit color,quam cum unaſuperponebaturtantum,vtpateatexdiaphanoaltio--re obfcuriorem colorem reddi,quàm ex minusalto, utfitinctu rafuerit cafia quee,&humor multus,coloroculiprocafioni gerfitappariturus. Hocautemdehumoreinter corneam,& vueameftaccipiendum, nequeaudiendus SimonPortius,qui nihilaqueihumoris inter vueam,& corneam reponit; un defententiamhauferit, nefcio . Certè Galenusreponitinprin cipio. de usupartium, & reliqui anatomici, resipfaclamat. : De coniect.cuiufquemorib.&c. §. Tertius. Fundamentumponiturad Canoneseliciendos . Excognitioneergocaufarum tincture varia vueainda gandifunt Canonesmorum,fiquiexipfis nafcantur. Quier goinhumores reijciunt colorumcaufas, Canonesetiam expedi tos afferent; nempèflauitiesſecundùm ipſos exbilenafcitur , rubedoexfanguine, cæruleuscolor,acalbusexpituita, nigerex melancholia: at veròhascauſasnonefferecipiendas anteaoften dimus, exobferuationequoquepatet; namGermanicesijfunt, Sanguine,nonpituitaabundant. HoratiusGermanosceru leos obid vocat. Intantaergo incertitudine cauſe , quomodo certos indelicet elicere Canones ?præfertim cutemperamentum velnotumoculorumfatisfitacordistemperamento remotum , inquoexfuperioredoctrinamores,naturalesfcilicet,confiftunt. Ego,quæfequuntur, probabilia iudico. Natura vult obfcu ram vueamtingere,tumintus,tumextraadſpecierum vifi biliūdistinctioremperceptionem; obfcuritate autemplurimum ipsa adiuuatur; undeprospicientes pertubos, vel ex puteis, quiqueoculos magisconditoshabent,distinctiore utuntur vi fione: utArist. tradit s. lib.degen. animal. cap. 1.Veſallius lib.7.cap. 14.fcribit; Vuea namquetota ſuperficie,qua duratunicaproximèſuccingitur,perpetuònigraeft, &modicèhumecta,inanterioreautemſuęcompreſ fionis ſedevarietingitur . ReliquiAnatomiciſequuntur, licèt Galenusceruleampotiusdixeritlib. 10. de ufupart.cap. 4. naturaergoinidpropendit, uttunica vueafitnigra,idque Natura ra ha ratio viſionisdiftin&tionis expofcit . Verùm vtilitatisnedum,feddignitatis rationem Natura berneduti habet, utindiftinguendis , &aptandis coloribusflorum , in tingen LiberSextus . tingendis auiumpennis , &quadrupedumpilis curamprefefe- litatis,fede 245 ratomniartefuperiorem . Multaalia argumenta adducipof- tatis. tiamdigni fentadhocipfumdemonſtrandum,quantamfcilicetcuramNa turaparenspulchritudinis habeatin rebusefformandis. Quo niam ergo,ſiIrispenitusobscura,ac nigra effet,multa oculi gra tia deperiret . Confundereturenimeiuscolorcumpupillecolo re, atquepro tribus coloribus duotantùm effent. Temperans itaqueNatura utilitatemcumdignitate obfcurioremcolorem, ni impediatur,inducit eorum,qui Iridemtamen apupillecolore distinguant . Eftbic mediusiscolor,quem Aristot. charopum vocat. Qui ergo abhoccolorein claritatemdeclinant, veluti glauci, &albi imbecillitatem formatricis virtutis arguunt. Affentit Ariftot. lib. s. degen. animal. cap. 1. Cæſietas ,in quit, imbecillitas eft, nonenim Natura pertingit ad eamvſquecolorisſaturitatem,quæaddiſtinctamvi fionemrequiritur. Cumveròeamplusiufto aſſequi tur validam, ſedinordinatam naturam indicat. At funtcoloresaliqui,quinonnisiaſubincenfione quadamnafcun tur, utrubeuspræfertim, acignitus , &flauus quoquesatu rus inrubedinem vergens,qualis hyacinthi gemma: calorem itaqueipfi arguunt . Hisitaprobabiliterpofitisfundamentis Canonesfubijciamus. §. Quartus. Canonescontinet. OCVLVS charopus optimorummoramindiciumexhibet; Canonpri etenimnaturamin totafuiintegritate fignificat.Arift. inPhi mus. fiogn. ingeniofisillostribuit, &fortibus. Oculusceruleus,qualisfcilicetſaphirigemme,estisautem Canon2. glaucuscolor,fedadmodumfaturus,præftantiam, &ipfena 3 ture 246 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. turefignificat,in mediocritateobfcuritatis, &claritatisconfi in mediocrit ftit . Portaprobeindolis notam illistribuit exPolemone, t) Adamantio,Ariftoteleque adAlexandrum. Certèhosinter pretari debemus oculos Mineruæ glaucospenes Poetas, t praefertimHomerum . Canon3. oculos ha- Glaucioculi, &albiesthorum dilutus nonfaturus color, utinproximèfuperioribus,notafunttimiditatis. Ariftoteles inPhysiognom. imbecillitatemenim naturearguunt. Eiufmo Nero quos dioculoshabuitNero, quitimidusfuit . buit. Canon4. Canons. Annotatio. 4 Oculinigricumexceſſu validam naturam,fedinordinatam indicant,moresetiaminiurios,&praues. Longèaliter Inge nerius inPhysiognom. timiditatis,&ingenijnotam,fednon distinguitis Iridem,acpupillam, ) nigredinem, albedinemque pupille tribuit, cumtamenipſaſempernigrafit, utiam dixi mus, ) resipfaindicat. Oculirubicundi, &ignitiiracundumhominem,&ferocem fignificant . Aristoteles inPhysiognom. cap. 10.Idemetiam indicant oculiflaui,faturi,licètnonæquè;etenim calorem vter quecolorindicatexcedentem, utinprecedenteparagrapho, at maioremrubeus , &ignitus. VirgiliusdeCharonte . Stant luminaflamma . Quemlocumimitatus Dantesnoster vertit, CharonDemonio congli occhidibragia . Rubedoetiaminalbooculi,ſcilicetin adherentetunica, vel coniunctiua vulgomedicis, eofdem moresſignificat; excopia enimfanguinisin venaseiusmembrane confluentisrubedo ea nafcitur,undecaloremfignificat: at pretereaexalio capitedi Etimoresexrubore oculorum eliciuntur,fcilicetcapite apparen tiummorum; namiratis oculiincenduntur.Homerus deAchil le iratos oculos eiusardereflammisdixit, &alibioculosinftar ignis LiberSextus. ignis refplenduiſſe. Senecalib.1.deIra,cap.r. flagrant,&mi 247 cantoculi: multus oretotorubor. : Canonhic,quaexparteamoribusapparentibuspendet,mul- Cenſura. tò magis adneceffitatemaccedit,quam utextemperamentoeli. citur, quamqueexfolotemperamento,feuextemperamentiar gumentopetuntur . Colores Iridis aliarationeeuariant, inaliquibus enimfunt Additio. granaquædam, velutigrana millijdiuerficoloris areliquaIri de, Greciceneros vocant. Eiufmodigranahisfanguinea,bis cerulea,bis aliorum colorumfunt: aliquibus grananonfunt, fedplures circuli, v. gr. interdum Iris abalbofeiungiturcircu lo diuerfi coloris , tum ab Iride ,tumabalbo , &a pupilla alio rurfus circulo difiungituralterius ab omnibus coloris . Multa exeiufmodi varietatePhysiognomi de moribusenunciant: at quanta idneceßitate, ceteri viderint. Reliquaexoculisfignaconiungit . AETERbecfignaexaſpectibus exmoribusqueappare PRAETERE excoloribus oculorúducta, aliaprætereaducūtur exmagnitudineeorundem, &paruitate,exprominentia,& cauitate,ex alijsque id genus oculorum affectionibus . Sedniſi rectèintelliganturnonsatis refpondent,quiafferuntur Canones experientia, nequeefficaci nituntur ratione. Ariftoteles ino Ariftote Physiognomiaoculoseminentesfatuistribuit . Quicunque, inquit, habent oculoseminentesfatui ,referunturad apparentemdecentiam,&Afinos.AtCefendegonoui lofephum IſeumComitemliteratiſſimumhominem,&difertif fimumoculismultumprominentibus: nequeminorprominentia TranquilloVenturellionobiliitidem Caſenati,cuiusinagendis  rebus i : 248 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib &. rebus magnafuitfolertia, & maximamin literis expectatio nemfui concitauerat , at ob acerrimas inimicitias renunciauit adbuc adolefcens Sylla Vicedominus maximoiuuenis ingenio, &mathematicisſcientijs aptiffimus, præfertim mechanicis, prominentes &ipſebabetoculos,ficutfilius meus olimGrego rius adliterarum uniuerfitatemnatus, atnuncin austeraexě plarique Capuccinorumfamiliafanctiori philofophiæoperam dat; utCanonidcircòex prominentiaductusmultaspatiatur instatias,interquasfubiungo,Bonifacium Caetanum Cardina lem, achuiusProuincie uſqueadannum 1612. Legatum , cui acerrimumfuit, tuminactione,tumincognitioneingenium, oculostamenprominentesbabuiffe. Remergonosex principijs huncinmodumdeducamus. Mediocres oculiinter magnitudi nem,&paruitatem interprominentiam , & cauitatemfunt optimi, atque anaturaintenti,undeintegrenature funtnota, proindeque morum etiam , ac probeindolisargumentumpre &in1.de InPhyfiog. bent, utfatetur ubique Aristoteles . Cum verò cerebrum hifto.anim. magnitudine,&humiditatemediocritatemexcedit,oculosquo Canones que maiores ,prominentioresvéiufto exhibet : quiexceffusbu duoprimus miditatis, acmagnitudinis cerebri, cum paruma mediocritate 1 &fecundus. recefferit , in contemplationem magisdisponit: cum veròplus multòexcefferit, adſtupiditatemadducit ; immodicaenim hu Lib. quod miditas stuporemexGalenofacit. Canonitaque Aristotelis , mores feq. hoc modo,dequehocexceſſuaccipidebet . Experientia de mo oculis . temp. corp. dico exceßuprocedit. Canon3.de-Cumcerebrumficcitate, atque paruitatea mediocritatede paris, ca ficit , oculosiusto minores, atqueprofundius fitos exhibet : at cumreceffus cerebri in eas conditionesfuerit modicus , ad actionembomo, t) caliditatempromptiorredditurobfuperius Canon4. dicta: atcumexceffusfueritimmodicus,feritas quædam moris indi LiberSextus. indicatur . Et hæcdixiffefatisfit. Cupidos prolixioris tra Etationis ad Physiognomos allego : quibus tamenomnibus non est ubique fidesabſqueiuſtoexamineadhibenda . 249 DeNaso. CaputDuodecimum . §. Primus. Signadeſcribit naſi. N nonhabetadactionemimpulfum, exhibettamen Asvs indicia morumexmoribusapparentibus,velpotiusexfi nenatureininstrumentoconformando,v.g. quibusexeſtuat præcordiaadrefpirationemfufficientem , naresapertafunt ac comodate . Undefinares apertas videamus, conijciemusho miniexeſtuantia præcordiaeſſe, proindequeeſſeiracundum , quem & Aristoteles Canonem in Physiognom. exhibet his verbis. : Quibus naresapertæfunt, funtiracundi, referun- Canon. turadpaſſionem,quæfitinira . Hucveròilludpertinet. Collectumquepręmens voluitſubnaribus ignem Alioexcapitenaſusſignificare creditur moresobtacitam , cumpeneſympathiam; crediturenimnaſatoshominesetiam , abundè mentulatos effe, utlegamusnaſatospro largèmentula tis penèsmultosauctores. Lampridius inHeliogabalivita paffim . Naresqueamplefignificare dicunturtestes craßos, amplosque. Quidamrecentiorficdenaſofcribit, Idvirona ſus lõgus, &groſſus ſignificatpræputiummagnum, &èconuerſo: &fuperhocdixitquidambenè Adformamnasidignofciturbasta baiardi. EtdeNaribus, Nares naſiſignificant teſticulos hoc modo, Virgil.libro 3.Georg. 250 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. modo, quiagroſſæ,&latæ fignificantgroſſos, &la tos teſticulos, fubtiles verò ſtrictos,&paruos inom ni. Hecille, Quia veròamplitestes, craſſiquefemenpluri mumgignunt,in venerempropenfum videnturhominemred Annotatio. dere . Non equè amphis penis venereampropenfionemde monstrat; quippèqui difficilius intendatur ex Ariftotele ing problem. 2 4.fect. 4. Hec,quadenasi,acpenis,dequenarium,actestium con fenfu,&Sympathiadiximusinidrelabunturfignorumgenus, cumabeffectu adeffectum tendimus,quorum uterqueab ea demcauſaneceffario nexu,velfaltem naturalidependent. Rem anteadistinximuslib. 1. buius4.partis, cap. 2. §. 2. §. Secundus. Cæteraſigna coniungitex craffitie, &cenfet . SIGNA verò,queexcraffitienafi,acfubtilitate,inex tremitate eius præfertimducuntur, &exacumine, ac habetu dine, ceterisque eiufmodi affectionibus,amepretermittuntur; petuntur enim exanimaliūfimilitudine,dequaargumentatione iamdifferui. Interimablegolectorem eius cognitioniscupidum adPhysiognomiafcriptores:hoc unumfubnotodenaſo aqui lino, exquocetera astimaripoterunt ; roftrumincuruumaqui Lerobureius, &adpugnandumaptitudinemostendit; eaenim parteetiamadpugnamutitur,&figura ea addiuellendum, que apprebenditeftaccommodatiſſima, atinhomine cumnafus adnullampugnamfitfactus,fedfolumadodorandum,&re ſpirandum,&quodfimileargumentumpræberefimilisfigura potest ? imo potiùsmoleeaexuberante,cumredundantiama teriefignificet , acumenmentis indicare videturnon uſque quaqueinfigne: &egofanèbocobferuaui induobus,alioquin egregijs LiberSextus. 251 egregijshominibus,&literatis, quinonadmodumacutierant, ſedtenacespotiusfuefententie. FridericustamenMontefel trius primus VrbiniDuxingenio,&prudentiapolluit,naſum queaquilinumhabuit. §.Tertius. Exmoribusapparentibus . CvM spernimus, velſubſanamus aliquemcontrabimus Sursumnares,& nasum,quiadlateradilatatur,corrugaturque. Huncnafihabitumaduncum vocauitPoeta. Naſoſuſpendisadunco. Cumetiamceunauseabundirespicimus aliquid,eandemfer mèfiguramnaſusſumit. Quiergonatura naſumeiufmodi obtinet, contemptor, & Canont. Subſannatoreße videtur; cuiquefacilèalienares, &actiones nauseam moueant: nosItalice,ichifo,vocamusin actiuafigni ficatione accepta voce, quieiufmodifit. Cumveròquippiamdetestamurindignabundi,naresadfi nistram,autdextrampartemdetorquemus; quocircapoffumus buncfubijcere Canonem. Quibusnaresdetortaaddextram,ſinistram départem , Canon2. Suaptenaturapropenfividenturaddetestationemaliorum , cumindignatione. HosItalicèhomineseiufmodidicimus, di ſpettofi: coniunxit veròDantes,diſpettoſo, etortoin Capaneo.. Egiacediſpettoſo ,etorto. Sequutus estTaßiusinArgante . Epiùcheprimadiſpettoſo,etorto. : De : 252 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. DeOre. Caput Decimumtertium. §. Primus . Canonesexhiatuoris,&dentibus. Dos ADostranfeamus. morefuntlabia,dentes, lingua,bia tus,exquo hiatuosdicitur; estque velanguftum,vella tum,amplumque,&inaliquibus uſquereſcoſſum: alijaddunt differentiamprominentia,&cauitatis . Oscauumnos,boc cacaffa, vocamus,ficutiosprominens,boccain fuori, E fingulis veròdifferentijsCanonesipfipromunt,&proponunt: verùmplurimampartemexanimaliumfimilitudinededucunt: ex conformationenafcunturfolum, quiexhiatu , & dentibus Canon1. Canon2. ducuntur. Nempèadrespirandum , &comedendumhomini datumeftos: quibusergo magnumest,ac validisconftansden tibus , ijs voraciores etiamfuaptenaturaexeaconftitutione videntur effe . Latitudo prætereaoris , &amplitudoadma gnamaeris copiam inspirandampertinet. Quodficumeaam plitudineoris coniunctafintfignacordisfrigidiufculi,neceffe erit hominem eiufmodi precordia valdè perfrigerata habere. obintimumcalorisdefectum, &obaduenienteminspirati aeris Canon. perfrigerationem : at veròficalidi cordisindiciaextent incor pore, achominequadrato,rectequeconſtituto,poterimusexam plooremaiorem adhuc calorisgradumconiectare; quaſinatura adeius moderandamincenfionemampliusfubfidiumparandum Ingenerius. pro maioreincendio iudicauerit. §. Secundus. Reprehenfiononnullorum . QVI veròexamploore, &dentibusmagnis,robuftis,ac Spiffis fortitudinemhominis pronunciandam docent, errant ; non LiberSextus. nonenimadpugnamdatumeſtoshomini, utcani , )leoni, 253 )idgenus animalibus, utexfimiliore,ſimilesmoresconij cere liceat : neque etiamexeo,quodoſſaaliquamagna, &va lidafintaudaciam, nempècordis caliditatem conijcere licet ,vt exdictisanteapaterepoteft, &patebitetiamexijs,quæ infra debrachijs , ac manibusdicemus. §. Tertius. Reliquafignaconiungit, quæ funtex prominentiaoris, exdentibusque. Ex oreprominente, &depreſſoſignamorum grauia du citPolęmo,exfimilitudinefcilicet animalium. Os enim pro minensſues refert ; unde moresquoquefuilesarguit. Os de •preſſuminuidum,malignum, t) impudicumhominemfignifica re afferit : at argumentafunt parum efficacia. Receßusfanè anaturalifituquandamdemonstrat formatricis virtutis im perfectionem,que tamenimperfectio nonfempermorum im perfectionem importat, cumnoncaditin partesmoribus deſti natas,utincor. Ex labijs prætereafigna hauriunt, fi gracilia fint , aut Arift.inPhy tumida, crafſavé,ſi labrumfuperius promineat inferiori , aut contra inferiusfit prominentiusfuperiore : at exfimili tudine animaliumomniapetuntur. §. Quartus. Exmoribusapparentibus. fiogn.ca.9. : Dvmirafcimur,comprimimusdentes;quiergodentesfua- Canont.ex ptenaturacompreffos retinent,iracundi videripoffunt. dentibus có preſsis . Quiſubſannanthominemaliquem,exertoinferiorelabroid inferiorela Canon2.ex faciunt; qui ergoeumorishabitumfuaptenaturaobtinent, fub- bro exerto, Sannatores &pminéte.  Deconiect.cuiufquemorib. &c. Sannatores videntur effeexapparentemore; undeprominen tiainferioris labri, cumad eum habitum accedat,ſubſannato remetiamindicare videtur magis, quam labrumfublime,t) deorfumtendens,quodmaledicentiæfignum affert Polemoin fignis maledici; quia, inquit, referunturadcanes : atca nesnonfunt maledici, licètlatrent, utarceantafinibus,quos Canon3.ex Jinguęinter Jabramotio ne. 2 custodiunt, viatores . Inproludijs veneris adexeiendaofculalafciuafitlabiorum, aclinguæ lambentisfrequens mutuusquecongreffus; quibuser 2oisfuaptenaturalinguæinter labiamotus , & vicißitudo, laſcini videripoffunt, & venerei. Etvulgo etiamita ha bent. Præfertiminpuellis is motusobferuaturutpruritusin Veneremindicium . DeFacie. CaputDecimumquartum. §. Primus. Quaspartescontineatfacies. FidfignificatAristot.definitio,etiam ACIES est, que inter caluam , & collum continetur. fialijs|prolata verbis. Suntautem; Faciem eampartem nominamus,dunta xatin homine,quæcaluxſubiecta eſt. Verùmfubin telligere oportet vocemcapitis, utfittotadefinitio Arift. Fa cies eſt ea pars capitis, quæ caufæfubiecta eſt, in ho mineſolo; nam reliquaanimaliafacieinuncupatione nonho bilofop! neftamus, utPhilofophusipfemetaßerit. Etfanè Ariftotelica estexacta faciei defcriptio. Formaenimac ſpeciescuiufqueſeu figuramdicere malumus, exfaciepotiſſimum, velfolum elici tur. Hancunampictores,ſculptoresvéeffigiantadrepræsen tandamabfentibus, &pofteris hominisformam: Vultus qui fit , continentur LiberSextus. fit,anteain2. parteharumlib. 2.deamorecap. 12.diximus. Infacieprimùcontinenturpartes,exquibusresultat,fcilicet frons,tempora,aures,oculi,nafus,gena,os,mentum. Secun 255 dolocomagnitudo, autparuitas,utaliquafacies magna est, aliaparua. Tertiolocofigura, &queexomnibusemergitfor ma; bumanaautemſpecies,acforma,prefertim, velfolum, ex facieelicitur. Quartoloco continet vultum,qui ineo prefer tim areliquis tribus differt, quodipfeaduentitiuseft, &fubin depro varijsanimiaffectibus mutatur,atreliquatriaperma nentiafunt ,&infita,nonaduentitia . Defacie ergo ex his finguliscontentiscanonesafferuntur: interreliquas veròpar tes genæanobisomiffepræfertimfaciem alterant, &colore & habitu, quatenuscarnoſeſunt, aut macilenta . §. Secundus. Decarnoſa facie,&macilenta . در ! PROFERUNTUR ergo hi Canones. Facies carnosafegni Ariftot.in tiemfignificat; referturadboues; præterea timiditatemrefer- Philiogn. turadafinos, &ceruos. Atfaciesmacilentabominemaccura tumcommonftrat. Polemomaxillas carnofasmollitiei,ft) vi nolentiæfignumafſferit: macilentas valde malitiæ, &fraudis, Nonæquècarnosegene,atque carnosafrons, carnosaque Annotatio. temporanimiamcerebricaliditatem,feu minoremab eo caloris cordis refractionemſignificant, magis enim calefcit afrontis carnose,temporumquecarnofarum caliditate cerebrumobpro pinquitatem maiorem,quàmacaliditategenarum. Quenatu ra confiliomediocriter extolluntur, ac turgent addignitatem oris, &adrobur musculorumfaciei, quibusin mandendo ma xillarum motusexpeditur . Vndefinaturalem babitum fpe- Canonpri Etemus,carnofegene validioremnaturam,quàmmacillente mus. fignifi 256 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. Canon2. ſignificant, adeoque & meliorem. AtquoniamStudia, t)cu ræemaciant , ideo macilenta eędem genaeex aduentitio habitu Fran.Picco- curishominem mancipatű, velſtudijsdeditumindicant. Fran mineus. cifcus Piccolomineus celebrisnatura atate Philofophusfaciem Fridericus fummamacieconfectamexlongo studiocontraxerat. Frideri Pendafius . cus Pendafius magnus &ipfePhilofophus carnofioremferua uerat . Concludo maciem genarum naturalimfignificare vel ficcitatem excedětem, velfrigiditatem exuberantem; obquam nonprobèattrahatur, conficiaturquealimentum, unde mores frigidos, timiditatem, inuidiam, velaufterosfignificat,trifti tiamfcilicet acfeueritatem ,feu morofitatem. Macies aduen titia nififuerit exegritudineaccuratumhominem, exercitatum negocijs, autſtudijsdemonftrat. Atfiue naturalisfuerit ma cies,fiuèaduentitiaacuratumfignificat . Mediocris tamenha bituseftexpetibilior,cuiusfuiffè videturex IconeD.Th.Aqui nas. Verumenimueroprodiuerfahominumtemperie, ) ma ciesfaciei , &carnofushabitus magnam ingenij vimcomita tur . Clemens octauus Pontifexprudentißimus,acliteratißi mus,carnosafuitfacie.Innocentius nonus, Urbanusfeptimus Pontifices,&ipfi laudatiſſimi, etiamfi vix Pontificatumgu Stauerint,fueruntcontràmacilenti. Canon. De facie magna, ac parua. Сvмmagnitudine exceditfacies, materiæ abundantiam demonftrat,quamcomitarifoletingenijbębetudo. Cumveròparuitatemultumdeficitamediocritateiusta, ac proportionedebita, cerebrumquoqueminusiustoarguit, unde caloremquoque minus cordis refractum, () cerebrum ipſum magis excalfactum ,proindeque magisexficcatum,quàm par fit, LiberSextus. fit, indicat, præceps iudicium, inconstansanimus; cumquema 257 gisexcefferit ,feri uſquemores eam crafimfequuntur. Ne Etuntur cum illis, quæ antea de paruitate capitis dictafunt. AristotelespufillanimisfaciemparuamtribuitPhysiogn.c.6. Hectibibonelectorproprobabilibusaßigno,nonpronecef- Cenfura Sarijs vendito . De figura Faciei. FIGVRA faciei in vniuerfum videturhis diftinguidif ferentijs . Utrum oblongafit , anrotunda, an lata; angusta enim, quelataopponitur, adoblongamreducitur: ita veròhe differentie deducuntur. Velfacies æquèfecundùm altitudi nem,atqueſecundumlatitudinem extenditur , & rotundaest obſemidiametrorum æqualitatem,autfecundumlongitudinem, feu altitudinemmagis ,quàmfecundùm latitudinem extendi tur, estqueoblongafacies; velmagisfecundùm latitudinem exporrigitur,quàmfecundùmlongitudinem, &facieslata vo cabitur . Facile veròintellectu est longitudinem, quam &al titudinem voco, afronteadmentumſumi: latitudinem contrà agena adgenam. Aliqui, utPorta, aliamfaciei rotundita tem inuebunt, estque, cumturget , &prominet in anteriorem partem, cuirotunditaticauamex aduerſo ſtatuit ,quæfcilicet depreffaeft: aliterdicamus,faciemhoc modorotundam effe,que in anterioreparte conuexaeft ; cauam ,que in eademparteest concau . De Forma. DISTINGVO formam a figura, licèt Ariftot. In anima libus confundat, &iure; attamen ob penuriam nominum di Stinguo ego inpreſentia voces, ut res, licètpropinquas,diffe R rentes 258 Deconiect. cuiuſquemorib. &c. Differentia rentestamen, diftinguam clarius: Praterergo communemdi interfigura, Etamfiguram aliacomponiturexfingularumfacieipartiumfi gura, exearumqueintersenexu, acreſpectu;quamformamdi co, v.gr.sinafusfimus,depreſſafrons ,os cauum,gena de miſſa,ſeu macilenta , oculi caui, aures acuta , magne,est formaquædam. Sinaſusſimus,fronsrotunda,oscauum,ge ne macilente, oculiadhuc caui, eftaliaforma: atfireliquafer uentur, varienturfolioculi, velfolum os, velſolagenæ ; alia estforma: multò veròmagis varianturforma ,sipluries va rientur partes; quoniam veròfingula partes pluribus UA rianturmodis (fronsſolapluſquam s . exfuperiusfcriptis) &infingulis modispluribusgradibus,interſeque varijscom plicationibusreferuntur. Nasciturinde illa infinitapropemo dumformarum humanarum varietas, quenumerumimmen Sumhominumfuperat potius,quàmæquet: vixenim duoin tantonumeroreperiuntur, quiprorfusfintfacie similes, nedum Obferuatio prafentium ,fed etiam preteritorum hominum . Effigiatores effigiatorű . cumfingulaspartesobferuent, earumquedifferentiasreprefen tationeipfarum effigiemfimillimamperſone, quamimmitantur reddunt. §. Sextus . Depulchritudine, &deformitate. PVLCHRITVDO informarefidet;fienimfingulepar tesfuerint rectèformata,atquefibi inuicemrectèrefponderint, eritpulchrafacies, accedentenempecoloregrato . Poffunt au temfingulaparteseffepulchræ ,acfibi non respondere , v.gr. oculi, nedum amigdalinæforme,pulchrieffepoffunt,fiaffabrè delineatifuerint ,fedetiamrotundiores; pariternaſitum recti, tumaquilini, cum graphicèfuerintconftituti, pulchri effepof funt: idemdereliquispartibusdixeris: atnaſusaquilinus pul cher LiberSextus. chercumgena turgidiore pulchraconuenitpotius, quàm cum  graciliorepulchra; &contrà,genapulchra,fedgracilioramat potiusnasumrectum,quàmaquilinum; idemqueestinreliquis partibus conferendisdiftinguendum . Zeusisitaquecomponen dodiuerfarumfæminarumformofarumpulchriores partes ad Veneremeffingendamnonrectèfeciffet, nifipotisfuiffet,quæ cui congrueret, cognofcere. Turpitudoergoex contrarijsnafci tur: exturpitudinefcilicetfingularumpartium; atmulto ma gis, cumturpesillapartes interfepugnauerint; cumpræfertim turpisetiamcoloraccefferit. §. Septimus . Canonesex figura,&forma. MVLTIfuntCanonesexfigura, &forma,quospaßim Physiognomi afferunt,Aristot. Palemo,Adimantius,Michael Scotus, Porta, Ingenerius, adquosallegolectorem : nonmul tamilli neceffitatem continere mihi videntur, (&iactis ante principijscohærens est) noneffeneceffarios; nonenimtempera mentumexeacordisfatisefficaciterconcluditur, &nullumba bet adactioneminstinctum: dicuntipfitamen. Faciem oblongam eſſehominis iniurij , Arifto teles ad Alexandrum. Rafis,Conciliator,Ingeneriusdicit eſſe fuperbi. Faciem rotundam eſſeimpudentis, Ariftoteles in Physiogn. capit. 6. Ingenerius dicit eſſe notam iudicij exigui . Faciem deformemeſſe illiberalis hominisAristo teleslib. eod. capit. 9. PORTA (vedasi) , / Ingenerius hominis mali dicunt,&priorRafis. Ariftotelesinapparentemconuenien tiam refert . Fa 2 260 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. Faciempulchram optimorummorum indicem , Lib.4.c.11. Physiognomipaffim dicunt , idemfatetur Porta,qui tamenex obferuatione bifloricamultos pulchros corporefuiſſe improbis moribus colligit ; idemqueplerumque obferuamus in iuuenibus hominibus : in mulieribus veròformamnonfatisfidam pudi Ouidius. Canon. Exceptio prima . citie cuftodem credimus . Lisestcumformamagnapudicitiæ. Sedforfan ob occafionempotius, quàmobpropenfionem pec candi. DeVultu. Caput Decimumquintum . VVLTVS,quifit, anteaexplicui. Quisque autem affe Etusfuum vultumhabet ; estiratus vultus,triftis,le nis, hilaris, petulans, modestus, contumax,obfequiofus,pudi bundus,impudens: non estautem,quiex vultuanimiaffectus vehementes nonagnofcat; &faciliusintelliguntur,quàmex plicentur: attameninfrainſecundamethodiparte tentabodeli nearefingulos vultus, nehæcinterimparsplusiufto excrefcat. Sit autemhicCanon . Quifuapte naturavultum alicuiusaffectus indicem reti net, est in eundem affectumpropenſus natura . Nifiaffectus alius obumbret, ex.gr. pudoris affectus inpu dibundis hominibus cumfuerintin locopublico , aut coramper fona,quamreuereantur, obumbrataffectumira :pariterinhis hominibus cum inpublicum procedunt, pudoris nota mode ftiam, ac lenitatempreſeferunt,quitameninpriuatislocis, & cumperfonis, inquasiusbabent,funt morofißimi, &infenfi. Experientiaestfrequens. Nouiegoduas adhuc viuentes mu lieres pudibundas in publico, intradomesticos veròlares gra ues maritis, &familie . Fallit LiberSextus. : 261 Fallitpræterea Canoncumbipocrisisinualet,&demumex- Exceptiofo terioris compofitionis propofitum . Tumenimfubdolo vultu cunda. verus tegitur ,&plerunquemitisfacies immanemſeuitiam occulit, utde CaligulaTacitus; Immanemanimumfub- Lib.6.an. dolamodeſtia tegens. nal. Mariusfuit vultutetrico, &afpero, utdicit Plutarchus Exemplum Canonis. ineius vita;fuitque etiam animo bellicoso, &aspero .  ( R3 LI 262 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. Repetunturdicta, et proponunturdicenda,quaad Physiognomiamspectant. CaputPrimum. Fundamentorumfuperius ſtatutorum rigore de flexiinproximo libro;nampluraexpartiumtem peramento de moribus philofophatusfum,quàm anteapoffeexillis colligipronunciauerim . Atta men &probabilitatemſum profeſſus ,non neceßitatem , & a ceterorum Scriptorū veſtigijs prorfusrecederefuperbiam redo let, & abundatiordoctrinareprehendi nonfolet . Nunc tamen abſolutafacie in eo, quodrestat corporis, orbitam abinitiopro pofitampreßiuscalcabo . Potiusfcilicet conformationis instin Etum,quàm temperamentumtractaboartuum ;pectoris verò, dorfi temperametum,exeoqueargumenta morumanteaex pofui, bicfolùmfummatimreuocabo in mentemlocum,cumfue rit opus,aut mentio inciderit . Inpreſentiaautem repetitis quæ diximus; proponemusquædicendarestant eorum,quæ ad Phy fiognomiam pertinent . Primo ergo loco demonſtrauimusfo lumcordistemperamentumperfead mores spectare, eorumque varietateminducere ; artuum autem temperamentum nequa Primolibr. quam . Temperamenta ergocordisfecundo loco diftinximus, &fexto. cap.quinto, includendo etiamqualitates cordisfecundas, &figuram eius, acquantitatem. Quiquemoresfingulas cordiscrafesfequantur tertio locofubiecimus. Quartoloco in conformationealiquarum partiumimpulfum , &instinctum adactiones, acperturbatio Lib.3.cap. nes refidere monstrauimus . Quinto postea loco, nouofacto Pag. 2. principio, Physiognomie officium , ac partes enumerauimus. Sexto LiberSeptimus. 263 Sexto figna temperamentorum cordis attulimus tuminfito-Cap.3.4.5. rum,tuminfluentium,tumexcerebro,tumexhepate. Indead 7. Cap.8. conformationempartiumtranfiuimus,&ademergentiuminde Cap.9.10. morumargumenta,primoque inſtinctusconcupifcibilis facul tatisfedes,&loca aperuimus, atqueirritamenta : erant autem ventriculus, t) venter, &partesgenitales: deindeadfingu laspartestranfiuimus,factoacapiteinitio, cuiushucusquefin gulasparticulas , earumquenotaspercurrimus . Capitis magnitudinem figuram Frontem Supercilia Aures Oculos Nafum Os Faciemipsam EtVultum. Restantitaque partes infra caput,quarum,cumpectusiam, partesgenitales tractauerimus ,ſuperſuntfolipropemodum artus,quorummunus est motus aliquis, autinceßus,pedum, )crurum, auttractuspulſusvéfublationis,depreßionisvé, Seucollifionis brachiorum , ac manuum ,perquos intercédentes motusexpediturpugnacumalijs animalibus , & cumipfisbo minibus . Quamobremartuumomniumconformatiofolumad motus instinctum exhibere videtur : quorummotuum,quiad pugnandumſpectant,mores audaces, )bellacesindicant,nem peconformatioad expeditospugnæ motusaccomodata indicat R 4 bomi  Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. hominempugnacem, acbellicofum; &ferè nullum aliud mo rumargumentum exartubus elicitur. Nos hocprimumargu mentumtractabimus; deindeceteraadintegritatem artisbre uiterpercurremus. Roburad Arift. mentemdiftinguiturinroburinge nuum,acferuile. Caput Secundum . NEECESSE autemestaderroremeuitandumdistinguere roburcorporis , ut Aristot.egregiè distinxit primo lib. Polit. cap. tertio , robur enim aliudestad neceffarios uſus ,ac feruilia,fcilicetopera ; aliud ad eiufmodi opera, & uſus in eptum, &adciuiles ufusaccomodatum,ad oportunitatesfct licetbelli,& pacis: hæcautecorporarectaeffedicit nempètere tia,acaptèfoluta,ſignificansillaeffe compreſſapotius , accolli gata. Exquofundamentofit , utnonomnerobur bellicofum, &fortemhominemfignificet; nonenimferuile roburidmoris indicat ,fedfolumciuilerobur, adque ciuiliamunia accomoda tum. Robur itaqueadgestandaonera, qualeeſt baiulorum, cumferuileopus refpiciat,noneftargumentumfortis, acanimo fibominis. Dorfumergofirmum, ) validum nonrectèpro notafortitudinis , &audaciæ adducitur; videmus etiamdof fuariaiumenta nonadmodumgenerofa,quiquoquebrachiaha bentcraffa,&colligata,paritercraffasmanus,acbreuesadex tollendapondera,acfuftinendarobuſtifunt; at ad vibrandate laadrotandumenfem minimèapti. Distinguendum estergo, que,qualisque effedebeantfingulæpartes adobtinendumrobur hocciuile, &ingenuum. Sienimtalesipfafuerint,argumen tumexhibebuntanimiquoquebellicofi , & audacis, exsuperio refundamento,quòdfingulispartibusſuusfitinditusinstin 9 Etus a LiberSeptimus. 265 Etus, aptißimèautemconftructis , maximus: utfummatim autem remperstringamus , roburbellicum huiufmodi potiffi mumStructure corporisinniti videtur. Descriptiopartiumadrobur ingenuum, ac bellicum . CaputTertium . Ssaprohumano modofolida; nonmagnam itaque me dullamhabebunt . Leonis ofſaprorfusexiguam obtinent, ex Aristotel. propterfoliditatem : debent tamen mufculifuo. roboreoffiumpondus excedere, utfcilicetproarbitrioanimus, quimufculis voluntarium motumexercet,ea mouere,qua ve locitate, &quoimpetu libeat, poffit . Non ergo valdecraffas &magnaoffaeffedebent;fecus,ficutenimfimufculiiuxtaeam proportionemexcrefcerent, corpusin nimiammolem excrefce ret. Atbellicum , ciuileque roburadeò materiatum corpusnon libenterpatitur; nam cumprudentia, iudicioqueiuncta effede betfortitudociuilis, ac virtus quæque : verum in tanta mate rie mole vixprudentia locumhabet, utinadagium cefferit. Homolongusraroingeniofus. Longitudotamen offium adroburfacit, maiorenimictus cumpercutiens, extremitasfi quidemlongius a centro , circaquodreuoluitur,abeft: nam t motuseius velocioreft, cumeodemtemporemaius spatium , nempemaioremcirculum, vel maioremarcum tranfeat: tere temautemconformationemratiohæcexigit: mufculirobuftief ſedebent, undepleni: præteripfos autemalia caronon exigi tur,faltemnon multa. Siquidem & ponderiestmembro , facilèinfudoremdilabitur, aclaffitudiniexpofitaest . Muſcu lofumergocorpus , ) torofiinufculi,qualis estleonumquoque babitudo; offa verò ubiconnectuntur,necastricta,nec laxa nimium 266 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. nimium colligatione iungidebent; laxitasenim debilitatemmo tus efficit,cum mutet verfionis centrum: contrà,aftrictio ver fionemimpedit,faltem minuit,atexreceffuin contrarium mem brum maioremdeindeimpetumdat. Infaltu etiamrecedimus, utexmaiore excurſu longius faltemus. Manuslongacum digitisfcilicet longis , & muſculis validis ,qui tamen cumin manufatisfintfubtiles,potius neruearum appellationem mani bustribuunt,quàm musculofarum : longitudoadampliorem apprehenfionemfacit :foliditas offium admotuum, fictuum Validitatem ; funtqui digitorum iftu mallei instarfrangant nuces: aliquifoleas equinas compreſſione,veldistractione) gunt:foliditas offiumpræfertim adictuum vehementiam con fran ducit . Humerilati adbrachiorum motum validumpertinent: brachia enim tum bumeris , ac fpatulis nituntur , ut partiim mobili ,quæ exigiturin motuex Ariftot.lib. de motuanimal. at valido motuinonnifivalidaparsrefiftit,præterquamquod mufculiin motu brachij confpirantes,in ea amplitudine maio res , ) robustiores eſſe poffunt; quoniamque nonfineim preffionepugnamus ,& motu , autnixu pedum,&crurum oportet effe robustas,ut eadem effe debeat eorumſtructura,que brachiorum: pes itidemſolidorum offium , & neruens , conca uaqueplanta, queomniaadimpreßionem vehementioremexi guntur. Contràautemcarnosaplanta,puluino, ceuquo piamcarnis molleminnitumpræbet,nonvalidum, robuftum. Hicfit caracter corporis ad robur bellicumfacti; exquofunda mento quiddepartibusfin gillatim dicendum fit pater. : De ! LiberSeptimus. Defingulispartibus infra Caput. 267 Caput Quartum . . Primus. DeCollo . OLLVMforte, non vehementercarnosum,musculofum fcilicet,fortitudinem indicat; ad motum enim brachiorum ob connexionem , &ipfum concurrit . Hocipfum Aristot.in Physiogno. collumforte,non vehementercarnofum incaratte refortis reponit; fimile etiam collum laudat Palemo . Collum carnofum,præfertimque carnosaceruix,fi potiffimum babent iunctum dorfumcarnosum,feruilepotius robur,qualebaiulo rum,indicat. Collumgracile, & imbecillemotuum imbecillita temfignificat,principium enim vertebrarum,ac neruorum mo tiuorumcontinet, quosſuanuditatenequaquamfouet . §. Secundus. Delugulis. Svb gula, &ingulaconfinioiugula, exquibus, & illud Zopiri Physiognomi de Socrate iudicium , quòd refert Cicero inlibro de Fato his verbis: Stupidum eſſe Socratem di xit , & bardum,quòd iugula concaua nonhaberet obſtructas eas partes,&obturatas eſſedicebat: addi dit etiam mulierofum , in quo Alcibiades Cachin numdiciturſuſtuliſſe,licètfit canonAristot.in Physio gnomia; benèfolubilibus existentibus ijs , quæ circa clauemfa cilè motumſenſuum excipiunt: quibus verò , quæ circa cla uemconcluſaſunt,infenfibiles. §. Ter 268 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. §. Tertius . DeHumeris. HVMERI lati,&valdedistantes,necrvalde colligati, necomninodiffoluti,fortitudinem indicant,patetexfundamen toiacto. Ariftot. quoqueſuaauctoritatefirmat, ijfdem prorfus verbisinPhysiognom.cap.fexto, incaracterefortis. Odyfs. 18. HomerusinVliffe defcribendodicit, Apparueruntautemeilatihumeri, Pectoraque,fortiaquebrachia . §. Quartus. De Dorſo . DORSVMmufculofum&amplumadbellicumroburper tinet, ut'exproximocapite; carnofum, utdiximus ,adferui leroburpotius. Aristoteles metaphrenum, quodeftdorſipars, bene carnofumfortitudinis indiciumfacit : bene carnofum au temfignificat aptè carnofum ,fcilicet musculofum : in aliquo etiamCodice,non carnoſumlegitur: vtraquelectioverum fenfumpoteft obtinere . Adimantiusabundanscarnedorfum infenfati virifignum dicit, quodfuffragaturdictonoftro. §. Quintus. DePectore. PECTVS latum,itëpilosum,glabrumvé,quodcordistem peramentumfignificet , anteadixilib.quinto, Itemquidpectus angustum&c. inderepetatur. Atratione conformationis musculosum ,&latumad belli cum roburconducit, velutiproximèexpofui . §. Sextus . DeVentre. VENTER contractus,cauusfcilicetadroburspectat, ut contrà LiberSeptimus. 269 contrd,prominens , & adipofusquieti aptiorem,quàmmotui diuturno, t) vehementihominemfignificat. Ariftot.forti tri buit ventrem, & ipfe contractum: at deamplitudine ven tris in Physiogn.ad Alexandrumfignum effefcribithominis Stupidi ,fuperbi, & lafciui; inPhysiogn. tamen eum tribuit forti,venter, inquit, amplus, &contractus adſe fortis corporis figna. Dicerem ego,forti ineffe ventrem ma gnum,ex confequentia reliquorum membrorum; etenim ne ceffarium est cum dorfum amplum obtineat , & pectus ma gnum, ventremetiamfubeffè magnum . Preterearobur non finefufficienti cibo conferuatur : unde validum ventrem expofcit , hac etiam decaufa fortis , & robustushomo. Non est magnus tamenexproportionereliquorum membrorumnem pecumilliscollatus estpotiusparuus , nam contractus est, t cauus ; prætereaque in lococinctus reftringitur, homo ciuili, &bellicoroborepræditus . Contrà. Venterexproportionemagnus voracemfignificat, adidenim munus , venterfactus eft, vt cum valdepolleat, valde etiamfitinid munerispropenfus.Arift inPhysiog.vo races dicit, quibus id,quodest ab umbilico adpectus, estma ius ,quàmquodinde uſquead collum. Venterpinguis, & prominenshebetudinis, &preterea Galen.Plin. intemperantiæfignum aPhysiognomis statuitur. De Genitalibus. IAM dictum estfupra libro s . inde repetatur. §. Octauus. DeLumbis. PLACET delumbisadiungerequibus illifunt carnofi, &mollesinlaſciuiampropendere , etenimſeminariaillis vaſa aperta Raſis, Al bert.Arift. 270 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib &c. aperta effeoportet ex calore, utfeminis effluuiumfitfacile paratu. Contrà,quilumbosduroshabent ad venerem,repa randamfaltem, minusidonei : hincillud Catulli , Qui duros nequeunt mouerelumbos. §. Nonus. DeBrachijs. BRACHIA oblongaſolidisex oſſibus,&muſculoſaindi ciumeßeanimibellicofi,&quamobrem vidimusineodempro ximofuperiorecapite.Palemolongabrachia, &ipfefortibus tribuit , imò uſqueadgenua peruenientia manuumextremi tatibus . Michael etiam Scotus audaciæ fignum brachia eiuf modilonga uſque ad genuafferit: at etiamfi usque ad genu nequaquampertigerintexfundamento noſtro,funtindiciafor titudinis, iuxtapreſcriptumcanonem . Sedcanoninon refpon dentque MichaelScotusipfemetpostadductum eiuscanonem fubiungit . Cuius brachia, inquit,funt valde curta, reſpectu ſtaturæcorporis , ſignificanthominem bellicofum, ingratum ,audacem ,inuidum , ſuperbum, factio fum,&tenacem. Hacille: at certèbrachiorumbreuitas, ficumcraßitieiungatur,potiusroburferuile,quàm ciuile, & bellicumindicant. Albertus Magnus brachiorum usqueadgenua longitu dinem liberalitatis argumentumfcribit , atleue estindiciumli beralis donationis longa brachiorum exporrectio. Ariftot. iu ſto breuiorem cubitum tribuit talorum amatoribus, ex con uenientia, ut arbitror , apparente; iactus enim talorumita promptius expeditur,quamconuenientiamfortèfequutusAl bertus ad profundendam pecuniam,brachiorumlongitudinem propo Liber Septimus. 271 propofuit, atfortè aptiorerat larga manusad largitatem di Stributionis,quàmbrachiumprolixum. §. Decimus. De Manibus. MANVS foliditate offium preſtans,acneruea, oblonga quoque adbellicam virtutem aptior eft, proindeque eſt eius ar gumentumexfundamento eodemnoftro. Aristot.fortimagnas extremitatestribuit , magnas nempemanus , utoportet eße defcriptasanobis ,ſienim oblonge cum proportione fuerint , oportet quoque magnas effe. Ioannes Baptista Porta afferit Sfortiammagnashabuißemanus, ) longas, adeoque firmos digitos, utfoleam aquiferreamfrangeret ; manumetiamfi milem Selimo Turcarum Imperatori ' Baizethi filio tribuit , Uterquefuithomobellicofiffimus . Manusbreues,craffe , t) robuste ad roburferuile perti nentpotius,undenoniniuria,utfignumingenij bebetishaben turaPolemone, &Adimantio,præfertimquefiinarticulate. Manusarticulate adinduſtrem aliquam operationemeffe Etionemqueconducunt : adrobuftiorem quidem ,ſi robustiores ipſefuerint: ad molliorem ,fiimbecilliores . Indelicatis itaque feminis,quarumopus acuexpeditur, &adfummumcolo, ma nusoblongas, ) molleslaudamus . Vndeteretes , &articu latæmanusingeniofumhominemſignificant ,quod &Ariftot. ad Alexandrum fcribit. Reliquosde manibus canones,qui multifunt , & aPortacolliguntur,relinquo . Hoc unumex Realdo Columbo Anatomico celebrirefero, nonquidem Phyſio gnomicum cumfitoculis occultum in viuentehomine,ſedſcitu dignum, &firefpondeatfemper, admirandum . Dicit itaque Realdusin nonnullisilluftribusfuribus, quosfecuit defumßepri mum Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. mummufculuminternorummanus ,fuccingitis musculusvo Corellariű. Cap.9. lam,tendoibifactus, undeſecundùmnonnullos fit, vt vola fitdepilis . Exquoprocorellariodicipotest. Sicui vola piloſaeſſet , indicium idfuracis hominisfutu rum ; deeffetfiquidemis tendo , &muſculusexquodepilis ef ficitur. §. Vndecimus. DeCruribus . CRVRA mufculofa, exoffibusfolidis, debitamque t)ad reliquum corpus proportionem obtinentia,fortis, & bellicofi animifignumeffeexfundamentoiamſtatutoconftat. Aristo teles hoc totum confirmatin Physiogn. Defemoribusin ver fione vulgata hecfcribit . Qui habet coxas offeas, & neruofas, fortes funt, referuntur ad maſculinum . Etde Tibijs.Quicunque habent crura articulata , & neruofa, & robuſta , fortes ſecundùm animam, re feruntur admafculinum. Crurabreuia , &craßaroburferuileindicant. Palem. Ti biarum , &calcaneorumcraßitudiniid tribuit. Tibiarum , inquit , &calcaneorumcraffitudoferuilem virum,& hebetem ſignificat. Crura gracilia, &neruosa Ariftot.fignificantlaſciuum, ac venereum hominem; refertque adaues . Conciliator natura lemcaufameamaffert , quoniamalimentum,quodincrura,fi craffiora eßent , abiret , in ſemen conuertitur : que eadem ra tio afferturde claudis,curfint in venerempropenfiab Aristot. 4.Sect. probl. De Pedibus. ARIST. in Physiogn. huncprofertcanonem. Quibuf cumque • LiberSeptimus 273 cumquepedesbeneformati,&magni,&articulati, &neruofi,fortesſuntſecundúea,quæfuntin anima: reducunturadmaſculinúgenus. Hecille,quibusprocul dubioreſpondentque exnoftro illofundamentodicereoportet. Demagnitudinetamen resestrectè intelligenda, aciusta Annotatio. cumeftimationefumenda;fecusenimlargepedatihominesde ridentur, utindeforfan Poeta aliquiscelebrato Heroipedem paruumtribuerit: nonergotantumpedemhomini eße oportet, quantücalcitrofis animalibus, aceapartepugnantibus; inquo rumtamengenerequoquegenerofioresequi,veluti afturcones, minores multopedeshabentillis,quosfriſones vulgodicimus, &multofuntinferioresaudacia, acbellica virtute:oportetta menmagnitudine potius excedere,quàm deficere, eoquòd ad corpusfuftentandum,&adimpreſſionemfaciendam;cumarti culatipræterea fuerint,ita funt accomodatiores pedes. Fæmine,quenonidroborisexigunt, minorespedesnatura fortiuntur. Pliniuslib.1 1. c.s s. quietiamadpulchritudinem magisfaciunt. Arift.inPhysiogn. Quicúqueautem pedes, inquit,paruos, ſtrictos, inarticulatoshabent, delecta biliores autéviſu,quàm fortiores, mollesſunt.Areo tushincnofterlaudando , t) defcribendo Alcinam ,tribuit illi pedem breuem, tenuem, atque aliquatenusrotundum . Il breue asciutto , e ritondetto piede. Aliquiautemſympathiäfatisoccultampediscùfemineoge nitalitestantur.Hifunt canonesipforüreferete,acprobante Mi De Phyſio chaele Scoto,cuius verbaexfcribo.Si pes fueritlongus,ſtri- gn .par. ctus,&macer,fignificatvulualongam,ſtricta,&ma cra,&è cõuerſo.Itémenſuramedij pedis nudieſtmé fura longitudinis vuluętotiusvnicuique;vnde dixit quida,adformampedistunoſcesvasmulieris.Hęcille. S  De .  Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. ! De contrarijs membrorum contrarij diſpoſitionibus; deque contrarijs ſignis, quid dicendum . QUALIA effeoporteatmembra infra caput adfortitu dinemanimi naturalem,fcilicetſignificandam, vidimus,con traria ergocontrariampropenfionem , nempeanimimollitiem , pauiditatem indicare videntur, atqueitafemperargumen taturArist. in Physiogn. fupponendo, fcilicetcontrariorum morumeßefignacontrariascorporisdifpofitiones. Verùm, ut priorafignanonfintneceffaria ,quòdimpedimentumfufcipere poffint ,bec multo minusfunt neceffaria ; licèt enim robusta membrafuaptenaturamagisdeferuiantadarmatractanda,t adpugnandum,tantatamenest visanimi,utdebiliamembra tenfione ipsa (modò influxusacorde fitvalidus)robuſtared dat viuido illo animiimpetu durante . In iratis hominibus quidroborisinfluatin membra,&artus animus,videmus. Aliud eiufdem rei argumentum phrenetici exhibent; nam phreneticamulierculainfurijsillisfuisapluribus robuštisbo minibus vixinterdumdetineri, ac cohiberipoteft,tantumvi riumimpetus præualidus animimollibus etiammembris inde. re potest. Contrà, firemittaturanimus,vtintimore,va lidiffima , acrobuſtiſſima membratorpent , &omniroborepri uantur, quàm verèilludVirgilijaccomodatur? Non corpore notæ Sufficiunt vires , nec vox, aut verbafequuntur. Uthincintelligamus temperamentum cordis præftare con formationiartuumin negociohoc morum , at moralem babitum prestareomnibus. §.De LiberSeptimus. §. Decimusquartus. Cum figna non funt vniformia.  ARIST. monuitin phyaiognomia id, quodesthicquoque memorandum,nonex unicofignoPhysiognomicodemoribus pronunciandum ,fedomnia, velplurafaltem conferendafi mul, atquelibranda . Siergo manus, & brachiafortitudinem indicent,crura, pedes timiditatem , velpectus &dorſum; demumcum contraindicent membra,debemus confiderare utraminpartempotioravelnumero, vel virtute inclinant, exillisquepronunciandum de more,cumquadam refractione, tremiffionetamen, v.g. fiplura,autpotiorafortitudinem fignificent, at pauciora , aut imbecilliora timiditatem fortè eum virumdiceredebemus ,atrefractiorefortitudine,quàm fiadfortitudinem quoquecommostrandam reliquafigna con ſpiraffent . Virtute verò , & qualitate, quæ membrafupe rent,feufignaex illisfumpta declarat Aristoteles in calce Physiognomie verba refero . In omni autem electio ne , inquit , fingulorum alia alijs fignis magis de clarantmanifeſteſubiectum : manifeſtiſſimaautem quæ in principalibus locis fiunt. Principaliffimus autem locus eft, quicircaoculos,&frontem ,&ca put,&faciem; fecundusautemeft,quieſtcircape Aus , & humeros:conſequentercirca crura,&pe des; quiautem circa ventrem,minimus. Omnino autem vtfic dicam ifta locamanifeſtiſſima ſigna præbent, in quibus &prudentiæ plurimæ decor ineſt . Hec Philofophus. 2 S 2 De P  Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. Destaturacorporis. Caput Quintum . Quæconfiderenturin ſtatura. ERCVRRIMVS hucusque membra particulariaque queindedefumuntur PHYSIOGNOMICA SIGNA aperuimus: at estpræterea uniuerfahominisſtatura,exquaPhyſionomimo rumfignaeliciunt : in statura veròdicopræfertimconfideran tur; magnitudo,magna nefint corpora, an parua; ) com mensuratio, commensuratanefint ,anincommensurata . Ma gnitudo veròinlongum, altumque est, & in latum , ac pro fundum;fecundùmillam longa,altaque corporadicimus,fecun dùmhanccraſſa vocamus. Confideramusinbac,vtrumpin guiafint corpora, carnofavé, an macra, &exilia . Colores etiam adiungit Aristot. huic staturæ confiderationi,fint ne acres ,qui calorem indicent, an hebetiores,qui frigiditatem. In Phyfiog. NunccanonesArift.fubijciamus, quibusinterim cötentierimus. cap.vltimo. Canon 1. Canon2. Canon3. §. Secundus. Demagnis,ſcilicetaltis corporibus. QVI magno, &altofuntcorpore,tardimente, latione enimfanguinisinmagnolocoexistente,tardus fit motus , qui adcognitionemdeferuit . Quimagno, &altofuntcorpore, &humidiscarnibus,aut coloribus frigiditatem indicantibus ,funtmulto maximètardi corpore, ) mente,etenimadcorporis molemaccedunt,aliæ quo-. que tarditatis obfrigiditatemcaufa . Atquimagnofuntcorpore,fedficciscarnibus , & colori busacribus,caliditatemnempefignificantibus,birectèſeha bent Liber Septimus . 277 bentadmotus mentis,atque adſapientiam,etenim contraria momentahominemadiuſtam mediocritatem adducunt. Siqui dem tarditas ex altocorporea caliditate, quamficce carnes, acres coloresfignificant, temperatur . De paruo Corpore. QVI funt paruo corpore, celeresfunt mente; cumenim Canon1. latio corporisfit in paruoloco , celeriterexpeditur . Quiparuofuntcorpore,ficcis carnibus ,coloribusovéacri- Canon2. bus, caliditatem,fcilicetſignificantibus, nihilperficiuntnempe adſapientiam,rectamquecognitionenonpertingunt, quoniam tanta eft corum motuum velocitas,omnibuscaufisineamcon Pirantibus, utineodemiudicionunquampermaneant. Quiparuofuntcorpore,atcarnibushumidis, &coloribus Canon3. bebetibus acfrigiditatem indicantibus,rectèfehabentad mo tus mentis, &adcognitionem; velocitasenim motus expar uo corporeacontraria humiditate, &frigiditate temperatur, consistentiorqueredditur. De iusta statura. Qv1 iusta, acmediocrifunt statura, optimèfehabentad Canon. fenfus,nequeenim motusfuntmagni, ut tardiusquàm par fit expediantur, neque matus parui, utfint velociores iu fto, utidcirco mediocritas eiufmodi ſeperfectiſſimè babeat admotusmentis. §. Quintus. De ſtatura incommenfurata,&com menfurata,ſcilicet debitam proportionem ১১. habente,autnon . INCOMMENSVRATI funt astuti. Commensurati verò Canon. S 3 Sunt 278 Deconiect. cuiuſquemorib.&c. fortes, rationemeam affert Ariftoteles,quodin commensuratiadfeminam referuntur,commensuratiad ma funtiufti,&fortes, rem: mafculus autem eftfæminaiustior, &fortior,utque in vniuerfum dicatur melior; præterquamquodcommenfura tio tumcorporis dexteritatem,bonamque eiusmobilitatem in dicat,tum generationembonam, rectèſcilicet &exlaudabili busprimordijsgenitumdemonstrat; harum vtranquemorum quoquediſpoſitionemlaudabilem SIGNIFICAT: illa (fcilicetdexte i ritasmotionum) ingenereſigni:hac(nempebonageneratio) ingenerecauſeprocactartice. S P eroratiodePhyſiognomia . Caput Sextum. ATIS fuperque ſit hac in alienopropemodumoperede Physiognomiadifferuiſſe ; cuiusfacultatis duofolidaeffe , taptafundamenta vidimus,actertium annectifuaptena turaincognitum,ſolaqueobferuationedeprehenfibile. Primum eft cordis temperamentum. Secundum estconformatiomem brorumpropenfionemhabentiumadactionem: hacdicofunda mentafuntnota,quiaeffectus,ſcilicet eorumin moresfuntcon fpicui. Tertiumfundamentumeftcumabeadem cauſa duoef fectuspendent,quiideoſeſe conſequuntur,eorumque nexus patet;fedcaufanonconstat, veluticumdicitur virilepuden dum, &nafummagnitudinefibimutuo respondere. Hęcin quamtriafuntPhysiognomiefundamenta,apriori,nempe,que procedunt acaufaadeffectum,faltemeiufmodiproceffuminclu dunt,ut tertiumfundamentum. Atapofteriori, cumabeffe Etibus morumfenfuifubiectis admores progredimur . Quar tumestfundamentum,quod'infecundamethodibuius noftre partetractabimus ,licètpartem eius aliquamtetigerimusin oculo Liber Septimus.cs 279 oculorumfupramotibus varijsque afpectibus . Qui pluracu pit,Physiognomicosſcriptoresadeat. Intelligoautemnuncfub preloeffe commentariaexquifita, acpleniffima inAr Ariftot.Phy fiognomiamCamilliBaldi Bononienfispreclariffimi,&expre clariffimoPhilofophonati Philofophi . Nondubito,quinhomo doctißimus, &in verſando,atqueexponendo Aristot. confu matiſſimuspunctumtotiushuiusfcientianontangat. Reuocatiohorum,quadePhyſiognomiadictafunt adfuperioremnoftram methodum,applicatiog adpraxim . CaputSeptimum . 5. Primus. Repetunturſuperiusdicta . ESTAT outquede R outque utquedePhysiognomia digredientes mus,admethodumfuperiorem nostramreuocemus ,illi que applicemus . Monebamusergoinea methodo,ut mores exSenſorijdifpofitione,fcilicet mores, & inclinationesnatura les, cum affuetudinis,&cognitionis momentis conferreremus, &,velconiungerentur momentafi uniformiaeffent, velde traberenturfi effent difformia . Verùm,quaPhysiognomia traditadfolos mores naturalesindagandos pertinent, ut ea omnia,que longafermone differuimus ,infolum caputmorum naturalium perducant: mos verònaturalis integer ex tempe ramento cordisprimò, )exconformationemembrorumſecun dorefurgit; naminstinctus,quiinconformatione membrorum refidet, in coripfum refluit, &moremibinaturalem,fiuepro penfionemintegramconficit; v. gr. Quicorbabetcalidum, t humidum,beparitidemtale, &perspiratum, vasaampla,at testespræterea , &penem, quales defcripfemussupra  Deconiect.cuiufquemorib &c. cap. 2.§. s.ispropenfionemin veneremobtinetinſummo,eft que is mos venereus naturalis,quemfupràcum dispofitione appetitus exaffuetudine , & babituſecundum proportionem fubtriplam contulimus: ineotamenlibro, utplurimum,totam naturalemfenforij difpofitionemextemperamento vocauimus, nullaconformationis partium habita mentione; declaro autem modò meinea inclufiſſe quoque instinctum ex conformatione partium, quippequi inprimumipſumſenſoriumrefluit , quod antea quoquecap. 3. lib. 6.pramonueramode 5. Secundus . ApplicationisprimiCanones . APPLICATIO NuncPhysiognomiatraditæadmetho dumnostramhecest . Sitemperamentumcordis cum confor mationepartium ineundemmorempenituspropendant,tum is mos,naturalisnempe, ut unüeorum,quorumhabitus mora listriaimportat , accipiendusest, & quattuoreorum, quorum cognitio primifolumphantafmatisest tria iuxta diftributio nempofitam,antea lib. 6. cap. 6. Atoportet, tum tempera mentumcordisinfummogradu ineummorempropendere,tum conformationempartium,fiueinstinctum expartium cöforma tione pullulantem,utmos naturalis iam dictus vnumpona tureorum,quorummoralishabitusefttria. Intelligemus ve rò temperamentum cordis integrumconfpirare in moremobla. tum,cumomniafignaconfpirabūtadtemperamentum unum, &idemſignificandum; v.gr.ficorcalidum , &humidumfi gnificeturnedumexpulfibus mollibus, ) magnisrespirationi bus,fedex venis latis colorecarnis rofeo,præfertimfaciei,car noso habitu, adipeconfperſo,oculisbumidis ,pilisitidem mollibus,statura corporis ampla, &partes & . Quodfi aliqua figna i LiberSeptimus. L  fignafinthumidi,&calidicordis ,aliquafrigidi , &humidi , autfrigidi , &ficci, aut calidi , &ficci; tumprofignorumve pugnantiumgrauitatede temperamenti , & cordis refractione estpronunciandum ; adeoquede morenaturalitemperamentum eiufmodi conſequente . Quain librationefignorumea prima tumobtinere debent,quæpropiuscordis temperamentumindi cant; quefint autem ea, iamdeclarauimus. Atfaciamustem- Lib.s. c.5. peramentum cordisirrefractum abomniumfignorum conspira tionefignificari. Si tum conformatio membrorum repugnet , mos adhuc naturalis integernonerit,fiue naturalis propenfio non eritintegra,fedrefracta; preualebit nëpepropenfioex tem peramento ; exeaenim detrabenduserit instinctus ex confor matione,ſupereritque propenfio , ac mosnaturalisin eo homi nepreualens . §. Tertius. ApplicationisfecundiCanones . DETRACTO itaquegradu,quiſuperest,moris,feupro penfionis naturalis ,faciendaefttum comparatio eiuscum reli quisduobus momentis,fcilicet cum cognitionis momento,atque momentodispofitionisappetitus , venietqueidcirco mos tum naturalis in comparationemcumreliquis momentis, nonut in tegrummomentum,fed vtrefractü : reliquumitaqueestpen farealia duo momenta,dijudicareque numintegrafint,an re fracta, abfoluerequetumpropofitam momentorum comparatio nem, velaggregatione, velfubtractione iuxtatraditamfupra methodum  quamadhucinpropofitohocthematefubiun Etapraxiillustrabimus. Sit gradusnaturalis moris,quifa Etafupputatione restat, partes due tertiæintegrimomentiin venerem: atcognitiofitintegra,fecundùm phantasmatamen primumturpitudinis adulterij oblati; erateius momentum ut : tria, i : i 4-! 282 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. tria,quorummomentumintegrunaturalismoriseftquattuor, momentumdifpofitionis appetitusfitquidemcontra vene rem,non tamenintegrum,ſedrefractum,utfolaparseiusno na prapolleat; ita calculumfubducemus: exbisomnibusdatis adeandem,fcilicetdenominationem omnia reducemus huncin modum:quoniam 4. nonhabetpartestertias,per3. multipli cabimus , &1 2.proueniet, quarumpartiumintelligemuspri mòintegrummorisnaturalis momentü, atinpreſentiaduæeius tertiæfolumpartesfuperant.Eritergoinpreſentia momentum in veneremfolum, utoctoearundempartium:atmomentum integrumcognitioniseritearundem9.etenimadipfum 12.ean děobtinetproportionem,qua4.ad3.nücergofuperabitcognitio momētum morisnaturalisoctaua eiusparte,nempeeritadeam Subſeſquioctauum: atprocedamus; momětumintegrumdiſpoſi tionis appetitus admomentumintegrum morisnaturalis habet triplam proportionem, quarum ergo partium estmomentum moris naturalis 1 2. earumeft momentumdifpofitionisappe titus36. atpars nona36. eft4.in preſenti,itaque collatione Mométú diſpoſitio nisappe titus. Momērū propéio nis natu ralis. 12 Mométű cognitio nisprimę erit momentumdispositionisappetitus, ut 4. cognitionis, ut 9.queduomomentafuntconiungenda; etenim ambofuntcon tra venerem: atmomentumcontrariumnaturalispropenfionis est 8. fuperat itaque momentum praualenscontra venerem momentumin veneremquinquepartibus ,atcuiusdenomina 36 tionis? Remitaintelligemus:fiomniamomentaconſpiraffènt in diſtributione, ac diuifionefacta, eßetmomentumexillisin tegrum partium 57. nam momentum dispositionis appetitus ponitur36. momentumpropenfionisnaturalis 1 2.momentum cognitionis 9. totafumma 57. Suntergo partes exceffuss7. phatafim. 9 quinquagefimarumfeptimarü totius atqueperfectę propenfio 57 nisin caftitatem & temperantiam; non ergo magna utrin que LiberSeptimus. 283 quepropenfio ,neque magnus exceffuspropenfionumindata collatione. Exhocpraxis exemploquid inquoquecafufacien dumfitintelligimus. Nonfemperactiofequiturpropenfionispra dominium. Caput Octauum . E 5 . Primus. Quamethodofuturaactio fit prouidenda , æftimandaque. Xbisnondifficile eft intelligere,quiddefuturahominis actionefit in datis occafionibus prefagiendum . Tradita hucusque methodus adgradus propenfionispræualentisintel ligendos nosducit,nempeinproximo cafu, acthemate propen ditis homo inabftinentiamab illicita venere potius,quàmin veneremquinquepartibusquinquagefimarumfeptimarumin tegra,&abſolutepropenfionis; dicoabſolutam propenfionem, dumineundemamorem &naturalispropenfio, &aßuetudo, t) cognitio ,iudiciumque confpirant. Atrepetendumest id, quodin tertiapartediximus, morbum,&paroxismummorbi differre in moralibusquoque,nedum autem morbi quiefcunt interdumabſque ullo proximo,fedetiam nullomorbi habitu affectos aliquandoinſtarephimerarum febrium paroxismiin uadunt . Mitemnaturahominem, velnoniracundumfiquis eum turpiſſima iniuria afficiat,magna ira inflammabit,quæ nifihabitum virtutisponas,mediocritatemrationis excedet : erit itaqueparoxismus,nullustamenhabitusneque vitij,ne quemediædifpofitionis male . Hocitarepetitofundamento,ſit eadem, quæproximè animi humanicraffis:quiefcentisitaque animi ea est,quam diximus,propenfio; verum accendetur ex . Deconiect.cuiuſquemorib.&c. ex vehementeobiecto,preſenteoccafione, alijsque eiufmodiir ritamentis, autcibi , autlectionispræcedentis pruritus vene ris, poteft astuseiufmoditantus eſſe, tamqueſubitus,tamque ... imparatoeueniſſe, utmagis ipſeſuperet actiones, ac motiones contrarias, quàm contrapropenfiones contrariehanc in veène remſuperarent . Hincfit, utinterdumtemperanshomo,na turaliinquam temperantia , & morali imperfecta,ex vehe menteoccaſione intemperanteragat , & homo mitis iracundè, &impatienter, vtfanctiffimumhac quoque ratione appareat Chriftianumpræceptum,quoiubemur vitare occafionem pec candi . Compofitumanimumfæpèturbahominum affectusex citando perturbat : Vnde illud Seneca. Nunquam inter homines fui, quin minor homo redierem; velre, vel verbis, dumfuas quiſque perturbationes prodit , alie nas excitat . Quis abſque pruritufurta veneris vel legit , velſentit ? Quisftupentiumbonores hominum veladmira tionem, vellaudes,quibus illos extollunt abſque vlloambitio nisfenfu videt, velaudit ? Canones continet. QUONIAM itaque valida obiecta affectus excitant in animis etiam noncorruptis,qui vultdefutura actione verè prouidere, &pronunciare, oportet ipſumpoſſeconiectare ani mo ,quot uſquegradus affectusdatum obiectumfitin oblato Canon1. homine excitaturum; namfi vehementißimum affectum ex oblato obiecto excitatum iricrediderimus ,parestin eampro penderefententiam,quòdſequeturhomo affectum;nam affectus vehementißimus fecundum phantasma intrudendo cognitio nemcontrariam obfcurat, &opprimit; pratereaquedispofitio nem Liber Septimus. : 285 nem appetitus præcedentemcontraria tum motioneobtundit , utfacilèhomineminstarincontinentium, etiacontrapræceden tempropenfionem,infuaspartes trahat, quetamen post pec catumrediuiua cũ perturbationesintra confuetos limitesman ferint, actionesfequentes dirigit. Atfecundus erit canons . Cùmexcitatusaffectus maioreproportioneſuperatrationistum monitum, &appetituscontrarium ſum,quamcontraſuperet propenfio,propenfionem actiofequitur affectum potius , quàm propenfionemfuperantem . Remexemplodeclaremus. InCx fare Dictatorefuit rufus,&affuetudoindulgendiprepotens , utniſiſummaindulgentiæ affequutusfitapicem,propèfaltem accefferit . Faciamus (distributafummamanfuetudinein par tes octo)ſex earum ipſiſaltem adfuiſſe: cognitio itidem , qua iudicabat præclarumeffe veniamdarehoftibus,fuit preuali da, utduasfaltem tertias partesintegri eius momenti obti nuerit; atnaturalispropenfio ad vlcifcenduminextitit. Cum fueritiracundus , tt ) ultusfit Bibulum Confulemacri modo, spropen) Piratasaquibus captusfuerat,impendio necauerit, ut na turalempropenfionem ad ultioneminipfo predominatam effe, licètrefractam,fit concedendum :fueriteaitaquequinquefuo rumgraduum . Multoergoexceſſuſuperabat propenfioindul gendi: attamen contra Cacinnamfuitdurus : ratio autem , quoniamhomogloriæ auidiffimus egerrimè paſſus est, existi mationemfuam abeolibrocriminofißimofugillatam: undenon æquèſe illi, acarmatishostibusfacilemprabuit , uteifamilia ribus Ciceronis Epist. legimus; quoin volumine Cacınna ipſe dolet exilio multarierroremfuum ftyli; fediudiciumea in re Cecinnenonproceßit debita methodo : oportebat confiderare quantum ire excitatura fuerit in cupidißimo gloriæ homine smaledicentia eloquentißima, perennisque (ut credere poterat Cefar) Canon2. 286 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. Cafar)vita: nempèplusindeire Cafarcapturuserat,quam exdiuitiarumleſione , acetiaminuafione corporis. Superauit ergo affectus excitatusproportionecognitionis, & ufusimpul ſummagis,quàmcontrapropenfionumcontrariarum momenta naturalemin irampropenfionemexceſſerint. i 1 Corellarium . : PROcorellariohincnafciturillud,quodadagiofertur. Fu ror fitlæſaſæpiuspatientia; nempeiterata irairritamen tatantamdemumſuſcitantiram, uthomomitis longè contra propenfionemfuamoperetur. Iterataquoquelenociniademum Ouidiusde arte aman di. maximumin venerem estumconcitant. Quidmagiseftdurumſaxo?quidmollius unda? Duratamenmollifaxacauanturaqua. Penelopemipsamperſtesmodotempore vinces.  METHODI Proponit dicenda, etconnectit, etindicatque funt exfuperius dictisrepetenda . Caput Primum. DſecundănuncMethodipartetranſcamus,inqua moresexeffectibus conijciuntur,figna verdex effectibus ducta in duo generaprius distinxi mus; aliaprimariadiximus; aliafecundaria, & annexa: annexafunt velutiintercatera, que mores apparen tes inparte Physiognomica vocauimus,multaqueexpartetra Etauimus. Subijciemusnunc, queexeogenererestant. No tandumautemfignaipfamorumapparentiumfubtilemfufcipe redistinctionem ; nam velexeadem causa pendent propensio interna vera, mosque naturalis, & exteriusfignum; &eo modo adprimam Methodipartemſpectant; velexinternoipſo morefequiturexteriusfignumobiteratumgestuminactioneip Samoris, &pertinentadhancpartem, v.gr. Deflexaeffecer uice, oculis confractis,queponunturabAristot.figna Cynędi, velpendentex Crafi, &conformatione, unde etiam mollis, &turpis mosnaturalisortumducit , velexturpi confuetudi ne molles etiamgeftus contraxithomoturpiffimus; hocque mo do effet exterior is mosapparens interioris effectus ; illo modo Uterque abeadem cauſaprocedit : at licèt distinctio hæcinter cedat, in uſutamenipſoſigna anteaconfudi, &nunc confun dam. Quoniamitaqueapparentes moresinfronte,fupercilijs, inoculis, 288 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. inoculis, auribus,naſo, &naribus,ore,facie,præfertimquein ea ex vultu anted diximus, nonrepetam. Subiungam tan tùm,quetumomifi;funt veròfignaex voce,excorporislocali motu, qui & univerſicorporiseft, &partium, utgesticula tionesmanuum ,iactatio brachiorum , & eiusmodi; &ex cul tu pretereacorporis . Quibus expeditis adprimaria deindefi gnahuiusfecundepartistranfibo . De Voce. Continet varias vocis differentias. Aloce ergo exordiamur. Vocis plures funt differentia, quas refert Ariftot.s. de gen. animal. Et exactius in fragmento libri de audibilibus, Ptolomeusin primo Harmo nicorumcap.3 .&alij Scriptoresnon pauci. Suntautem gra uitas, &acumen; magnitudo, &paruitas; asperitas,&leni tas; acmultoties obfcuritas,&fplendor,feuclaritas;flexibili tas, rigiditas . Suntprætereafigure vocumdiuerfiſſime, bachumana,hecauis,becbouis,aliæquealiorum animalium: quasdiuerfas vocesfuntexhominibus,quioreipſomethumano mirèimitentur. Atnonomneshedifferentiead remnoftram pertinent. Pertinent verò prefertim acumen, &grauitas; magnitudo, &paruitas;flexibilitas , &rigiditas; afperitas, acmollities. §. Secundus. DeAcumine,&grauitate fundamenta . GRAVITAS extarditatemotusfit,acumenex veloci tate. Aristot. in s .degen. cap. 7.&fect. 11. probl.fitexhis, Utin LiberOctauus. 289 ut in neruis craffiores nerui grauius fonent,quàm tenues, quoniam tardius aſuoſitudimouentur, adillumqueredeunt : contrà, tenuescitius tum dimouentur, tum redeunt: pariter minus tenfi nerui grauiusfonant, quàm tenfiores,quod illi longius abducunturaprimofitu, tardiusqueadillum remeant: hi breuius abducuntur,&celeriusremeantobtenfionemean dem,fingulis inquam vicibus, alioquin enim iteratio mo tuum diutior est intenfiore neruo, quàm in remiffiore,diu tiusque perfeuerat tinnitus in illo , quàm in hoc. Ex ea demcaufapendet cur infistulis craffior vocem grauiorem reddat,quam angustior, & longior,pariterqudm breuior; nempe per craffamfistulam plus aerisfluit , per angustam minus ,ac plus aeris,quàm minus aeris tardiuspropellitur : item per longamfiftulam curſus expulfi aeris tardius abfol uitur , quàm per breuem . In tintinnabulis rurfus ,quòam pliusfuerit tintinnabulum, reliquis permanentibus ijfdem, grauioreftfonus ; ob orbisenim amplitudinempercußalamina amplius cedit , ut ideo etiam tardiusadpristinamrectitudi nemremeat, quam cumorbisfuerit minor, ideoque magis in ſeconſtrictus ; minus enim tremor, & tinnitus a rectitudi ne pristina recedit . Eandem ob caufam fireliquis exiften tibus üſdem, vel equalibus alterius fuerit tintinnabuli la mina craffior , alterius tenuior,huius grauior eritfonus , il lius acutior ; etenimtremitus tenuioris amplior est, & ma gis aquiefcentis rectitudine diductus , ut tardior idcircofit eius tinnitus , unde grauior quoque eft; contrà,craffioris acutior ob contrariam caufam : at ad præfenshocnegocium folafistulæ confideratio spectat ; nam t tracheafiueaspe ra arteria,per quam vox abfoluitur,fistula est inuerſa. Deconiect. cuiuſquemorib &c. Canonescontinet. CAETERIS itaqueparibus ,quorum arteriafueritcraf fior, ampliorové, vox estgrauior; & contrà,quorumfueri angustior eftacutior vox: itemceterisparibus,quorum arte riafuerit longior , eorumgrauior vox; quorum breuior , vox acutior . In eodem pariterhomine,quòmagisdilatat arteriam afperam ,eògrauius loquitur, velcantat; quòmagiscogit, re Stringitque,edacutiusloquitur, cantatvé. Cumcantamusne tem , & arctiorem tumnosfaceretracheam , &minoremae ris portionem aggredi, fatendum est: contrà, cum cantamus Hypatem,magisquecumproslambanomenon, &dilataretra cheam, &multamaerisaggrediportionem:paritercumconci tatioreft aerisex pulmonepropulfio,vox eft acutior; nam mo tumreliquisparibusoportettumeffeceleriorem; at quoniam concitatioreftis motus inintenfioneanimi,remiffiorin remiffio ne,ideoin cupiditate, in ira vox eft acutior, inremiffisaffecti bus ,utin voluptate,in delitijs voxestgrauior. Aristo teles etiaminproblematibusquærit,curqui rident, voceemit tantgrauiorem,quiflent , acutiorem. Vox ergo acutaeffèpo test tumexconcitationemotus , estque ita indicium vigoris; velquiabomoinloquendoparumaeris aggrediatur, estqueid eximbecillitate, & hacde caufa vocesagrorumfunt acute,fi quoinhomineconcitatus eft motus , &tamen voxgrauis,fo gnum id eft amplitudinis arterie , concitatique defiderij , م hincquegrauis vox, &magnafortemhominemindicat, qua quodhomomultumaggrediaturaeris: quæfuntcaloris figna; lisfuit voxFrancifci Sfortia , Ioannis Medicei, & quorum antea diximus. Si voxautemacuta,fedconcitata, &intensa, arEtam LiberOctauus. 291 aritamarteriamfignificat,atcalidosanimi affectus,adeoque calorem cordis,& vigorem,iratiitaresonant. Sicontrà, vox grauis, &remiffa,amplamarteriam, ) multum aerispropul fum,acremiffumaffectum , & animum, quod vela natura eſſepotest; remiffumquenatura hominem SIGNIFICAT, et segnem, vela disciplina, & virtute moderatrice olimaffectuum , ) SIGNIFICAT hominem res externas spernentem, ad eoque magnanimum. Si vox fit acuta , & remiſſa, velhominem agrum fi gnificat,velsifanusfit,indicatfrigidi eum habitus, frigi dorumque affectuum,adeoquepauidum. Aristot. aßentitur InPhyſiog. hiscanonibus : dicit enimgrauem, &intensam vocemfortem cap.7.infi. fignificare: acutam , & remißamtimidum; &alibidicit, qui acute ,&fortiter vocant,eſſeiracundos : referri ad capras , rap. 10.inPhysiogn. Annotatiodevoceex moreprodeunte. Атpropofiticanones nonfuntdeeffectibus morum,ſedab eadem caufaamboeffectus pendent; verum effectus morum erit aulicum institutumfummißèloquendi; nonfacilèenimal tam vocemin aula exaudies; pariternotam illamex voce Cynędorum,quamaffertArift.effitu morumiuftèquisdixerit: Quicunque, inquit , vocibus acutis, mollibus, acru ptisloquunturCynędi ; nammollismosanimi,&lenoci niorum inturpibuscõgreffibus rufus eamloquendiformamin ducere videtur: in voceautemduopræfertimattendimus,& fignificationem , &fonum; atfignificatio ,aliaest vocisar ticulata , &abimpofitione, alia est vocis inarticulate , Sa natura ; priorfignificatio adloquutionem spectat's fecundaad vocem: voces,quenaturaliteraffectum aliquemfignificant, funtpræfertim, Rifus, Fletus, Suspiria , Ofcitatio, &Gan T 2 nitus 292 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. nitusis venereus,queminApulafaltanteBatilloLedam ,de fcribit Iuuenalis . ChrionomonLedam mollifaltante Batillo Apulagannit. Sicut in amplexu ſubitum, & miferabile. Quæqueeiufmodivoxfrequensinaliquohominemoreeŭ,ex quo nafcitur,fiueexeiusaffectu nafcitur, indicat. Sintcanones. DeRifu. DeFletu. DeSufpi rijs. Riſusfrequensindicat morem hilarem,&latum:cum ergo rifus excedit , &in cachinnum præfertimerumpitexcedentem bilaritatem, &profufuminletitiam animumfignificat:que profufioparum estnegocijs, &ſtudijs, demumquecuris ullis accomodata; undeiuremerito dicitur,riſumabūdarein oreſtul torŭ:hucetiäpertinet,quodde oculisridentibus anteadiximus. Fletusmeſtumfignificathominem, cumitaquefrequens eft fletus , grumnofumhominem, &fibiceterisquegrauem; liui pufilanimum fig dum idcirco,&puſilanimumfignificat : nonadeo veròfre quësfletus mifericordem animumfignificat,prefertimquecum lachrimenonin eiulatumprorumpunt. Talisfuit IasonPaso linusnobilis buiusciuitatis. Suspiriafunt ampliorquedaminſpiratio, & expiratio,quæ quidemnascunturexprecedenteceffationeofficij eiushuiufmodi expirandi,& inspirandi, utfuppleaturadcordis refrigeratio nem, /fuliginumexpulfionemidquodobeamceßationemde fuit. Cumitaqueanimus aliquoaffectudetentus,inaliquamque curamdeffixus officij eiufmodiobliuifcitur,nascunturadrepa rationemdefectusſuſpiria; quocircadolor,amorquepræfertim Suspiria concitant; ira quoque etenim utrunqueeorü affectum participat. Suspiriadolorem confequentiafuntcumgemitu: at fuspiria,que amoremconfequuntur,æftuofiora,acfermèin cenſa . Taliaquoqueire ſuſpiriacomitantur . Ofci  Ofcitatioquidfit, rundefiat, longior est contemplatio, DeOfcita quam utinhunclocumcogipoffit,fatinpræfentiafithaberi tione. eamprotorpentistumanimi, velfastidientis locum , vbide git , figno; undeprocontemptuhabentilli,quibuſcumdegimus, mfiexfomno, velfameproueniat. Spontanea ergo ofcitatio torpentis tumanimifignum est; torpetautemetiamanimus, cum aliquamaliquorum confuetudinemfaftiditabſquealio ta menpungentioreaffectu, velodij , velire , veltimoris.Vn de frequens ofcitandi mostorpidummoremindicat. De Afperitate,&Mollitic. In tertio S. grauitatem, &magnitudinemconiunximus; cumenimmultusestaer, &concitatusmotus,fit voxmagna, utnonneceßefitcanonesaliosfubiungereabijs, quos ibipro tulimus. Deafperitate, itaque, & mollitiedicamus .Nascitur asperitas exafpere arteriainæqualitate , undecumineampi tuitadistillat,raucedo, & vocisafperitasgignitur: lenis, con trà, vox, t) mollisexleuitateloci,acpartis eius; hæceftcaufa inftrumentaria: verumnafcituretiam,quęcüquefueritinstru menti difpofitio, ex caufaeffectrice. Rem itaintelligemus; pro arbitrioquiuispotest stridulam vocememittere,&quifuapte naturababetfonoram: eſt veròidobinconditumaerismotum, eiusquepropulſioneinarteriam: incōditus veròis motus,&ex imitationenafcipoteft,& exnaturapro animiipfiusinconditis motibus. Aeris veròinconditimotus, cùinterseprefertimine qualesfuerint,afperitatemfaciut vocis, ut voxaspera, cum ex bacprocedit cauſa, inconditos acrudesanimi motusdemon ftret. Molliscontràvoxmorefuauem,accultum. Quiaureaf fueuerit, & aduerterit animu,distinguetfacilèinterafperitate T 3 ex 294 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib &c. exinstrumento, Canon. 1 asperitatem exinconditoaerismotu,ac im pulſu. Cum exinstrumento nafcitur, vixnancifcimur indi ciumaliquod morum: atcum ex caufa effetrice rudemhomi nem, &agrestem asperitasfignificat ; ciuilem mollities, fi tamen hac exceßerit,effeminatum indicat; unde Aristote les mollem inter cetera vocem Cynedo tribuit : obfequioso. itaqueetiamhominicongruet. §. Sextus. DeFlexibilitate, &Rigiditate. RIGIDITAS vocisexrigiditatepræfertim , &infle xibilitate tracheæ nafcitur : at inflexibilitas , acrigiditas tra chea , &membriexfrigore ortumducit; unde inflexibilitas vocis,cum ex caufainstrumentarianafcitur,frigiditatem eius partis indicat que cumfit adeo coniuncta partibus fpiritali bus pulmonifcilicet , & propinqua cordi,non videtureffe poſſefrigidaabſque aliquo frigiditatis gradu in corde: rigida ergo , &inflexibilis vox, cum exinstrumento procedit,fri gidiusculum cor monstrat : unde timidum hominem quoque indicat . Atnafcietiam poteftextenoreinflexibili animi, ut ex eo tenore procedatquoque par, & æqualis veris in tra cheaminfluxus,propulſioque,indequenunquamdeflexa vox. Sit itaquecanon. Cum excaufaeffectrice nafciturinflexibili tas vocis,contumacisanimi eſtſignum: flexibilitas, contrà, placidi. Difcernemus veròutraexcaufa procedatinflexibi litas : exefficientené,an ex instrumento , reliqua conferendo inditia. Sienim nuſquam alibi contumacia morum appareat , frigidum intelligemushominem:ficontumacem moremdepre henderimusin reliquisexhoc ipſoſigno contumaciaeiuscon firmabitur. De Loquutione. Quænuncinloquutioneconfiderentur. INloquutione tum eaincluduntur,quede voce iamdixi mus,tumpræterea propria quædam,ſignificatiofcilicet& caracter, fiue idea; verum defignificatione hocpremitto, eam,quæprincipia electionis nostraindicat,pertinere adpri mariafignaaniminoftri,acmorum nostrorum,nonadfecunda ria, ) annexa, quemodòtradimus . Nuncergo SIGNIFICATIO nemipfam perſe orationis accipimus , v.gr.fiquis dixerit,ſe infornicemiturum ad explendum venerem,ſignificatprinci pia electionisfue; atfiquispriapeiam,carmina volutetore, ) demumturpiloquiogaudeatfrequenti, efteaorationisfignifica tioipfaperſeobſcenaabſque expreſſione alicuius electionis,prin cipijvéagendi,quæfignificatio ificatioadhhunc locum attinet . Cara Eter,fiue ideacontinetnuncmihiquæcunqueinoratione aRhe toribus confiderantur; exillisenimnafcitur;nempeexfimpli cibuspartibusnominibusfciliceteorumque virtutibus, tex compofitæ iam,accontinuateorationis virtutibus,queprefer tim in emendatione, incollocatione , &in figurisconsistunt . Mollis ex collocatione,figuris, & nominibus oratio caracter erit, quifignificabit etiam animumdicentis mollem,utdeMe cenateex mollitieeius orationis iudicatumlegimus: alia estin Seneca, funominum differentia,dum velnominainſua integritate adhibentur, vel inuertunturad delitias . Mulierculeinter dumitadefipiunt , velbleſa pronunciantesnomina, velcon tracta, immutata, v.gr.amafiumpuppum vocant, &cor culum, & pafferculum . T 4 §.Se 1  De coniect. cuiufquemorib.&c. Canon 1. ex materia, §. Secundus . Canonescontinet. MATERIA orationis,quaquisfrequenterdelectatur &argume confimilemmorem in eius animofignificat; nempe laſcinum toorationis. animum præſefert,qui laſciua orationegaudet; &quifem per dere,&delucroloquiturauarum; qui nonnifiintrucu lentorum factorum commemorationeverfatur, totosque in earediesponit,truculentos moresinanimoſuorefideredemon Strat : vera enimfuntilla, Nauitade ventis,detaurisnarratarator . Et Tractant fabrilia fabri . Canon 2. ex idea, & orationisad Si remipsamperſeſpectemus,quali orationisideaquifpiam caractere adalterum vtitur,eundemetiam affectum, & moremprafe perfonam fert;nempequilaſciuiaidealaſciuum animum,qui modesta mo deftum. De laſcinaeft illudIuuenalis, mode Noneft hicfermopudicus In vetula,quotieslaſciuuminteruenitillud Ζώη καὶ ψυχὴ modofub lodice relictis Vteris in turba . Compellationesfcilicet eiuſmodilaſciua,quibusquispiamin turbautatur , vocando quoſque vitam, & animam,grece autemtum; animumlaſciuumſignificantexPoeta, ) rectè: pariterqui modestis utitur compellationibus, ) figura de mum,modeſtum . Hucpertinent loquutioſtabilis,quam tri buit Aristot. magnanimo; celer,quamtribuitcircaparuafa tagentibus.ItemillaTerentijindicantlaſciuientem, /prurien temhominem. Inuerfa verbaeuerfas ceruices tuas Gemitus, fcreatus, tuſſis, risus. Annotationem continet. HAECitadicuntur,cumfimulationemcefſſarefupponitur, atfimulatioperuertitſignificationem cum aduenit; nempe то deſta oratio tegit immodeſtumanimum , uterat mihiColonus, quonemoinexcipiendismandatis, acimperijs meis, coram me lenior, reuerentior, acpromptior : &contrà, vbiliberè loqui poterat, nemoacrius conquerebatur, nemo magisgrauia iuffa dicebat, nemoagregius perficiebat. Exhacconfiderationedu xit MichaelScotus canonem,fcilicet modeſtam orationemeße argumentumhominis dolofi. Atveraestconuerſadolofum,fcilicet hominem vtimode Staoratione ; non conuertiturautemmodeſtam orationem eße dolofihominis, est etiam modefti. Quodfiimmo deſtumalijsin rebus modeſta videamus utioratione,tumdolofum, &infi diofumiudicareoportet. N D emotucorporistotius. De Longitudine greſſuum . I motucorporisprimum totius corporis motum confide remus,estautemingreßus, tſaltus, &curſustotius cor poris motus: ingreffum prefertim confiderare oportet, in quo duo confideratAriftotel. in Physiognom. longitudinem , bre uitatemvé greffuum , & tarditatem , velocitatemvé eo rundem. Longitudogreſſuum nonfimpliciter accipienda , fedreſpectu corporis :fecùsfolumalti corporis, & longorum crurium greffus longi eſſepoffent . Verum unusquisquepro corporefuo, t longos, &breues greffushabere poteft,at que itafumpta longitudo fignificat robur facultatis mouen tis, 298 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. ingreſſu ani bello. tis, &fustinentis corpus ; dumenimmouemur,corpus unico quiefcentis cruris fulchrofustinetur,quoddifficilius est,quàm duobuscruribusfustineri, duobusqueideòfulchris :quò verò longius alterumcrus proijcitur, eò amplius crefcit difficultas, Patenthæc utrobuftiore adidpotentiaopusfit. Fithinc,utſenioresbre deuioribus multo gradibus utantur. Matteus Merenda Ciuis malium li- noftervaldefenexbreuiffimis utebaturproximègreffibus,pa riterinfirmieadem utuntur breuitate : Breuitas itaque gref Suum imbecillitatem quandamfignificat ,ex qua imbecillitate Aristot.licèt caufamfupprefferit,in Physiognom. deduxit,bre uis greffus homines minimeperfectiuos eſſe,ſcilicetnon adduce re adfinem, & adperfectionem,abſolutionemqueopera; nem pe ex imbecillitate virtutis motricis arguit imbecillitatem exequentis . I. Secundus. Deceleritategreſſuum,actarditate. Атceleritasmotus, acgreffuumconcitatumſpirituumim pulfum,proindequeconcitatum animumfignificat, undeve hementis hominem defiderij indicatſeſeque illi permittentis . Exigitur præterea membrorum expedita admotum conditio : craffi, )pingueshomines,quibusque turgentmole membra, minusfuntadmotumexpediti, quàmficciores,tt) neruofi:cali diitaque, &ficci, celeresfunt vtranqueob caufam. Tarditas contranafcitur ex contrarijscaufis,nempeexdefiderioremiffo, quaremißio velnafciturexrerumcontemptu, estquemagna nimihominis, cuiidcircoAristot. motum tardumtribuit ; vel ex animifrigiditate, estquefocordis, &pigri. Ex celeritate Aristot. arguithominem aptum adnegocia abſoluenda, &iu rè; caliditas enim actuosos reddit, & celeritasipfa aptiffima eft adremabfoluendam, nifitamentantafuerit,utfeipfam perturbet Liber Octauus . 299 perturbetinstaraqueexireproperantisexangusto vaſe. Vi demusenim pariteraliquos effèhomines mirafeftinationebuc illuc diſcurrentes,nectamenquicquamabſoluentes: alios contrà plurimaagere quiefcentium instar, tactu otiofisfimilimos . DePifonePaterculus, Nemo magis, quæagendafunt, Lib.2. egitfinevlla oftentationeagendi. §. Tertius. Canones continetArift. inPhy ſiognom. cap. 10. ARIST. ergohoscanonesfubijcit. Quilongifunt, ac Canon1. tardigreſſus, funt tarditate moleſti,&perfectiui,fii licet abſoluentes opera: ratio veròeſt ,quoniamlongitudogref fuumeftefficax, tarditas veròcunctabundum,diuquedelibe rantem reddithominem Qui breuis,&tardigreſſus,tarditatemoleftus,non Canon2. perfectiuus; etenimbreuiter,tardequeingredimini meefficax eſtadperficienda opera. Quilongi,&celerisgreſſus, non moleſtus tardi- Canon3. tate, perfectiuusque eſt; quoniam celeritas perfecti ua,&longitudononinefficax. Quibreuis,&celerisgreſſus , nonmoleſtus tardi- Canon4. tate,&nonperfectiuus. Preferonempe lectionemnega tiuamaffirmatiue, quequidemincodice græco aliquo reperi tur, at afteriſco etiamnotatur, eique alterafubftituitur. §. Quartus. Exfundamentispoſitis Canonesdeducuntur. Acanonibus Aristot. non receduntiactafundamenta, ex quibus itidemfumitureos, quilongorumfuntgreffuum,actar dorum 300 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib &c. dorumeſſe actionumfuarum perfectores , & diuturne etiam deliberationis ; at cum procedittarditasex contempturerum, effemagnanimos. Remiffecupiditatesnonfatishabentlocum, cumlongitudinegreffuum, nempehacroburpofcit , adeoqueca lorem; illæ veròfrigida temperiei innituntur. Celeritas, longitudo greffuum cum validis cupiditatibus, validitatem quoquefacultatis exequentis , acroburſignificat; utactuosum hominemadducentemqueadfinemfuasoperationesindicet;ma gisnempeexequentem,nontamen quèdeliberantem,acequali maturitate, atque longorum,&tardorumgreßuumhomo. Ce leritas motuum , &breuitas greffuum acutas cupiditates,at imbecillitatem virtutisfignificat : unde ob celeritatem non maturèdeliberat,ob imbecillitatem exequutricis virtutis adfi nem non perducit actiones ceptas. AlexanderMantufellius eiufmodiinceffuingrediebatur, eta moribusfignificatis nonab horruit. Pigribominispræfertim videntureffe acefju ingrediebat ell greffuspar ui, t) tardi:nampigritiescum naturalipropenfioneinnititur, frigiditatemtemperamenti expofcit,adeoque imbecillitatem virtutis . Modesti, utquirefractas , habent cupiditates , tardorum greffuumfunt, utArist.dicit Physiogn.cap.6.longorumau temeòquòdadexitumpotesfintcepta adducere. §. Quintus. Demotioneinęquali. ALIQVI inęqualimotugradiuntur,nuncfcilicet velociore, nunctardiore: que motuuminæqualitas argumentumestinſta bilitatis morum: inſtabilitas autemfæpe comes eſt vitij ,vel difpofitionispraue ex Aristot. 9. Eth.cap.4. quiimprobistri buit diffenfionemaſeipfis, &iugeminanimopugnam. Non iniuria Liber Octauus. 301 iniuriain Catilinaexprimit Salustiusinæqualem inceſſum, indicem eius improbitatis,verbafunt. Igitur color ei exan guis, fœdioculi, citus modò , modòtardusinceſſus, prorfus in facie , vultuque vecordia inerat . Sit ergo canon . Inequalitasinceſſus,quiſcilicet modòcituseft,modòtardus, Canon. femperinstabilitatem morum fignificat, ut plurimum autem improbitatem etiam. Declarandus verò, )accipiendus canon, cùminæqualitas Declaratio. eiufmodide moreinest, nonex electione, &propofito; dico ex electione,&proposito,fiquis ex.gr.adfuiexercitationemcele riter ambulat : deindepro grauitateſua inreliquaambulatio netardeincedat . Demotueodemvniuerficorporiscumfiguraaliqua itidemcorporis. Caput Quintum . §. Primus . Deinceſſucum erecta ceruice. IN NCESSvs cumerectaceruicefuperbiamfignificat; unde Niceta ChoniatesLatinos,quosfuperbosafferebat erectain cedere ceruice defcribit. Horum, qui erecta ceruicelongis, tardisgreffibusingrediuntur, fumma funt fuperbia: atquice leriterambulant, refractamfuperbiamſignificant,at quibre uiumfuntgreffuum,ſuperbiolam &ipfifuamobtinent,fedpa 1 • rumefficacem . §. Secundus. Deinceſſucuminflexaceruice. INCEDENTES ceruice inflexain anteriorempartem cogi- Canont. tabundum habitum præſeferunt . Atfi ceruix inflexafuerit Canon2. inpar 302 Deconiect. cuiuſquemorib.&c. inpartemdexteram, argumentumid CynedorumfcribitArist. Canon3. Inceffus auteminflexaceruiceadfiniftram Thraſonum habitus videtureffe, isenim geſtus aptiffimus ad educendumenſem; undequi vocariamant, manuadenſem,ut vocabaturAure Vopiſcus in lianusposteaImperator, optimeſe ineacorporisfigura compo eiusvita . nunt: quoniam veròfortis extraoccafionem mitiseft, ut dicit Arift.quiperpetuoſein pugnandihabitu cõponunt,fimularepo tiusfortitudinem,quàm exercere , & habere videntur. Atfi naturalisfuerit habitus is corporis,fortitudinem naturalemfi Ineiusvita. gnificat: quodconfirmatur, quiaex Plutarcho AlexanderMa gnusitaadfinistramparumperflexamceruicem habebat. Ada mantius veròdiciteffeignorantes, ) Albertus ſtultos,quiita inflexa ceruice incedunt . Sieximitatione , &fictione contra Etafit eafigura,rectèfehabentcanones Alberti, et Adaman tij . Thraſones enimineptifunthomines; undede Thraſone, quemin Eunucho adducit Terentius, Gnathodicit, Factuuseftinfulſus, tardus . Atfifit ex naturali habitu, nonrectè dicuntur; neque etiam Alexanderfuitfatuus, &c. §. Tertius . Deinceſſu cumgeſtu, figuravè corporis actioni alicui accomodata. QVI inceduntcũgeſtualiquoactionicuipiamconueniente, indicantfeipfosin eam actionempropensos, v.gr. mulier,que in morem criſſantis mouetur, ambulatque: vir,quiin morem ceuentis; neque veròPerfiusfine amarulentiain Romanospro ceres dum laudabant, &admirabantur carminapublicèdecan tata (aNeroneforte)protulitillud, AnRomuleCeues? Licèt 4 LiberOctauus. 303 Licètcumilli tumincederent , fedStarent,pertineat potius adfequenscaput . Exhocfortecanone pendet illudAristot. Qui pedibus, &cruribus inuerfis ambulant , effeminati. Ea enimfi gura ad veneris exercitium apta est. Inideaautem Cynedi flexibilemgenu ipſum dicit. Quodfignumex eodempendet fundamento. Demotupartis corporis . Caput Sextum . §. Primus . Demotibus brachiorum, &manuum Canones ea dereAriftot. ALIQVIinter loquendummanus, brachiaiactant, motitantvé, dequorum motibus Aristot. canonem hunc protulit . Idem de corum motu dicendum , quod de greſſibus , dequeingreſſu dicitur. Quocirca,quibreui motu, acceleri manum, brachiumvéiactat, inftar eius erit, qui greßibusbreuibus , acceleribus utitur; qui longiusiactat,ac celeriter, instargradientis longisgreßibus, & celeribus; idem queestdehis, atquedeillis iudiciumfaciendum, quodpariter dereliquis est afſferendum . §. Secundus . Canones alij exauthoris ſententia additi . MOTIONES interloquendum, brachiorum,manuum que cum validefuerint,demonstrant magnum imperiumfa cultatisfignificatricis in corpus, cumnedum in vocalia instru menta influat,fedin brachia , & manus, eo uſque resproce dit, utquidam rotentcaput. Supploſiones pedumfuntorato rifrequentiores, velerant antiquitus , utapud antiquosRe thores 304 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib &c. AdHeren. thoreslegimus. Immodicè autemaperireſuaſenſa,ſimplicis, et Quintil. Cic. iBruto leuis eft hominis : at immodicè tegere, eftocculti, & latentis . Canon1. Quiitaqueimmodicaceleritate, ac minutis motibusmanus,di gitosvéiactant,acbrachia, leues, acfimplices,ſedemonftrant . Canon2. Canon3. Hortenfiusoratorgeſticulatorfuit , &leuem etiamſe præbuit hominem. Qui earundempartium motibus longis, ac maiori bus utuntur,verùmnonceleribus, apertos quidemſe ,atgra uestamenfignificant . Quiab omni motu abftinet tectum ſe Praje præfert, velfrigidum, ſegnem. Abalterutraverò cauſa procedateffectus,eft ex alijsfignis, &coniecturisdijudicandū. §. Tertius . Exceptiotraditur. VERVMexcipereoportet, nifi ex vitainſtituto, affuetu Ammianus dineque ineumſemoremaliquis compofuerit. ConstantiusIm Marcellinus perator obaffectatamgrauitatem immotus adeo perſtabat, ut prohomine viuente fimulachrum viuentis credipoffet. Hi ſpaninuncinfimilemſeſegrauitatemcomponunt,utnonfacilè fit inillisgefticulationes manuum videre. Siqui ergoexinfti tuto exterioremcompofitionemfequantur,non licet ex motibus, corumvéceffatione interiorem animi cultumin ipfis arguere. §.Quartus. Demotibusreliquarumpartium . MOVERE auteminterloquendumreliquaspartesfigni ficat earundempartium multam exercitationem, utsuspicari iurèpoßimusdeillis, qui interloquendumceuent (veluti pro ximocapiteex Perfiode Romanisdiximus)nefint illi motui longa, &turpiexercitatione afſfueti. De LiberOctauus. 305 Decorporiscultu . Caput Septimum . §. Primus. Quæ caufæ cultus corporis , & contrariæ omiffionis. corporis non ab unicapendet caufa,neque Cetiamcontrariaomifsio:cultusenim effepoteft ex livids. libidi ne, vtformofior,ſcilicet ex ornatu appareat, vndeſpectatores, aut ſpectatrices faciliusinfui amorem alliciat : poteft etiamex Superbia ,ambitionevé procedere, utfit admirationi ceteris excellentia veftium . Contrariaautem omißioextribuspre fertim caufispendere poteft; excontemptu exterioris eiufmodi cultus , qui contemptus , velex spretu vulgarishonoris ori tur, utin Magnanimis,velexcultus interioris amore, utin contemplationideditis , veldemum ex distractione in potio remcuram. Secundolocopendere poteft ex auaritia . Tertioex pigritia,etſecordia. Quiex pigritia cultumomittunt,fordi bus uſque corporisfedantur: eodem enim vitio impediun tur,neſelauent, comantique , & cumdemum laboreminfui cura ponant,qui adciuilem corporis cultum exigitur. Sint iam canones . Canones ex cultu corporis. CVLTVS corporis vestibus fumptuofis abſquemollitie Canon 1.SIGNIFICAT hominem superbum, ambitiosumvé, cum excefferit conditionem eius : intra veròſtatusfui limiteshominemma gnificum autfaltem honorisftudiofum . CafarinCommenta rijsfcribit aduentumfuum ex colore veſtituscognitum, quo υ infigni 306 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. rop. Lib. 8. Cy- infigni inpralijs uti confueuerat . Cyrus ex Xenophonte au guftiffimumhabitumfumpfit, cum primumpostadeptum im Plin. lib. 9. perium palamfolemniter prodijt . Cum quadrigentiesfefter hift. c.35. Canon2. tium ornatuſeſe comebat Lollia , &dignitatis, &forme honorem quærebat. Cultus vestiumcum mollitie præfertimcorporis laſciuiam indicat tuminfæminis, tummaximèin maribus . Vestesil Seneca. letranslucide , quibus nonmagis tegebanturfæmina in via adulteris , quàm in cubili , impudicitiamfanè monstrabant . Atcultucorporis, mollipræfertim accedenteimpudicitiaargui tur, velutifi iuuenem purpuriſſo infectum quis viderit, crinibus ferroin cincinnoscontortis , euulfis crurium , &bra Iuuenalis Sat.2. Canon3. Canon4. Canon5.. chiorumpilis,præfertimquepodicis, utillud Satyrici, Podi celeui ,quis inquam eiufmodiiuuenem nonturpiter lafciuum crediderit ? Siquisnonadmodum pretiofis veſtibus,& illis non or dinatè admodum, &concinnèdiſpoſitis utatur ,iudicaride bet immaiorem, quàmcorporiscultus curam diſtractus . Ita Cefarmalè præcinctus incedebat , utrectèineoSylla coniece rit animum magna molientem , velmoliturum , idque monue rit Pompeium . Caue tibi a puero malè præcincto ; meliusque multoiudicauit,quàm Cicero, qui ex eodem cinctu molli Cesarem , &imbecillianimocrediderat . Siquis vestibus utatur vilispretij , atillisdiligenterac comodatis , & reſartis;fipauperfuerit,politum;fi diues , auarum hominemſe prebet: nam cultusftudio tenetur : at fumptuiparcit infra dignitatemfuam, &facultates ; quod est auaritie . Si quis vestibus non vilibus , at immundis utatur, multis fordibus præterea corporis , ac Squallore inficia tur, LiberOctauus. tur, sefocordem, & pigrumfignificat , non auarums . 307 Siquis , & vilibus vestibus, & protritis, &immun. Canon6. dis utatur ,ſe ſe adextremum auarumfignificat . Namex trema auaritia adeo in curam rei distrahit animum,utnul li alij negocio , ac cure vacare poffit . Videmus nuncN.bo minem ditiffimum vestimentorum pufillitate , ac immundi tię , corporisqueilluuia despicabilem omnibusſeprebere. Utrumautem ex pigritia, an ex occupatione aliarum cu- Canon7. rarumquisfitfordidus , dijudicandum eft, confiderando, num in aliquarefitis diligens . Sienimin aliquadiligenserit , ex occupatione , non exfocordia. Idem,quemmodòdiximus, af fidet fumma cum diligentia frumentorum menfura, neque puluere deterretur; pauloque vegetiorolimatateprediaſua circumibat,quediligentiamfignificant, nonpigritiam ; exdi uitiarum ergo curafordes. Utrum vilis pretij veſtis ufus ex auaritiafit, an ex Canon8. contemptu cultusexterioris ,obaliquaminteriorem curam,ex reliqua hominis vita eſtimari potest. Sienim videamusho minem studijs occupatum literarum , velmilitiæ, velalicu ius artis, atque in eononmultam accumulandi curam, ex re liqua vita colligamus, certi erimus,nonexauaritiaexiguita te vestium uti. Philopomenestotoanimoin militaribusme ditationibus occupatus , veſtitus ornatum ſpernebat . Gotti fredus Bullionius ex magnanimitategregario amictu induebatur, vt velherbefacco infidensÆgy ptiosoratores exceperit, quitamenin tam exiguo cultu virtutis illius maie Statem agnouerunt , & reuerentifunt. 2 Ad 308 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. Adprimariafignamorumaposterioritranfit. Primòenimdeexterioriactioneagit, quametma teriale actionis vocat . Caput Octauum. §. Primus . Fundamenta dicendorumaperit. Ac defecundarijs minusque principalibusfignis mo rumaposterioridictafint; adprimarianunctranfeamus. Sunt veròhec actiones ipforummet habituum,quorum aliæ funtinterne,aliæ externa .Primolocodeexternisagamus; po ſteadeinternis, utdeſenſuobuijs; inquibus , tum id,quod materiale eſt , occurrit, tumformale . Idipfum , quodfit,ma teriale est ; nempe pugnare aduerfus hostem audacter . For maleautemfumiturafine, utfipugnetquis ob bonestatem actionisfortis,exfortitudine verèoperetur:fiobcharitatePa tria , ex virtute propriæ charitatisagat: fi ob lucrum ,pre miumquepromiffumaPrincipe,&expectatum (utcumdi reptio vrbisobſeſſe militibuspromittitur) exftudiolucri; t exauaritiadefcendit operatio :fi verò addignitates militares obtinendas, &demum adhonores ,queerat ciuilis fortitudo Aristotelisexſtudio honoris verèhomotum agit. Antearem pertractauimus , ac vidimus ex Aristot. quifuraturobadul terium ,eße potius adulterum , quàm furem. Materiale ergofemperestidem pugnarepropatria, at formaleest, velfortitudinis,velcharitatis,velauaritia,vel ambitionis , &c. Et quoniamformale verèmoremfignifi cat , non materialeactionis ; hincfit, ut actioipfa perſenon indicet exactè morem : cũexlongèdiuerfis moribus,& habiti buspoffiteademproficifci . Sint itaque canones . Canones continet. Ex materialiipſaactioneexterioremoremnonlicetdepre- Canon1. bendere argumentoneceßario,fiue techmirio. Exdictis iam fatispatet canonis veritas; non enimexaudaci,&fortipu gnalicetarguerehominemfortem; cumex ambitione, velex auaritia poffitfortiter pugnaſſe . Exmaterialitameneademactionefrequentinafciturproba- Canon2. labilis admodum coniecturamorisrefpondentis;fcilicet expu gnafrequente, coniecturafortitudinis ; exfrequenteelargitio nebonorum,coniectura liberalitatis. Confirmaturcanon,tum exeo quòdeffectum,nificontra- Cófirmatio rium appareat, in caufam perſereducimus; tum etiam ex Canonis. communihominumfenfu, &exOratorum ſu, acRethorum monitis . Monet Aristotelesin 1. Reth. tumfactaeffe habi- Cap.9. tusfigna, tum plurimumconferre, ut laudatushomoexha bitufeciffè credatur,fifæpiusfeciſſedemonstretur. Orato resautem adprestantiam virtutis celebratorumhominum exagerandam , eorum accumulant exterioresactiones. Cicero proleg. Maniliafummam,immofummas virtutesinPompeio demonftrauitexijs,quægefferat. Italiamliberauerat; Siciliam multis cinctampericulis explicauerat;Aphricăpacauerat;Gal liamRomanisexercitibus ferroaperuerat ; in Hifpania hoftes plurimosprofligauerat ; Seruilebellum, &demumPyraticum confecerat. Legislatores pariter , ac Iudices æftimationem eiufmodi , ac coniecturam interioris habitus ex actione exte riore , frequente præfertim , pro neceffaria habent, & eui dente ; vocantque prefumptionem iuris , & de iure ; contra quam nullam defenfionem, & tergiuerfationem admittunt, 3 ut 310 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. utquifuraturex electione , atqueiterumtertioprofurebabe tur,atqueepunitur. punitu Quieodemmododicithærefim,autberetica lefactüperpetrat, habeturhereticus,atque uthæreticuspuni tur.Hecpræfumptio violentaaIurifconfultis, eiusque exem plum,non tamen nomen,habetur extra debaret. in6.cap. accufatus, §. illequoque . Exemploactionis Seiani, eterrorisTiberijconfir maturidem; fcilicetnon neceffariocolligi ex materiali,exterioreg , actionemorem. NON effe autemexmateriali ipſa operationead babitum neceffariamillationepreter morem, quædiximus, placetrepetitofermone confirmare: esto veròexemplumillud Seiani ,quodplurimumdecepitTiberium verſutum,alioquin &aftutumPrincipem;placettotum verbis Tacitiexfcribere. Atfortè illisdiebus oblatumCæfari anceps pericu lumauxitvanarumoris:prębuitqueipſi materiam, curamicitiæ conſtantięqueSeianimagis fideret: ve fcebantur in villa, cui vocabulumſpeluncæ, mare Anuelanuminter,Fundanosque montes,natiuo in ſpecu , eiusos lapſis repente faxisobruit quofdam miniſtros; hincmetusinomnes,&fugaeorum, qui conuiuium celebrabant; Seianusgenu,vultuque,& manibus fuperCæfaremſuſpenſus appofuitſeſein cidentibus,atquehabitutalirepertuseſtamilitibus, qui ſubſidiovenerant. Maior exeo, &quamquam exitioſa fuaderet,vtnonfuianxiuscum fideaudie batur. ExhacitaqueactionefidemmaximaminSeiano,ar gumen Liber Octauus. gumentatus estTiberius,atargumentononneceffario,utpa 311 patefacta pofteaconspiratiodetexit. Verùm Seianusmorien te tumTiberio improuiſacamorte agnofcebatſeperditumiri: imperiumenim in Germanicidomum recedebatcuiipfe inten tiffimus erat: nonergo charitate Tiberij ,fedamoreſui Tibe riumfouit,totisque viribus vitæ eiusconfulit; atcumaliter crediderit Tiberius ,eousque auctoritatem eiuspromouit, ut paulòminus ipfe oppreffus deincepsfuerit ab immodica infidi bominis, &adimperiumadfpirantis potentia. Deformaliactione,fiueformaliparteactionis. A  Numelectiofit ſignumhabitus, affirmantium opinio. D formalem iam actionis partem accedamus . Hac quefit vidimus:nunc repetatur, & unde deprehen datur, & quomodo, difpiciamus. Aristoteles videtur ele Elionem utbabitusfignumafferreinRethor. adTheod.lib.1. c. 4. dicitproprium effeeius,quihabituiam virtutispotiturex effeeius, qui babitu ian electione agere; & lib.3.Ethic. c.2.inprincipiodicit,electionem eße virtuti ,idesthabituiaffinem,ft ) magisindicare mores, quàmindicet actio; &lib.s. Ethic.adNichom.c.3. idemdifertè tradit, ubiactionestrifariam diftinguit infactasex errore,in factasexaffectu,in factas exelectione . Solum he poſtrema babitumfignificant: funt hæc inter catera Aristot. verba Qui in his naturalibus affectibus,&neceſſarijs læ dunt,&peccat,iniuftèquidéagunt; funtqueiniuftè facta ,nondumtamen iniufti obhæc, nequepraui ipfi 4 312 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. ipfi homines habentur, quippe cum læſio ipſa ex prauitate minimè euenerit.Nam cumex electione læſerit quispiam , tum demum iniuftus,&prauus eft . Hæc ibi Philoſophus,ex quo dogmateilludprocanone pendere videtur .Vt quinon ex impetu affectus,fed exele Etione adulterium perpetrauerit,fitintemperans habitu,Sci licet eius vitij fit imbutus . Hoc idem Legumlatores ali qui interpretati funt, præfertimque Veneti3 penesquosqui exaffectu perpetranthomicidium, dicunt illi acaſo puro , mitiuspuniuntur; atquiex electione,dicunt acaſopenſa to,pœna mortisplectuntur; quaſiſcilicetbi prauifint, ex habitu peccent ,adeoque ut deplorateprauitatisfint ex viuentiumnumero tollendi ; illi peccent ex affectu, &pof fint emendari. Satir. 1. §. Secundus. Pro negatiua opinione. Ат contrafacit,quoniameadem materialis actio exele Etione pluriumhabituum effepoteft, proindeque electiononfi gnificatcertafignificatione habitumrefpondentemprimoacper fematerialiactioni .Nempequi vetulam diuiteminhibantad lucrumfaciendum, penes Iuuenalem. NoctibusinCelumquoseuehitoptimaſummi, Nuncviaproceſſus vetula veficabeate Vnciolam Proculeius habet,ſedGillodeuncem : Partesquiſquefuas admenfuramingiunis . : Hiinquam exelectionepeccant,atnonpropter voluptatem, fedpropterquæſtum , ut actio intemperantia materialis ex auaritia formalefuum haberet; neque ſquequaque reftèex electione actionis intemperantis intemperantem inillis homini bus habitum licebat arguere; credendum eft enimeos illo pec caße Liber Octauus. 313 caßeanimo,queminfeipfoexprimitin pariagoneHoratiusin Ode illa . Rogare longo putidam teſaculo, Vires quid eneruet meas ? 8. Epodon. Cumfittibi dens ater , &c. Nauseabundifcilicet in eoscomplexus defcendebant ,ata defideriohabendi impellebantur. Ariftot.ipſe , ut nonfemel Lib.s.Eth. retulimus , difertis verbis idem testatur . Iterum repetamus cap.2. verba. Adde, quodſi alius,lucrandigratia, adulte riumcomittat,pecuniasqueaccipiat ,aliustribuat, damnoqueafficiaturob cupiditatem ,hic intempe rans magis eſſe videbit,quàmplurisvfurpator : ille iniuftus,&non intemperans,perfpicuúſcilicet,pro ptereaquodlucrandi cauſaid facit. Hecille. Atratio pretereaidemfuadet,namformale actionis confiftitinfine,ſeu exfinependet, atelectio est mediorumnonfinis,quocircaele Etioquatenus electioformaleactioni nontribuit. §. Tertius . Veritasaperiturnempeinfine,vel ex fineeſt formale actionis. VERITATEM nunc aperiamus. Formale ergo actionisin fineconsistit, velin actionisabeo nexu , utantea diximus, nnncquerepetimus: quocircaexprincipio,quodafferturincon ſultationis fyllogifmo, fiue in ratione actionis, elicitur . De principijs autemeiufmodi actionum noftrarumfatis iam an- Lib. 2. de tea . Siquisergopuellis donet,neinopiapraßepudicitiam , Prud.c.3. vendant;formaleactioniseritisipfefinis,qui charitatis eft: atfiquiseifdem daretadeasftuprandas ;formale tum eritin temperantiumfinis: principium enimprioris actionis, eiusque rationis , quodidemest,finis est,ne puellæ pudicitiam ven dant: Deconiect.cuiufquemorib &c. dant: atfecundeestſtupriirrogatio. Ininferendo Patriabello Cafarlibidine tyrannidis arripiende mouebatur ,hicerat eius finis; idqueformaleactionis , acdeliberationisfue : at militum inobfequendotum Cafariineademactioneerat defendereiniu uil.lib.1. Debell.ci- rias Imperatorisfui,& TribunorumPleb.itain Comentarijs legimus,conclamantlegionis 13.que aderat, militesſeſepa ratoseffeImperatorisfui , Tribunorumqueiniuriasdefendere : quemetiamfinemprætendebatCaſar,occultans eiusobtentufi nem verum. Exfine veròformaleactionis nafcifecundùm Aristot. quoque, eiusque hoceſſe dogmapatetex 2. cap. s . Ethic.locoproximè adductodeeo,quilucrandicauſa adulterium committit. §. Quartus. Quomodoelectio ſignificet habitum, i conciliantur contrariæ fententiæ §. primi , &fecundi. Vì verdintelligamus, utrumformaleactionisfignificete habitum, necne, estenodandadifficultas, rutrum electiofitfi gnumhabitus;fititaqueconclufio. Quiex electione operatur, exaliquohabitu operatur,fiuerectè operetur,fiue malè. Expar tiumenumerationeconstat, fi enim malè,& malaeligit,iam voluntas cedit affectibusipsa perſe; namfi ex impetu affe Etuum protraberetur, utin incontinentibus non eßetea ele Etio. Iam ergo inſeditin rationeprincipiumdeprauatumpeccan di, quodhabitumfupponit vitij;folumenim vitiumprincipia agendiperuertit, ut antea vidimus . Cum autem recta, at queprobaexelectioneagimus, velaffectusrepugnat,& vin cuntur, eftque habitus continentia, vel affectusobfecundant rationi, estque habitus virtutis. Sitfecunda conclufio ,que eſt declaratio quoque pracedentis; ex electione operari indicat quidem LiberOctauus. 315 quidemhabitum aliquem,acnonneceffariòillum,adquemper tinetprimò actio, v.gr.furariexelectione arguithabitum non neceſſariofurandi; poteftenim effeexhabitu intemperantiæ ,fi quisfuretur, ut adulteretur, velfornicetur, velutifilijfami liasinductiin comedijs expilabuntpatresadamicas comparan das. Quiadredimendumpatremfurarieligeret,eaelectionon furandi,fedcharitatishabitumindicaret. Sit tertia Conclufio. Electio,utfumitur unà cumrationeoperandi,feucumconful tatoriofyllogifmo, indicat nedumhabitum in vniuerfum,ſed certumhabitum, & determinatum; nempehabitumillum , ad quemprincipiumagendi, quodqueidemestfinisoperationisſpe Etat,v.gr.fiintelligamquempiamelegiſſefurari, utpatrem captiuumredimeret , cognofcoineohabitumcharitatis ergapa trem. Hecipſaperſeconclufioconstat. Quartaconclufio . Electiononqueuisproba declarat vir tutishabitum,fedqueadactionem uſqueperſtat. Hæcconclu fiodeclaratur,&probatur exeo , eo,quòdincontinentiaccidit; is enim anteoccafionempræfentempeccandirectè,tt) recta eligit, atingruente occafionedeficit. Rectaitaque eiuselectio nequa quamineo virtutishabitumindicat, ) conclufionespræceden tes, quòad virtutumhabitusſpectant,cum huiufmodi decla rationeſunt accipiende. §. Quintus. Formaleactionis, an,&quando fignificethabitum. FORMALE actionisfignificaremorem,fatisiamconſtat; atcummoristriplexfitgradus , ipfafcilicetpropenfio, quæali ter mosnaturalisdicitur,diſpoſitioaccedens,&tertio acpoftre zmo locohabitus contractus. Vtrumdicendumeft,formale actio nisfemperfignificare babitum contractum ? t) negatiuère Sponden  Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. ſpondendumest;nam &quiexnaturalimoreoperatur &qui exdifpofitione, nedumquiexhabitu, adfinemaliquem agit. iuxta axioma Aristot. Omnisactio, omnis electiobo numexpetit. Erit itaquepriorconclufio:formale actionis fignificatfempermorem, atnonfemper babitum : atfecundafit conclufio . Quandoformaleactioniscum electioneiungitur,iam habitumfignificat,patetexprecedenteproximo §. §. Sextus. Exceptio concluſionisſecundæ§. quarti. CONCLUSIOfecundaſ. quartiexceptionem, &re Strictionemfupracap. 9. I.fecundi,patitur; utfitaccipienda fecundummoralem veritatem, nonfecundùm prefumptionem iuris,fecus enim est iurispræfumptio, &deiure,ut quiexele 1 A § Etionefuratur,fitfur. Quidicit exelectione , &fedato animo hærefim,fit bereticus: adeo utqui berefimeo modoprotule rit, aut aliudhæreticalefactumfecerit , &iamſipostea neget intentionem &opinionem hereticam, attamen ut hæreticus punietur, dicitur autem prefumptio violentaa Iurisconfultis, outfupràannotato locodiximus. Methodusdeprehendendiformaleactionis,fiuefi nem eius,ſupponendointerim nullamfubeffefi mulationemfallaciamvè. CaputVndecimum. . Primus. Methodusinduocapitaſecatur. NNITAMVR nuncmethodum traderedeprehendendi quem obfinemquispiamoperetur,operatusvéfit, duplex veròest methodicaput, alterum,cùmfimpliciter agitur & absque Liber Octauus. abſquefallacia : alterum cumfallaciafubeft, vel eamfubeffe fufpicamur; oportet itaque eamdetegere. Primo nunclocopri 317 mumcaputpertractemus , fupponamusfcilicetquiagit,&qui loquiturapertè, &candidè agere, acloqui . §. Secundus. Primumcaputmethodi, præ cepta inueniendi finis traduntur. QUONIAM ergoaniminoſtriſenſuum, &notionum Ariftot.1. fignafunt voces, barumſcripta,fit ut venariexvocibus Perih.c.1. preſentis,&fcripturaabfentisdebeamusfinem, ob quem quif queoperetur. Apertiſſima verò Apertiſſima veròfignificatio eft, cum quisdifer tis verbis, explicitequefinem operationisfue protestatur:fi nempe dixerithuncegoobfinem, veladfinemfum operatus . SiCafar, &Pompeiusdeſe ipfis ea dixiffent,que de ijfdem Cicero dicit: Sed neutri, inquit, σκοπός eſt ille, vt nos Lib.8.epift. beati ſimus,vterqueregnare vult,interdum finis vo cefuppreffa tamen exprimitur; cum enimdicimus aliquidnos feciffe, velfacere , velmoliri, utquippiam aliud confequa mur, velalicuius reigratia , velcauſa,finem fignificamus. Item quoniam finisestquideminintentioneprimus,atin exe cutione postremus , utqueipfecauſaest ingenerefinaliscau ſe,itaefteffectusingenerecaufæ effectricis ; ideoquod aliqua effectione obtinere molimus, idipfum actionis propofita fi nis est. Schemata orationum quibus finis exprimitur affe ramus. MEN. Quin egoveròquamobremidfaciasne ſcio . CH. Egone,vtilliusanimum, quinuncluxu 11.adAtti cum. Primű exe plum penes Ter.Heaut. ria , &lafciuia diffluit, retundam , redigamvè,vt, act.5.fce.1. quòſevertat,nefciat. Intelli 318 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. Intelligimus exhisfinemfuiſſe Chremetis retundare, acre primereanimumlafciuientisfilij . Secundum exemplú pe nesCic.dFi nibus. Tertium far.s, Vt tum aut voluptates omittanturmaiorum volupta adipiſcendarum cauſa aut dolore ſuſcipiantur maiorumdolorum effugiendorumgratia . In quoexemplo & vox,cauſa,ſignificat finem , &vox, gratia, uthac ratione adeptio maiorum voluptatum propona tur, utfinis,necnon maiorum dolorumeffugium. Quodmeaſpontefacere conſtitueram ,vtquam eleniflimummepræberem,&Pompeiumdaremope penesCic.li &Cornelio ram, vtreconciliarem. Tentemushoc modo,ſipof br.9.adAtt. fumus omnium voluntates recuperare, & diuturna eput.8. Canon. Annotatio. victoriavti . Finis lenitatis Cæfaris erat diuturne victoria ufus. Idest diuturna dominatio;quemfinem alio mododicendi expreffit, clariore post pauca verba . Hæc noua fit ratio vincen di, vtmifericordia,&liberalitatenos muniamus . Sit canon . Sempereffectus rationemfinis habetad caufamfuam effe Etricem, velfinisproximi,velremoti . Quòfinis autem remotioreft,ac ulterior, eòeſtdignior, & veriorfinis, patet exfuperioribus, nempe lenitatis Cefaris,fi nisproximioreratrecuperare voluntateshominum: huiufmodi autemrecuperationis finis erat diuturne victorie uſus,fiue fecuradominatio. Verioritaquefinis eratdominatio,quàm v luntatemreconciliatio; nam, & ulterior . Quibusexlocis finisfiteruendus. Ex verbis verò,&fcriptura vidimusfinem eruipoffe. Inter scripturas autem epistola præfertim animum aperit, cum ad familiarem, intimum, acfidumfcribitur. Ex loquutione subita, et improvisa syncerius, quàm meditata finemaperit. Subdolaenimest magis, quàmlonga meditatione teximus . Exinteriore actioneindago moris . Caput Duodecimum. §. Primus. Actionesinternæ diftinguuntur. NTERIOR actioalia est appetitusfentientis commotio, Iidestper idest perturbatio, & affectus ; aliaestfuperioris appetitus, fcilicet voluntatis , nempèelectio: cognitionemnunc nonnisi, utcumhisconiungitur,confiderabimus:fatis antea distinxi mus, cumoportebat,præfertimqueintertiaparte lib. Sexti . §. Secundus. Ex electione, adeoquevoluntatis actioneindago morum . Deelectionenoneft, quòdaliuddicamus præterdictacap. 10.proximè,nifiquodinquirendum eft,num electioeademper feueret in eadem occafione, acre; namfidiuerfa electio inhomi ne, moreminconstantem oportebit iudicare:fi eadem, &fre quens,probabiliffimumerit reperireinhomine morem electioni respondentem . Repetamus tamen, argumentumnon effene ceffarium, licètapicem obtineatprobabilitatis: hocexfuperiori busconstat; atprætereaprobo exemplo militis illius Antigoni, qui ulcere, acfistula laborans præ tadio vitefortiffimè pu gnabat: eligebat is periculapugnæ ,idquepro occafionefemper, neque tamenfortis erat, utcumcuraRegis conualuit,reipfa ostendit pericula declinando, &pugna aleam deinceps detre Etando .  Deconiect.cuiufquemorib &c. Etando. Verum ille ſemper canon retineatur . Canon. Praxis. Cumelectio unàcumeius principiocognofcitur (estautem principium electionis finis)mos etiam cognofcitur , utantea declarauimuscap. 10. §. 4. concl. tertia. Curio penes Ciceronemdicit Cæfarem elegiße clementiam , Lib. 10. ad nonquòdnatura, aut habituin eam propenderet,fedquòdpo Att. epift.4. pularemeamreputaret,fcilicet accomodatampopularigratię con ciliande, ac retinende . Finis ergo hominis erat Studio, ) amore Plebis fulcire dominationemfuam, ut ex hocquoque capite mosin eo tyrannicusprodiret. §. Tertius. Ex affectibus morem quando liceat inueftigare. Ex affectibus, utcolligiqueat mos ,nunc annitamurin dagare: velergofolum affectus conftat , nempe dolerehomi nem,autirafci; velconstat etiam cauſa, v.gr.propterquid irafcatur. Si affectus , & caufa conftet pro quantitate affe Etus , & validitate obiecti, mos deprehendi potestvel per modum habitus , vel permodum difpofitionis, vel obnatu ralem procliuitatem inexiftens. Quodfi affectus folus con ſtet,nonlicet conijcere morem; nonenimſi timere,velfrequen ter, nouerim hominem,dumnonconstet, an timeat infamiam, an paupertatem, an mortem,an amice abalienationem, ut Cli Heaut.act. niapenes Comicum 2.ſcen.1. 1 OClitipho timeo , Nonpoffumdemorequicquamiudicare. §. Quartus. Ex affectu,&cauſa eius cognitis morem indagare licet. Si itaqueaffectus conftet, &caufa eius , morisindaginem aggredi 1 LiberOctauus. 321 aggredi licet; cum enimfubiectum virtutis, ac vitij, me diarumque difpofitionumfit appetitusfentiens, pro disposi tionis qualitate , menfuramqueexdatis obiectis mouetur, at quepromotuumratione, &qualitate , dispofitionis eius τί ciffimqualitas , &quantitas arguitur. Nempefiquisexle ui iactura rerumfuarım vehementerdoleat , vel auaritie habitulaborat , velinauaritiamdispofitusestplus, minusvé pro doloris quantitate: non ex unicatamen obferuationeli cetderetotapronunciare;fedfolum uttunc. Quamobrem iterarehominisobferuationes oportet, easqueconferre, utfi in eodemaffectu conftantiareperiaturexeadem caufa, velha bituminhomine respondentem arguamus, veldifpofitionem adhabitum tendentem: atnifi ex eadem cauſa,idemſemper exurgat affectus, inconstantem difpofitionem in homine in terpretemur . Ut autemexaffectus vehementia rectum iu diciumprocedat, oportetanniti, utfifieripoffit, corporisdi fpofitionem , & exteriores fortuna euentus in fingulis ob Seruationibus teneamus; nam eger homofi exleui cauſaira ſcatur,noneque mirum est; atquefi homofanus ex eaira fcaturcausa:paritererumnofushomoinirampromptiorquàm fortunatus , ea tamenexceptione , eoque modo, quoanteadixi. Inlibr. de mus,acdistinximus. Sintergocanones. Canones continet. Iracap.9. QUICVNQVE affectumpatiturex aliquadatacaufa, Canon1. fiaffectusfuerit intralimites mediocritatis , obtinet velhabi tum virtutis,veldifpofitionemlaudabilemad virtutem, quæ refpicit eiufmodiaffectum exdatacaufa: atfiaffectus velfu perauerit mediocritatem, velinfraillamfuerit, vitium, vel X difpo  Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. dispofitionem vitijobtinebit : ad quodis affectusab eacaufa cumdefectu, velexceffuattinet. Verbigratia, videmushominemdolereex acceptainiuria, fifupra,quàmparfit, &nonfemel,intelligemusiracundiæip fumvelbabitu,veldifpofitionepremi. Simoderate,habitu potiri, veldifpofitione manfuetudinis:fi veròinfra mediocri tatemirafcatur, lentum hominem pronunciabimus. Itemfide fiderium ultionisobferuemus, maius, velminus, velmedio cre,eundemhabitumconiectabimus,veleandemdifpofitionem. Atfiaffectuspertinuerit adauaritiam, eiusbabitum, veldi. Spofitionemconiectabimus,fiinexceſſu nempefueritaffectus, veldefideriumdiuitiarum, vel timorpaupertatis, veldolor ex paupertate . Quodfiindefectufuerit , contrariumvitium, autdifpofitionem arguit. Siveròin mediocritate, liberalita tem. Idemdealijsdicendumestaffectibus,qui,adquosfinguli habitus pertineant virtutum,acvitiorum,inſecaudaparte borumlib.diximus. Canon2. : Si constansfuerit affectusexeademcaufa,eundemquete noremferuauerit ,babitum arguemusaffectuirespondentem : fivarius, tt )inconstans, varium quoque,&inconstantem difpofitionempronunciabimus . Verbigratianunc vehementerhominemirafci,nunclenem eſſe,ſiconspexerimus, neutrius partisobtinebitbabitum,fed nutantem difpofitionem,ſi partamenfit in utroque affectu vacillatio . Atfiiugisinalteroperfeuerantia, alterqueinter dumfolumexgrauitateipfa vitij inſidentis erumpat, habitum contrarij affectus , acperfeuerantis, nonrari, & interdumſo lumerumpētisponemus,fedhuiusactum,paſſionemqueſolum, v.g.inAlphio,quemrepresentatHoratius,babitumfenerato risponere oportet , noncontemptoris diuitiarum, velvitam amantis LiberOctauus.  mantisſemotamaturbisciuilibus: underectè concluditHa ratius,feneratoremeum vocando, Epodon Ode2. Hac,ubilocutusfeneratorAlphius, Iamiamfuturus rusticus, OmnemrelegitIdibuspecuniam : Quarit calendis ponere. Atvariatio infingulisaffectibuspar, quàminiuuenede fcribitHoratius, difſpoſitionemfecundùm vtrunque affectum nutantemindicat. حسين Etamatarelinquerepernix, Conuerfis Studijs . Cumintelligimusadexplendum aliquem affectum,utad Canon3. finemhominem operatum effe,in eoqueexplendo,utinfinecon ftitiffe, credereoportetlaborareipſum vitio, vel dispositione adeumaffectumfpe&ante; fcilicetfiad ultionem,ut adfinem tum ultimum tetenderit quis,intelligemuseffe hominemira cundum: nam vt vidimus,finisformalis virtutiseft hone ftas,nonexpletio affectus,quafolum materialisfinispotefteffe. Exfecundapartehac repetantur . Praxis proxima methodiaffertur. Loca,&dicta Ciceronis afferuntur. ATpræftatmethodumtraditamaliquopropofitoexemplo adpraxim adducere. Quaramusergo morem CICERONE (vedasi) exillis, quæ ad Atticumfcribitpluribusin locis defequendo Pompeio contra Cefarem: exordiamuraprimis, libro itaque Septimo,epiftolaprima, ut remcertampronunciat,fidißenfio eoruminarmaerumpat,fibifequendumeffePompeium. Inquit X 2 ergo: 324 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib. &c. ergo: Si enim caftrisres geretur,videocum altero, Pompeio,vinci ſatius eſſe,quamcum altero,Cefare,vin cere. AtEpistola 1 1. ingruente iambellointerpudorem, in terque officium ciuis,&amici ex alteraparte; & inter miferi cordiam filiorum , atqueindignationem imprudentiæPompeij in rebus tumgerendis ex altera ,nutabat . Scribit autem . Acquiefco enim,&tuasvoloelicereliteras,maxime quecófilium,quidagam, autquomepactogeram: demittamnè mepenitus incaufam (nondetereor periculo ,ſeddiſrumpordolore. Tamnènullocon filio, autcontra meum confiliumgeſta eſſeomnia?) an cuncter, ac tergiuerfer,&ijs me dem,quitenent, qui potiuntur ? αἰδέοκαιτρῷας, nec ſolumciuis,fedetiam amiciofficio reuocor;& fifrangor ſæpemifericor dia puerorú. InEpift. 1 8.in eademdubitatione,acprefertim Epist.1 9.literisCefarisadpacemhortantis excitatus; necnon literis Celij attestantis ipfumfatisfacere Cafari, &fegnitie Pompeij,& Confulumpermotus.Scribitergo.Mirameἀπορία torquet. Iuuameconfilio,ſipotes. InEpift.primalib.8. epiftola Pompeij reuocatusadeumseaggregat: atepift.fequen teincontrariamdeliberationem mutatus videtur, utrespon deatAtticofcribenti,cedendum Italia,fiPompeiuscefferit. Vt etiam ſi Italia ille cefferit, putes cedendum, quod ego necReipublicæputoeſſevtile,nec liberis meis ; prætereaque nequerectum , nequehoneſtum .Alia quefubiungit ineandem fententiam . Atin Epistola fuc cedente , estque tertij libri,remrursus totam in deliberatio nem reuocathinc,inde rationum momentaafferens. Etani moſedato adhuc Epiſtola 16. ) Epistola 22.labare confi liumfuum apertèfatetur: cauſa autem, quamobrem mouea tur LiberOctauus. turadſeſeconiungendum Pompeio, modò in unum Pom 325 peium reijcit . Sed me mouet (inquitepift. que antepe nultimam anteceditlibrioctaui,)vnus vir cuius fugientis comes, Rembup.recuperantis ſociusvideoreſſede bere. AtinEpift. ultima eiuſdemlib. negatſeaPompeio duci ,ſed afermonehominum . Necverò , inquit, ille me ducit, qui videtur:quem ego hominemἀπολιτικώτατο iam ante cognoram , nunc verò etiam ἀςατηγικώτατον. nonmeisigiturducit, ſedſermo hominum ,quiad mea Philotimo ſcribitur. Etlib.nono, epist.fecunda, rursus . Eundum igitureſt, nec tamvt belli,quàm vt fugæ ſocij ſimus: nec enim ferrepotero ſermo nes iftorum, quicunque funt: nonfuntenim certè, vtappellantur,boni. Atverò cumaudiuit Pompeium Italia ceffiffe,tummiroaffectuum astuperturbatus est;& lon.. gèaliudfuit, quàm prius rerum iudicium . Epistola itaque quarta, lib. 9. hæc habet, cumprimum intellexit Pompeium mare tranſijße, fcribit ergo . Ante folicitus eram , & angebar, ſicutres ſcilicet ipſa cogebat, cum confi lio explicare nihilpoffem, nunc autem poftquam Pompeius,&Coff. ex Italiaexierunt,nonangor,fed ardeo dolore ἐδέμοιἦτορ ἔμπεδον ἀλλ᾿ ἀλαλύκτημαι. Non ſum in quam( mihi crede) mentis compos: tantum mihi dedecoris admiſiſſe videor. Me non primum cum Pompeio qualicunque confilio vſum, deindecum boniseſſe, quamuis cauſa temere inſtituta?præfer tim cumijipfi, quorumego cauſatimidus me for tunęcommittebam,vxor, filia,Ciceronispueri,me illucſequi mallét, hocturpe,&me indignúputarét? Epift. rurfus 12.lib.eodem,de eodemdolorefcribit. Sed cum X 3 me 326 Deconiect. cuiuſquemorib.&c. meægretudonon folumfomnopriuaret, verumne vigilare quidem ſineſummo dolore pateretur, te cum,vt quaſi loquerer (inquovno acquiefco)hoc nefcio quid,nullo argumétoſcribereinſtitui.Amens mihifuiſſevideoraprincipio,&mehæcvnarestor quet, quòdnonomnibus in rebuslabentem,velpo tiusruentem Pompeium , tanquamvnusmanipula ris , ſequutus ſim . Etpostpaucafubiungit. Sic me illius, Pompeij, fugæ, negligentiæque deformitas auertitab amore :nihilenimdignum faciebat, quare eiusfu gxcomitemmeadiungerem. Nuncemergitamor, nunc defiderium ferrenonpoſſum: nuncmihi,nihil libri,nihil literæ,nihil doctrinaprodeſt. Itaquedies, &noctestanquamauisilla, mareproſpecto, euola . cupio,&c. Poftremodemumlocoeorum,quosexfcribo, Epift. Scilicet 1 4. fcribit. Cum mihi epiſtola affertura Lepta i circúuallatum eſſePompeium, ratibus etiam exitus portus teneri. Non medius fidius prælacrimispof ſum reliqua nec cogitare , nec fcribere. Mifi adte vnà exequutifumus exemplum.Miſeros nos, curnon omnesfatum illius Torqueor infelix , • • vt iamillum Mutianum exitumexoptem • • Populi Ro. exercitusCn. Pompeium obſidet foſſa , &valloſeptumtenet,fugaprohibet, nos viuimus,& ſtatvrbs iſta ! Prætoresiusdicunt! Ædilesludospa rant! Viribonivſuraspreſcribunt! Egoipſeſedeo! Conerillucirevt infanus ! Implorare fidem munici piorum! Boni nonſequentur,leues irridebunt: re rum nouarumcupidi, victorespræfertim ,&arma tivim , & manus afferent. Quidcenfes igitur? & quidnameſttuiconfilijadfinishuiusmiferrimævi tæ: nuncdoleo, nunctorqueor. c. §. Secundus. Indagomorumperagitur. INDAGINEM iam morumexdefcriptis locisaggre diamur. Primòitaqueoccurritexlocis postremo loco obfer uatis, dolorem, &angorem Ciceronis, exeoquod Pompeium nonfitfequutusin exceſſu magnofuiſſe: cum &fomnum probiberet,&vigilanteminſummomeroredetineret: prate rea exclamationes ille, et ferèextaſes idipfumdemonftrant. Atadquos habitusaffectus is excedens pertinet ? Certè ad habitumcharitatis, beneficentiævéadcircumiacentes-vébabi tus, utamicitia particularis , &peculiaris adeam ipfam cha ritatem reducitur : quade refuprainfecundaparte ,in lib.de Cap 2. Beneficentia. At peccabat habitu, vel dispofitione in ex ceffu amoris erga Pompeium : quiamorexPompeij periculis, &damnis magispungebat , cum coactus Italiam reliquit prius, quam ofidionempaßus eftBrundiſij. Quaoccafionema gisfentireamorem non est inconstantia,fed naturalis que damamoris auctio : nam boni defiderium ex indigentia cre fcit , utantea vidimus. Verùminconstantiafuitineo,quòd nunc Pompeium enixè amauit, nunc parum, ut profitetur Epift. ultima,lib. 3. &Epift. 12. lib. 9. afferitſeadeformi tatefuge, velnegligentia eiuſdem auerfumab amore. Que variatio animi nonnificum inconftantiafuit : ea enim cadit potius inamatorem,quàminamicum. Primusmos Mos ergo prius in Cicerone colligitur amoris in Pompe- qui in Cic. iummaioris,quàm oportuerit , inconstanter tamen,que in- deprehet constatia actum amoris eripiebat interdum , at nonradicem : Pompeium Nimum ſtudium. X 4 qua 328 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. quequidem radix adeo alta fuit , ut pre reuerentiaerga eundem Pompeiumidemnoneßet dicturus,quodſenſurusde petitionibus Cafaris exaudiendis. lib. enimfeptimo ad Atti cum Epistolaſextafcribit. Dicesquid tuigiturſenſu rus es ? non idem quod dicturus . Sentiam enim omniafacienda, nearmisdecertetur. Dicam idem, quod Pompeius . Etlib. 8. Epift. 11.fatetur Pompe ium ad SullanumRegnum adfpirare: tamen eum fibiſe quendum proponit . Nonne est is excedentis amoris af fectus : Senatorem grauem amico ad tyrannidemfuffra gari? Secundus mos ambi tio. deOffic. Secundus mos est ambitionis: excedentem enim honoris amarem, velignominiatimorempreſefert,cumsefermonem hominumferre nonpoffe ,etiaminhonesto, stabilito iam Primo lib. propofitopatefacit . At virprobus, utipfemetCiceroexEn nio laudat, imitatur FabiumMaximum,qui Nonponebatenimrumoresantefalutem. Nequeveròdictaillahominum,acex illisignominieme tus in honestatis verèfinem recurrebat; nam fequi Pom peium ,eiusqueadiutare victoriam,erat tyrannidemfuturam promouere : veriffimum enimfuiteiufdem CICERONE (vedasi) prafa gium epist. quinta, libfeptimo,itidemad Atticum. Ex vi Ctoria, inquit, tum multa mala,tum certètyran nis exiſtet . Alteruter enim vinceret , tyrannus futu rus erat . Terti mos. tibus virtu um. Tertioloco in Ciceroneex eadem obferuatione deprehendi Caruithabi musnonfuißehabitum virtutum moralium, cumenimiudi ciumearundemrerumpro affectibus insurgentibus variaret, nonerantinipſoſolide virtutes,quæprincipiaprudentiæſem perimperturbata,faltem perſiſtentia, conferuant, ut exfu perioribus Liber Octauus. 329 perioribus conftat . Pro corellariopendet, ut neque in eo-ve- Lib.dePru. raprudentia , &exacta eßetadamuſſim moralis definitionis. Prudentiam tamennaturalem , & moralem imperfectam in multis rebus non eft illi denegandum adfuiffe. At est ne tribuendainaffectibusnunc diftiscontinentia, anincontinen tia ? vitiumenim a viroabfuiſſe ultrofaterioportet . Habi tus , veldifpofitio in eo elucetmediainter continentiam , & incontinentiam , nempe maximis urgentibus obiectis affe Etuum vincebant illi , &deturbabantrationem . At contrà, affectus infrafummum gradum , & exobiectis nonſummis exorientes cedebantrationi,ab eaque ducebantur ; &hincfre quensinhominede officiodeliberatio . Quarto demumloco mollem in ipſoſuaptenatura animum Quartus conijcimus ,qualis etiam crafisfolet excellentibusingenijs ef- Mollisani ſefamiliaris ; deducitur autemquod ex ijfdemepiſtolis obfer- mo fuitna uemus,ut literisnuncCefaris Cefarianorumque, tura . peij , ac Pompeianorum interpellabatur, in eorundem par tesdeflectifolitum; præterquamquodfluenteslacrime , quas plerunque defcribit eandemmollitiemfignificant. Fuit itaque corde molli non duro . Hæcfatisfit pro praxis exemplo di xiße : plura confulto omittoadnimiameffugiendam prolixita tem,que poffentexadductis locis deduci. Corellarium continet. CONSTAT exhis, quàm rarum fit veram virtu tem, & exmorali præfcriptione abfolutamin hominibus re periri : cumintanto viro , quantus Cicerofuit,non reperia tur,fed duobus vel gradibus ab eaabfuerit . Ea tameneft prastantia virtutis, ut prope constitiffe fit gloriofum . Arri  Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. Arripiamus Horatij monitum, quicunque nonpoffumus ad Summumapicemafpirare . Restat, uthis egomeipferegam,ſolerqueelementis . NonpoffisoculoquantumcontendereLynceus : Nontamenidcircocontemnaslippusinungi; Necquiadefperes inuicti membraGlyconis : Nodofacorpusnoliprohibere chiragra , Eftquoddamprodiretenus,finondaturultra .Partem methodicumpracauendaeftfictio,aggredi tur. Primog,defictionibusagit,fimulatio nibusq. CaputPrimum . §. Primus. Fictiones, fallaciæquediſtinguuntur. SECVNDAM methodipartemaggredimur,cum iamfictio, &fimulatio, dißimulatioquepreca uentur: velergofictiofuperactionem cadit ,sci licet actionemfimulamus , vel dißimulamus , velactio ipſa aperta , at finis obumbratur . Actio verò , ut iamdiximus, alia externaeft, aliainterna . Actio exterior te gitur , ut adulterium a muliere impudica: duplex verò est obumbratio , alia priuatiua , alia contraria , bacfimulatio , illa diſſimulatioeft; nempetenebrisſetegere, utneminiadulterum / pateat, estoccultatiopriuatiua , & dißimulatio : at actionibus contrarijspudicitiampretendere eftoccultatio contraria . Actio interior, quæ difficilius fingitur, præfertim eſt motusfentientis appetitus; affectusfcilicetquemfimulabant, veldißimulabant conuiueDomitiani, quorumfilios, velfratres, velparentes eademdie mortitradiderat;fedetiamopiniones finguntur, ut hæretici varijsartibus interdum finguntfuas coram Iudici busfidei: atcaditſuperfinemfictio , cumfinisfalſuspræten ditur . Cesar arma inferensPatriæ, finem vlcifcendi iniu riastumfuas, tumTribunorum Plebis prætendebat; at ve rusfinis erat Dominatio,quamquærebat. Singulabacmem brarepetamus .  Se  De coniect. cuiufquemorib.&c. §. Secundus. Fictioactionis exterioris eiusvèoccultatio . ACTIO exteriorfictionem , occultationemvétriplicem patitur; precedentem, comitantem,feufimulcum eaconſiſten reofto. tem, &confequentem . Precedensoccultatio eft cumteftè commeatadamicam adulter. Confistens occultatio est,qua actus ipfe adulterijtegitur; cuius generisoccultatiofolertiſſima FabulaFla- est,quamcomminiſciturinpuella (Flammettam vocat) Areo mettrexA- ftus , que in medioduorumcubanstertiumadmifit,cuiuscon cubitum utrique ea rationeoccultumfuturum credidit; quòd ſperaret ambosfociumillum, non tertiumfuiſſe reputaturos. Confequensoccultatio eft , qua præcedensiam , & confumma tus actus occulitur,ſipræfertim vestigia remaneant,quæfint tollenda: adfubitum maritiperegrè reditum adulter effuge rat,atpallium reliquerat: quarentiergo marito ecquodilud pallium effet,refpondit uxor, aſeilludipfiparatum, cumfciret pallio egere nouo. Fuit ea occultatioadulterijtransacti,ataper ti eiufdem indicij . Lachrymis adulteram tegereſua adulteria monet Iuuenalis:fimulat eaſe proZelotypia flere, velCyne di, velpellicis . Cumfimulatgemitus, occulti confciafacti; Autoditpueros, autfictapelliceplorat, Uberibusfemperlachrymis. §. Tertius . Occultatioaffectus . Exinterioribusautem actionibusdifficilius affectus tegi tur,quando vehemensfuerit; namrefluit isin ora uſque, t) in exteriora membra . Intimore nedum orepalleſcimas,ſed etiam LiberNonus. : 333 etiam tremimustotocorpore . Componereergo inilliufmodi affectibus vultum difficileest, ut illud poffit Comicihucde- Heaut.act. : torqueri . 5. ſcen.1. Voltusquoquehominumfingitſcelus . Eiufmodi verò occultatioerat penes eundem Terentium Phorm.act. veteratorisPhormionis , 5.fcen.6. Nuncgeſtus mihi,voltusque capiendusestnouus . Compositio autem vultus,dumaffectum tegimus triplex effe videtur, reprimens ,quam t)mediam vocarepoffumus, contraria, &diuersa. Reprimentem, acmediam vaco,que continetaffectum, neerrumpat &in eofistitur. Isfuitpenes HomerumhabitusVlyſſis,Penelopiaßidentis. AtVlyffes Animoquidemlugentemfuammiferebatur vxorem: Oculiautem tanquamcornua Stabant, velferrum Tacitèinpalpebris: dolo autem hic lacrimas occultabat. Contrariaestcompofitio, cumqui tristitiaopprimitur,leti tiavultupretendit;&quiodit,præſefertamorem. Sinonpe nes Virgilium odiuminGræcos amorem in Troas & verbis &oreprofitebatur:atcontrarium affectuminanimocondebat. FasmihiGraiorumfacratarefoluereiura Fasodiffe viros. Multi verò contrariumaffectumpræferunt,vt verusfa cilius occulatur; etenim, ut Arift.infimilidicit. Atque in contrariumnos ipſos abſtrahendo , nam ſi procula peccando nosipfos remouerimus, admediumdeue niemus,id,quodquilignadiſtorta dirigútfacerecon Lib. 19. fueuerunt.Uthinc,quiimpenfius,ſummaque arteamorem nobisfignificent ,fit illis minus credendum . Contrarium re præfentabatpenesTacitum Augustus,ibi, Specierecufan- 1.Annal. tis 334 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. tis flagrantiffimècupiebat. Atdiuerfum vultumpra tendent, quinon quinon contrarium affectum verò, Heauton. att.1. fc.2. verò, feddiuerfumfi mulant; nempequitiment nonaudacem vultumfingant,sed letum, velmifericordem. In diuerfum affectum compofuit vultumTerentianusChremes,cumadreprimendamlætitiam, quam vicè Menedemiex reditu Clinię ceperat , admonitoris Seueritatemfumpfit; quiaffectusnon erat contrarius,feddi uerfus . CH.Illene?fedreprimam me; nam in metueſſe hunc, illiest vtile. 10 CLIT. Quidtutetecum? CH.Dicam; ut uterat, manfumtamenoportuit , &c. Occultationum barumpriuatiua diffimulatio est : duæ reli quefimulationes ; licetegoin preſentia confundam fimulatio In3. parte. nem, dißimulationem breuitatiscaufa,quasſuo locodiftinxi. §. Quartus. Occultatioreliquaruminterio rumactionum . T : RELIQVARVMactionum interiorum occultatiofaci lior est. Suntactiones eiufmodi , electio , &opinio ,creduli tasvé. Electionemdiſſimulant, qui, quodexinfidijsfaciunt,vt repentino animi motufactum, praeferunt.Adeffugiendam pe namficarijinterdum eiufcemodifimulationeſeſetegunt. Cice ro in orationepro Milonetuetur, Clodiumabeo occifum exim prouiſaoccafione, immoneceßariadefenfione: t) Clodijfauto res contendebant occifumeßeexinfidijs, atqueex electione . Quodfcilicet Milopremeditatus eumfuerit adortus, atque in eandemfententiamIudices iudicauerunt. Credulitatem pra fertimfimulant,qui alienamreligionemmetu penarumprofi tentur, LiberNonus.  tentur, utproximèMaurorumreliquieinHifpania,quasde mumPhilippusIII. Nuncregnansabillisexpulit Regnis. Alia distinctio fictionum, feu falla : ciarum, quæ eft luſtiLipfij. IVSTVS Lipfiusinpoliticoſuocentonedistinguit fictio- Lib.6.c.12. nes , ) fallacias (vocat ipfefraudes)trifariam inleues, in medias, )inmagnas. Diffinitprimò fraudem. Argutum confilium avirtute,autlegibusdeuium Regis,regni quebono;utintelligamus arctiusab ipfodefinitam frau dem,&fallaciam,quamanobisfumatur: attamendiuifio ea demaccomodabitur . Estergo Lipfiofrausleuis, quæ haud longe a virtute abit, malitiæ rore leuiter aſperſa: bancdiuiditin diffidentiam, &diſſimulationem . Diffidentia autemineoconfiftit, nefacile credat : credere tamen oftendat; reinquam paucis credat, at specie omnibus . Diffimula tio verò eſt, dequa dicitur. Nefcit regnare,quinefcit diffimulare. Mediam fraudem definit, quæ ab eadem virtute flectit longius , &ad vitij confiniavenit: hanc diftinguit in conciliationem, verius corruptionem, deceptio nem. Conciliationem , corruptionem védefinit his verbis. Cumcallideinclinas ,&allicis ad tecorumanimos, operasque,qui alieniiuris.Ciceroin eundemſenſumſta tuit proprium eße prudentia conciliarefibianimos hominum , t) adſuos ſusadiungere. Deceptio veròest( utfubiun git)cuminducisaliumintuacommoda, errore, aut mendacio obiecto. Iammagnamfraudemdefinit,quæ nonavirtuteſolum,ſedlegibus etiam recedit,mali tiæ iam robuſtæ,&perfectæ. Hancdiftinguit inperfidia, &iniuftitiam. Eftperfidia,cumpercauillos, &argu tiolas  Deconiect.cuiufque morib&c. tiolas federaeludimus , autpacta. Iniuftitia eftcum contra iura ,&legesſe,& fuaimprobèpotiusquàm callidè augent. Hancego viridoctrinamretuli: nullamin terpono cenfuram,ſedexiam dictisdeducendamrelinquo. §. Sextus . Alia, actertiadistinctio. ALIA estfallaciarum,quasnunctractamus, distinctio valdequeadremnostrampertinens;queexinftrumentisfu mitur,quibus fimulamus; velenimfimulamusverbis,vel vultu,velfactis,Ciceroad2.Fratremduorumpriorum me minit . Nimis multis fimulationum inuolueris tegi tur, &quafivelis quibuſdamobtenditur,frons,ocu li,vultusperſepementiuntur:oratioveròfæpiſſime. Promptiſſimum, &efficaxfimulandiinstrumentum est oratio affeuerans; que velnudaeft, velvallataiuramento. Confidens mendacium,idestfidenter ,&audacter prolatum proveroſevendicat; undepenesComicumobeiufmodicon fidentiamGeta, Phorm.act. 1.fce.5. ! Ninoſſem caufam,crederem verahuncloqui. Et Ouidiusaudaciamhancinmendacioſignificans,&mo nensamatoremdixit, Nec timidepromitte, periuriami ſcent,amatorespræfertim,quibusetiamidfuadet Ouidius . Pollicitistestesquoslibetadde Deos : Iupiter exaltoperiuriaridetamantum. Ad Lentul. epift.9. Secunduminstrumentum est vultus . CICERONE (vedasi) frontem di ftinxit . Fronte , inquit,&vultu, quibus fimulatiofa cillimè fuftinetur: at mihinunc vultusomnia complecti tur : quade vultuscompofitionefatis iamfupra §. tertio, in vultu verò lachrymaquoque continentur . Tertiaestfimu latio LiberNonus. 337 latiofactis. Qui vestibus ementiunturſexumfactisfimu lant. Martanus penesAreostum,qui armisGriphonisſeſe certaminis victorem repræfentauit , finxitfacto . Hec est distinctio fimplicium instrumentorum: atcumcomponuntur illa, quatuoralia membra reſultant ; vel enim vniuerfatria coniunguntur,cumfimulatur oratione, vultu, &factis: velduo tantùm,tresque nafcuntur conbinationes; alia ora tionis, vultus ; alia orationis,&factorum ; alia vultus, factorum . Septem ergo generafimulationum ex instru mentis erunt ; triafimplicia,quatuorcompofita; nempeex bi nistria, ex omnibus unum . Defimulatione finis, feu depratextuobten tuvè. Quibusexpartibusconftet prætextus . C veròactiomanifestaest, velvltroeamfatemur, atfinis alius a veròpratenditur, prætextus, obtentusvé VM nafcitur : expreffit ) vocem, &rem in Augufto Tacitus. Annal.1. Dicebatur contra,pietatemerga parentem,&tem pora Reipublicæ obtentuiſumpta, cæterum cupi dinedominandi corruptosper largitionemvetera nos, &c. Placet remhancinhumanam vitam latèſeſe diffundentem distinguere , &exponere . Nomen autem pretextus ex Suetonio mutuabor , eoque vtar ; interdum etiam nomenobtentusexTacitopermiſcebo . Aristoteles vo. Lib.4.Polit. cat Græcè πρόφασιν, quem Latinè reddit prætextum. Petrus Victorius prætextus itaquefeu publicus ,feu priuatus, cum Υ integer cap.13.  Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. integer est, quatuorfermèex partibus coalefcit : exactione ipsa, que fit: exfinefalſo,qui prætenditur, qui unus in terdumfibi pretextus nomen vindicat : exfine verò pro. ximo : exfine verò ulteriore . Rem exemploabAristotele eodem cap. 1 3.fumptodeclaremus . Reipubliceitaque, vtibi dicit ,Oligarchice de armorumtractatione legespermittunt, pauperes impunèabſtinere ab armis, t eorum exercitatio ne: atdiuitescoguntpenis etiamimpofitis arma habere, tractare . Actio ergo est lex ipſa . Finis, qui obtenditur, est , ut pauperes poffint liberius opificijsfuis victumfibi quærere, adeoque affimilatio charitatis in egenos: at verus finis est, utdiuites legis iußu coactiarmorum exercitatione periti militia , & bellicofi euadant ; pauperes contrà liber tatifuæ reliftiabillis abftinendofint imbelles. Finis ulte rior eft , ut diuitesitafaciliusimperium retineant; egenimi nus repugnare poffint . Exempla priuati prætextus. PRAETEXTVS priuati exemplum est illud Pamphi lı in Andriapenes Comicum, & Daui monitoris cum re ſpondet patri,ſe uxorem ducturum. Hæc estactio,nem pe promiffio acceptanda uxoris; finis, quiprætenditur, obe direpatri ;finis verus, utnegligentempatrem ea refponfio ne reddat. Idmonet Dauus. Sedfi æquo animoferreaccipiet, negligentemfeceris. Finis ulterior , utdemum poſſit Pamphilus vxorem ducere Glycerium fuam . Penes Salustium autem C. Cor nelius Eques , & L. Vargunteius Senator introire debebant noctu ad Ciceronem. Hec erat actiofcilicet introitus; ipſe finis Liber Nonus. finis obtentus, ut ipſumſalutarent; finis verus,ut con  foderent imparatum; finis verusulterior,utita Roma potirentur, Confulefublato, coniurati . Cum voluptuarius estfinis, ut in amatorijs , vnicus finis dari videturve rus ; nempe voluptas quæfita ,que est proximusfinis,non non habet finem ulteriorem: attameninillisquoquefæpefi nis proximus ab ulteriore diftinguitur; cumfimulatfumere aquam mulier , utfcribat amanti. Scilicet obstabit cuftos,nefcriberepoßis, Sumendedeturcumtibitempusaquæ ? Finis verus proximus estfcribere amatori ; finis ulte rior eft uoluptas ex eo veneris: at cum actio proximè con cubitum antecedit , ut specie mulieris admittere adulterum, tumfinis proximus,atqueulterioridemfunt... §. Tertius. Dediſſimulatione finis. DISSIMULATIO preterea finis quoque datur est, cum aliquidfacimus, quo uerofine occulimus: nullum fiquidem pretendimus finem . Iuuatautem interdumfu ea spenfos alios effe de confilio nostro . Cum quidam princeps magnas copias comparauit, & inftruxitpaulò priusquàm moreretur ,quofine eascollegerit,nonaperuit , utipſoimpro uiſa mortefublato , adhucincertiea derefimus. Magniin terdum Reges exercitus cogunt, cur uerònonaperiunt,ut fi nitimi principes minorumuiriummetuentesfibi,armapara re cogantur,atque ita exhaurianturſumptibus: dedita ita que illi operaquæruntſuſpenſos eße finitimos principesde fi ne , quamobrem milites confcribant. Mecenatem latebat , quamobrem Horatius facrificaret Kalend. Martijs , ut Υ 2 idcirco Ouid.3. lib. dearteamá di.  Deconiect.cuiuſquemorib &c. idcirco coactus fuerit caufamfignificare . Martijs celebs quidagam Kalendis. Eiufmodi ergoestfinisdiffimulatio , cumnonfalfumpre tendimus : quæestfimulatio ,ſed nullumaperimus,omnem que tegimus. De simulatione morum . NOTIORIBVS adoccultiorapergentesadfimula Ationemmorumafimulationeactionum tranfeamus. Eft fimulatio morum difficilior, que deprehendatur,proindeque ignotiorfimulationeactionis . Namcumabfumusaboccafio neoperandi liberum est morem quemlibetfimulare: ignauif fimus quiſque homose pro forti uenditare poteft, cum nulla eft occafio pugnandi. Thraſones multi in comedijs inducun tur,fedin communietiamuita multostales nouimus,quige ftationearmoruminceßu , &oris habitu Martem ementian tur; atfint mulierculis pauidiores. Noui etiamquiſepurif fimum,&caftiffimumfimularet,atreipfa inuentus estfe dus , &intemperantie perdite . Hippocrita eiufmodi mo rum fimulatione paßim utuntur, quos idcircofacræ litera fepulchris exterius de albatis aßimilant,intus ueròluridis tfetidis. د r §. Vnicus. Intercæteras morum fimulationes quæ fimplicitatem fimulat,ſummo pere decipere. : Arfuntquifimulationes, diffimulationesquefuasmirificè tegantlibertatis, acfimplicitatisfimulatione . Conanturſepro aperti apertifenfus ,tt LiberNonus. )liberifermonis hominibus venditare, cum 341 fintfummoperetefti, &occulti . Quoniamitaqueincedentes taciturni, acdemiſſo vultu, cogitabundiqueprotectis, &'oc culti confilij habentur. Demiſſosanimo , &tacitos vitarememento Quatacitum estſtumen,forſanlatetaltius unda. Fllicontramulta blaterant , & interdumdedita operaali quiddefipientiæ allinunt dicacitatifue , utomnemastutiam, atque calliditatem aſe procul abeffe fuadeant : interim verò quein alioseuomunt,vt vera accipiunturnonconficta;pro indeque altum existimationi demorforumhominum vulnus infligunt. Noui quendam,quicum liberèadmodum de alijs, &inalios diceret specie dicacis quidem, atfimplicis,aper tique hominis,a prudentibus tamen aliquibus virisprocal lido , tectoque homine habebatur ; & adobtentum fimpli citatis accipiebant . Deducamus hinc, proponamusque ca nonem . Summoperecauendam eſſeinfidiofamfimplicitatem,quam Canon, dari vidimus . Methodus detegendarumfictionum, acfimu lationuminfuacapita distinguitur. CaputQuartum . §. Primus. Enumeratcapitavniuerfalia. GGREDIAMVR nuncadfallacias, acfimulationes,diſſi Amulationesquedetegendas.Idpramonendofolidiuinoocu lo effe eas verè, clarè apertas anobis auteconijci,&proba bilitantumconiectura poßeindagari. Qua verò viahumana Υ 3 conie  Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. coniectura in occultaadeo veritate inueftigandaprocedat, di ſtinguamus. Cumfititaquefimulatio,acfictio,dequanúcagi mus, velamentumquoddamobtegens vera animiſenſa, vel velamentum ipfumaliqua ex parte perlucetacutis mentium oculis : &hocest primumfimulationis detegendecaput; vel adducituripfemet, quifingit, ut animumfuumdetectafimu latione aperiat . Eftquefecundum caput methodi, velneutra viainceditur;fed exqualitate perſoneagentis, &eius,qui cum agitur, coniecturafumitur. Nempesiveteratorfit, qui agit , ac loquitur; nosquealiàseum pro veteratoreagnoueri mus,facilècredemus,tumetiamfingere; præfertimfifimula tio tum ufuipoffitillieffe: pariter cum perſona ,qui cumagi tur,fitaliquamagna potestas, Princepsfcilicet, autſummus Magistratus, autidgenushomo,quiplurimum obeffe,&pro deffèpoßit , coniectabimus aliquam facileimmifcerifimulatio nem adpromerendum eius amorem . Triaergo funt methodi capita,quæfubdiuiduntur, utnuncfubdiuidemus : at quod tertio loco numerauimus,nuncprimum caput , &quodpri mumpoftremumfacientes. §. Secundus. Subdiuiditurprimumcaputmethodi. PRIMVM ergocaput exqualitateperſoneinduaspartesſe catur, proutduplexeftperſona, que agit ,decuiusfimulatione Andr.act. 3.fcen.4. ambigitur, tea,cumquaagitur. Perſona,quæ agit, & que dicit, velfallacijs vticreditur ex communi aliquaconditione, velexpeculiari, excommuni,velutinunc aulicosfimulatione uticredimus . Serui penes Comicumin eademfuntnaui . SIM. Ego dudumnon nilveritusfumDane, abste, ne faceresidem , Quodvolgusferuorumfolet,dolis,ut medeluderes. Реси LiberNonus. 343 Peculiaris verò conditioperſone, exquafictionem,acfimu lationempræfumimus, eſt,ſi veteratoranobis fitaliàsdepre henfus expropenfione , veladfcititio more . Simo,idem penes Comicum,Dauumcredebat exhabitufallacijs uti. Simulfceleratus Dauusfiquidconfilij Habet , conſumatnunc, cumnihilobfintdoli. Ratione veròperſone, quicumagitur,nedumcumprinci pibus, magnisquepoteftatibusfimulanthomines ,fedetiam cumperdite amatis,atque cum illis,in quorummanusunt,que vehementer defiderant. Inops adulaturdiuiti , amator ama te,idemquedealijs . Subdiuiditur secundum caput methodi. SECVNDVM caput est, cum adducituridem, quifingebat adveritatemdetegendam: adducuntur veròhominesadindi candam veritatem,velſuafione, adquamblandiciæ redigun tur,velpenis, utquæftionibus, &tormentisquafitorescri minumexprimerenitunturareis peccatorumconfeffionem : ad bacreducunturmine, velpremijs, adquepollicitationesredi guntur. MutiuspenesLiuium videturbeneficio victusreue- . lafſe Porfene coniurationem. Tum Mutius, inquit,quaſi remuneransmeritum.Quandoquidé,inquit,eftapud tevirtutihonos, vtbeneficio tuleris a me, quod mi nis nequiſti trecenticoniurauimus Principesiuuen tutisRomanæ, vtin tehacviagraſſaremur: meapri maforsfuit. Cæteri,vtcuique cecideritprimò quo adteoportunum fortunadederit,ſuoquiſquetem poreaderit. Solorumcruciatus, &premijinhocipfopropo fito Tacitus meminit :in coniurationis enim aduerfus Nero Υ 4 nem  Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. nem detectione dicit , cruciatu , ac præmio omnia eſſe peruia . Postremoloco vino , & ebrietate victi verumaperiunt animifenfum . Horatius . Dicunturreges multis urgereculullis , Ettorqueremero, quempertentarelaborant, Anfitamicitiadignus . EtTheocritus in vinoueritatem eßedicit. Dalidaa Sam pſone expreffitarcanumfortitudinisfuæ,nonblăditijs,fedmo lestiaperpetuagannitus,t) garritus ad aures . Sacrafcriptu ra,rem apertèdesignatlib.Iudic. cap.1 6. verbafunt . Cum quemoleſtaeſſetei,&permultosdies iugiteradhere ret, ſpatiumadquietemnon tribuens,defecit anima eius, &ad mortemvſque laſſata eſt; tunc aperiens veritatemei, dixitad eam,&. 6. Diuiſamembrainſua principia reducuntur. Si veròplacetquatuor eiufmodi modos philoſophandiin Juaprincipiareferre,itaprocedemus , utfecretum prodatur, duofaciunt,impetusanimiadſenſaſua aperienda, & imbe cillitas virtutis ,ac facultatisſeſecobibendi. Impetumagno erumpere velle,que intusin animo condimus, quiſque in Eunuc. act. terdum inſeipfo experitur, ut non iniuria ille Terentianus 3.fcen.5. Ephebus. Iamneerumperehoc licet mihigaudium? Atprudentes ,grauesquehominesfeipfos cohibent,quodfi visſeſe cobibendi fit imbecilla , vel imbecillaredatur , tum exhoc quoque capitefecreta produnt animi. Impetus erum pendi LiberNonus. 345 pendi prefertiminest incalefcente animo ,fcilicet incalefcente primoſenſorio,utaffectus calidi apertifint,ira vehemens,cu piditas, &idgenusalij . At laxaturuis cohibendi animumab affectibusfrigidis ,timore , &dolore; hac itaquerationetor menta, & mine adfecretadetegenda conferunt. Atpremia, beneficiaque , &pollicitationesexprimacauſa. Voluptas , t calefacit, laxat, ut rutraque ratione arcana animiprodat : ebrietasparitertum calefacit,tum diffoluit vim omnem animi ſeſecohibendi.Atfuafio altiusprincipium petit,nemperatio nem,t) voluntatem, quæ velitſeſeaperire. Subdiuifiotertij capitismethodi . CAPVT tertiumerat,cum velamenfictionis perlucet: diftinguitur autem,velenimtotum velamentumperlucet,vel cumfitfuapte natura imperuium, aliquainpartedifrumpitur: perlucet verò velrationetenuitatis,velratione cotrarietatis: diſrumpitur autem, velerumpente affectu, velaccidente,aut Subsequenteeffectu . Singulaspartesfubfiguremus. §. Sextus .Cumvelumex tenuitateperlucet. QUONIAM ergovelamentumfictionistriplexeſt,vel enimconfiftit in vultu, velin oratione, velinfacto:fingula percurramus. Velamentum vultustenueest,cummeſti,v.g. letitiamfimulant vultu ,ſedleuiter adeo , ut meſtitiafacilè Subluceat. Perlucebattimor,&confcientiapeccatiAntiphonis inprimo &fecundoeiusuultu,licèt nonaqueinfecundo, atin tertio occulebatur.-- ANT.Voltumcontemplamini,hem, Satin' fic eft ? Ge.Non. ANT. Quidfific. GE. Prope modum. ANT.Quidfific. GE. Sateft. Velamen Phorm.act. 1.ſcen.4. 346 Deconiect. cuiufque morib.&c. Velamentumautemorationistenue est, cumfrigidaest,re miſſavé verborum affeueratio , vel negantis , vel afferentis aliquid . Frigidenarrantiſe a quopiam verberatum nullam fidemadhibebat, velſe adbibere fimulabat Demosthenes : at concitatius iam & impenfiusiniuriamfuam attestanti,ſetum credere dixit . Remiſſaquoque petitio docet negationem, ut 5.fcen.1. nempenesComicum . Eunuch.act. dicitur . At perplexa oratio multo magis detegitfimulatio THA.Pergin'fcelesta mecumperplexèloqui? Scio, nefcio, abijt, audiui,egononaffui. Noniftucmihid:Etura aperte esquicquid est ? Penes aliquos Iurifconfultos vacillansoratiopro indicioad torturam habetur,ut refert Emer. In Direct.Inquifit.3.p.q. 61. &Clarusinprax.criminal queſt. 31. nu.27. atcertèeft indicium adcapiendum, atque adferuandumin carcereextr.de Lib.7. tica. penis,cap.fuperbis. PenesquoqueQ Curtium concio extre pidatione, reputauit reum Lyncestem Alexandrum . Nulli, inquit, erat dubium, quin trepidatio confcientiæ in diciumeffet, nonmemoriævitium . Cum veròinfacto confiftit velamentum , perlucetipfumquoque interdumex te nuitate, veluti , quos memorat Iuuenalisſub adulteri aduen tūfolitos effefubitoſecorreptosfomnofimulare,utque isdicit , Vigilantiſterterenaso utcoramse uxoresliberius contrectarent ; ratione contrarie tatis, cum velamentumfictionis nimis artificiofum est, af DeartePoe fectatioeluceat: talequippiam est illudHoratianum de menda ci laudatore . Clamabitenimpulchrè, benè, rectè. Pallefcetfuper bis etiam,flillabitamicis Exoculisrorem:faliet, tundet pedeterram , Utqui LiberNonus. Utquiconductiplorantinfunere dicunt, Etfaciuntpropeplura dolentibus exanimo; fic Deriſor veròplus laudatore mouetur . §. Septimus. Cumdiſrumpiturvelum .  DISRVMPITVR autem velum, vel erumpente affectu, utdiximus, velaccidente, velſubſequente effectu; cum affe Etuserumpit maiores diligentia , & attentioniseget , cum in eodem inftrumento quod affectum aliquemfimulat , contra rius,veruſque erumpit; &nonadeo erumpit , uttotamfimu lationem auferat: fi enimperfeuerante adhuc velo fimulati af fectus, verusperpartememergat,ſagaciopus eftoculo,() in Structo, utinterfimulationis nubes veritatis radius dijudice tur. Dico autem, velutifi affectus amorisfimuletur vultu, at ineundem vultum erumpatodijradius interfimulationem adhucperſtantem amoris; autfimuletur affectus oratione,& oratione eademinterim contrarius elucefcat affectus . Pariter fifactofimuletur, &facto eodem aperiatur; opus infingulis his cafibusestmulta attentione , &perspicacia. Facilius di gnofciturfimulatio, cum oratio , & vultus apertèpugnant, veloratio, &factum, vel vultus,()factum. Namsi ve ritatisfignificatio per tranſennam elucefcat,parestcumfupe rioredifficultas . Pugnabat vultuscumoratione CremetispenesTerentium, Eunuch.acr. qui cumſe audacem verbisprofiteretur , Egoformidolofus? nemo eft hominum,qui viuat minus . at vultupraſeferebat timorem .-- TH. Attollepallium . Perij,huic ipfieftopuspatrono,quemdefenſoremparo. Pugna 4.fcen.6. Deconiect. cuiuſquemorib.&c. Pugnabat,iudiceElyſa,oratio Ænee,fugamadornantis, vultus; cum enimorationeis amoremprofiteretur. NecmememinißepigebitElyse, Dum memoripfemei,dum ſpiritushosregetartus. Atnecingemuit fletu Elyſe, nec flexitoculos, neclachry masdedit, utilla ipſa obiecit . Numfletuingemuit noſtro ? Numluminaflexit? Numlachrymas victusdedit? Interpretabatur itaque vultum pugnare cumoratione.At Afinar.act. pugnabatfactum cum orationeexfententia PhilenijPlauti 3.fcen.3. : na, cum Argyrippusamatorſaluereeamiuberet, &abiret. PHIL. Saluere meiubes,quoitu abiensaffers morbum? Sedcertèpugnabat oratio Ezelını Romani cumfactis;dice batſe Patauium expurgare velle , ) optimosquoſque ciues occidebat . Pugnarent vultus ,&factum,ſicontractafron te,&auerſo vultu quisarctèhominemamplexaretur:factum, fiquidemmagnamfignificaret dilectionem,atvultus animi alienationem. Hæcitaquecumpalam repugnantſignificationes affectuŭ: at cumtectè, &pertraſennam fignificatio veraerumpit,in telligemus ſuo poftea loco , interim breuitatis caufafuppri memus. §. Octauus . Cumdiſrumpitur, aperiturqueſimu latio ex affectuſubſequente. Атfimulatio aperitur ex effectuſubſequente interdum Ut velamenfatis perse denſum,et opacum difrumpatur. Simulatio Lodouici Sfortiadum prætendebat adminiftratio nem dictionis Mediolanenfis in gratiam nepotum exfratre arripere,detectafuitcum illisexclufis, eamfibi, &filijsfuis abIm  abImperatorepetijt, & impetrauit . Proditorumfimulatio nesadexitumadducte omneshac ratione aperiuntur. Sinon finxitequumagręcisrelictumdonum effefatale Minerua , Sequentinocteexitusfraudemdetexit . Arduusarmatosmedijsinmenibusastans Funditequus; victorque Sinonincendiamifcet . Primum caput continet detegendafraudisexqua litateperſonaagentis, cum veteratorfue rit. Veteratorisdiſtinctio , & canon . SINGULAiamcapita,quebucuſquedistinximusdetegen dæfimulationis, diffimulationis véprofequamur,ſuoscui quecanones aßignaturi . Primumitaque eratex qualitate perſoneagentis,cumhomo veteratorfuerit. Veteratoralius apertiorest, quiſcilicet interdumiactatfallaciamfuam, &in Uniwersumdolofam viuendirationemcommendat . Aliuste Etus, qui speciefimplicis ,ac veracisdecipit pro utilitatefua . Adhuncfecundum veteratorem detegendum multafcribit di gniſſimaſcituPlutarchusinlib. deadul. & am.difcrim. Exem plumprimi ueteratoris exprimiturin Memnone aXenophonte in lib. 2. de Cyriexpeditioneincalce. Verbafunt inter alias , Memnõiactabatpoſſeſeomnesfallere, falsűfuadere, et amicosilludere. Lodouicus Sphortiadictus Morusexho- Guicciardi rūnumerofuiffevidetur,quidumprudentiaipſeſuaminterdum celebraret dareſepoſſe verbacunctisprofiteretur . Simulatore iam, ac veteratore diuiſo communiscanonſtatuatur . nus. Hominisfimulatoris, ac veteratoris dicta ,etfacta inter- Canon. pretari 350 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. pretari debemus ex utilitate eiusnon ex verborum,facto rumvéſignificatione . Totamrem unico exemplodeclaremus. 2.annaliū. Tacitus b. Germanicus eoredegerat Germanorum vires , ut unius ad huc annibello eos debellarepoffet. AtTyberius cui tanta glo ria Germanicifufpectaerat , multa obtendit , utabello ipfum abstraheret , primum monituquietiorum confiliorum,deinde oblatione Confulatus; demum rogando, ut aliquid materia re linqueret ad imperatoriam lauream Druso. At Germanicus SimulationemTyberrijnouit; nam, vttraditTacitus,Haud, inquit,contatus eftvltro Germanicus,quamquam fin giea,ſequeperinuidiam parto iamdecori abſtrahi intelligeret. . Secundus. Vſus canonisfeculohocexpo nitur,&reprehenditur. Hocfeculocanonhicaliorumdicta,acfactainterpretan diexeorum vtilitate adeo inualuit, utquafiomnesfintfimu latores; quafiomnes exelectioneagant, &confultatione, non autemfepeexaffectu, &perturbatione; &demumquafiom nes, quodfibi utilius eft, exactè cognofcant, interpretamur omne dictum , &factumex rutilitate dicentis , &facientis, utexfine,nullaetiamhonestatis habitaratione. Sumoautem vtilitatempropriè, uttertium eſt membrumboni in commu ni, quodtrifariam diuiditurinhonestum, vtile,iucundum , quomodoetiaminRhetoricisfumpfit Aristot. cumillam Statuit finemgeneris deliberatiui. Haccpea interpretatio exregula corruptadominandi, quamItali vocamus, ragiondi Stato; quamnuncnedum Principes, &ciniles homines,ſedſtratores fto. In1. deIusquetractant ; ipfam definiuitfubalio tamennomine appo fitiffimè Plato . Vtilitatem potentioris . Vnamquamque ergo LiberNonus. ergo actionem interpretanturex utilitate,quam affert,faltam tanquam exfine . Non est itaque eiufmodiinterpretatio adhibenda , nifi cum Canon. factum,dictumvéhominisfimulatoris , &callidifcilicet uete ratoris cenfemus, utenimfimulatorfingit,ut callidus,nonfubi toaffectu,sedprouiſa ratione utilitatisfuæducitur . Vndefihomofimplex, &apertusfuerit, nonest tanquam Corellariu. exfimulatione accipiendaeius actio . Si etiam conftet ex affe Etuimpulfumegiſſe, noneft interpretandaquafi ex prouifione utilitatis proceffèrit : pariterfifit imprudens . Quisenim, imprudentibomini tribuatfagacem cognitionem utilitatis ma ioris ? Atfi viroptimus , &fanctus , exhoneſtare, non ex utilitate ab honestateſeiuncta est exponendumfactum ,di Etumuéeius. Cumtamencauſaſimulationistantùm excefferitperſongfim Exceptio. plicitatem, ut uixullafit interillasproportio, homo apertusfi mulat,uelquinfimulet, dubitarelicet. Mariusuidetur exfui naturapotiusapertus , quam ueterator , attamen tantumineo potuitpotentiadefiderium,utcum uiſaillifitpotentiæ ratioid exigere, turpiteromnes deceperit , uelutiin negocio Saturnini, legisque eiusnobiles, acSenatum; demumetiam Saturninum fefellit. Plutarch. in vitaeius. Secundumdetegendafimulationiscaputexperſona, qui cumagitur. CaputSextum . §. Primus . Quimaximètimetur, enixèhonoratur. SECVNDVM persona, qui cum agitur .Hec Sanècum potestatem magnamobtinuerit , prafertimquefi Valde 352 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib &c. valde timeaturſempercumfimulationeeam adimus, laudan do,honoresque, acreuerentiæfigna multò maiora exhibendo, quàmfit verèſenſusnoster. Romani peffimos Imperatores quippe quos maximeformidarent, diuinis uſque honoribus viuentes coluere; atoptimosprincipeshonoribus humanis.Ve InPaneg. rumestilludPlinij. Ingeniofior eſt enim ad excogitan Traianodi to. Canon. dum(honores t) laudes) ſimulatioveritate, feruitusli bertate, metus amore. Domitiano Statuas aureasinter Deorum Statuas tanquamDeopoſuerunt. Traiano ereas in terStatuas hominumdicauere;fedbas duraturas,illas breui excindendas . Sititaquecanon • Quaadhonoremdicimus, autfacimus potentiorumhomi num, quospræfertim valdetimemus, velquorum odium ma ximèpræcauemusaliquemfimulationis gradum maiorem, mi noremuéincludunt: maiora enimfunt, quamquedicenda,aut faciendapro eorum meritiscredamus. Interdumquenedum minorameritahonoratorumhominum,ſednulla credimus: im mo velmaximisopprobrijs, &penisdignosreputamus. Cum ponebant Statuas aureas in Templis Domitiano,credebanttum Romaniinquinaricultum Deorum . Totaquearea (inquit InPaneg. Plinius)hinc auro,hincargento relucebat, ſed po tius pollicebatur , cuminceſti principis ſtatuis per mixtaDeorumfimulacraforderent. Vel ergo debemus credere, contraquamſignificetursentiri, &reputari; velfal temmultominus . Att.epift.13. §. Secundus. Praxim continet . CANONEM nonadmodumdifficilem,breuitamenpra Lib.2.ad xiillustremus. CiceroCefarem obfecrat, expulſoiamPompeio ex Italia, uteiustamendignitatemtueripoffèt earatione,quòd COS LiberNonus. eosduosdelegerit,quos præcipuècoleret,quibusqueeffetami 353 ciffimus, verbafunt. Sed, vt eotempore non modò iple auctor dignitatis tuæ fui,verum etiam cæteris auctor ad te adiuuandum; ficmenuncPompeijdi guitasvehementer mouet;aliquot enim funt anni cumvos duos delegi,quos præcipuè colerem, & quibuseffem ,vti ſum,amiciffimus. His verbispa remergautrunqueamorem,&obferuantiamprofitetur: ve rumexcanone,cum epiftolaſcriptafit ad Cefarem armate nentem,&victorem, interpretaridebemus, minus Cesarem aCicerone obferuatum,quàm Pompeium ;quam interpreta tionem resipfademonstrat : in ijfdem enimadAtticumepiſto lis nonfemel declaratſe Pompeianum, utdixerit , etiam malleſecumPompeio vinci,quàmcumCefare vincere. At de excedente Studio in Pompeiumfupra dixi, interim adde epist. 9. lib.8. itidemad Atticum, cumde Pompeio dixerit. Et mehercule, quamuis amemus Cn. noſtrum , vt &facimus,&debemus, &c.DeCefarefubijcit, Sedhoc τέρας horribili vigilantia , celeritate, diligentia eft; monftrumfcilicet ipſum vocat. Veterator autem aliusapertioreft, quifcilicetinterdumia- Appendix. )in vniuersum dolofam viuendira tionemcommendat; aliustectus,qui ſpeciefimplicis, ac ve Etatfallaciamfuam, t racis decipit pro utilitatefua. Ad huncfecundum vetera torem detegendum multafcribit digniſſimaſcituPlutarchus inlib. deAdul. +) Ami.difcrim. Exemplum primi veterato ris exprimiturin Memnone aXenophonteinlib.4.deCyri ex peditione incalce . Verbafunt. Memnon iactabat poſſe ſeomnes fallere,falfumfuadere, & amicosilludere. LudouicusMorusex borumnumerofuiffe videtur,quidumGuice.lib.: pruden Z  Deconiect. cuiuſquemorib &c. prudentiamipſeſuaminterdumcelebraret,dareſepoſſerver ba cunctisprofitebatur . A T ertium caput Methodi,ſcilicetperfuafio exponitur. Cap. Septimum . CCEDAMVS adeammethodipartem ,queanniti turfimulationem ipſum adducere ad vera animifen Saaperienda . Quatuor erant eiufmodipartismembra,quo rum primumperfuafio. Hecautemcumſemperex bonodu catur, (eaenim ratione, quamque rem perfuademus ,dum bonam ostendimus) velex honestoprocedit, velex iucun do, vel ex utili . Ex honeſtoquidem, utcum iudices reos ad veritatem detegendamhortantur,eoquod ius id,fasque poſcit: hac etiamfuafione uteretur, fiquis Theologicum id 2. 2. q. 69. dogmaadhiberet, quodpenesD. Thomamlegimus . Etideo art. 1. ſi confiterinoluit veritatem, quam dicere tenetur, vel ſi eam mendaciter negauerit , mortaliter pec cat. Exiucundo autem, veluti fi cui ea rationefuadeatur grauemaliquem affectum prodere , ut angor leuetur animi. At exutili,fioccultidefiderij , ac votiad confequutionemſe quis operaturum, modò illudnouerit, atteſtetur.Interdum non aliena oratione,ſedinteriore meditatione,acconfultatione,per fuafio procedit. Legati Allobrogumſua ipfi confultatione utiliora confiliafequuti coniurationem Catilina detexere. Sa luftius ita remdefcribit. In altera parte erat æs alienum, ſtudium belli ,magnamerces in ſpevictoriæ : atin altera maiores opes,tuta confilia,pro incerta ſpe cer ta præmia.Hæc illisvoluentibus,vicitfortunaRei publicæ . Itaque Q.Fabio Sange, cuius patrocinio pluri LiberNonus. 355 plurimum ciuitasvtebatur,remomnem,vti cogno uerant, aperiunt. Canonemproponamus . Persuaderecuipiam, utarcanaprodat,exlocisperfuaden- Canon. dipendet, quipenesRhetoreshabentur. Summaveròest, u velhoneſtumidtum,veliucundum,velvtilefuturummon Stretur,ut aptius eritadmouendumhominem,cuiperfuadere velimus. NutrixpenesEuripidemPhedra perfuadebat arcanam aperire animi afflictionemexhonestate. Itaqueenarranshoneftior videberis . #prius ex utilitate. Etfiquidemagrotasquidamarcanorum malorum, Mulieresbepromptefunt adcurandum morbum: Si veròproferenda tibicalamitas adviros, InHyppo. lit. Dic, utres Medicisdeſigneturhæc. QuartumMethodicaput. Pana, &quastiones quaque adeasreducuntur. Cap. Octauum. §. Primus. Comminatio penæ ſubit lo cumquæftionis. SVCCEDUNTpene,&questiones. Sumoautemhic penasinordinead eruendam veritatem,utinidem cum questionibus nuncrecidant. Questio enimaIurifconfultode- 1. itemapud Labeonem, finitur; Tormenta , &dolor corporis ad eruendam squæstione veritatem . Subijcitetiamquæftionemextendi adeam,quam fid ff. de iniu Gręci malam manſionem vocant,fubquacarcerem,&famem reponitgloßa,cum aderuendam veritatemitidem ufurpatur. Inverbo,di Verùmnonfolupena,fedcomminatiopena,cumfuerit inftans, cunt. Z 2 commi 356 Deconiect.cuiufque morib.&c. comminatio,& pengmagna,questionislocumfubit. Timo remfiquidem excitatmagnum: qui affectusnonfecus ,acdo lorlaxatanimum, vimquecontinendiſecretum , atquearca . numanimiexoluit, utanteadiximus. Quamquidemcauſam eße, quamobrem animumaperianthominesquestionibusfub rectifuum , præterea,quenos adduximus,fignificat Sacra historia, ubideSampsoneloquiturloco antea adductocap.4. S.3.ibi, Defecitanima eius,&admortemvſquelaf ſata eſt: tunc aperiens veritatem,&c.penaitaqueeate nus adveritatemeruendamfuffragantur,quatenusanimum laßant: quemeundemeffectum præſtantmine instantes, urgentestimorem validum incutiendo. Timoremhuiufmodi 1 Lib.6. preualidumprefertim incutiebant tormentaexpofita coramreo adipfumterrendum; exponebantenimfidiculas,eculeos,ignes, laminas,& adfingulamembraexcogitatafingillatim tormen ta, uteaſpecieterriti reifaterentur,quæiudicesexquirebat . Curtiusidem coramPhilotafactumafferit . Tortoresin co ſpectu Philotæomnia crudelitatisinſtrumentapro ponunt : at aspectui ipfe nonſuccubuit; fuccubuere verò Annal.libr. penes Tacitumin coniurationeNeronis, Sceuinus , &Anto 15. nius Natalis. Et tormentorum ,inquit, aſpectum,& minas nontulere. §. Secundus. Non eſſeſatiscertam confeſſionem, quætormentisexprimitur. : Ar licètpena, &questiones,utlaßantanimumadde tegendam veritatem, conferant,attamenſquitiainterdum ſua adducuntimpares dolori homines ad fatenda crimina; que nunquamperpetrauere,ut mortefaltemseab ea mife ria Cho LiberNonus 357 ria liberent. Curtius dePhilota. Quia Philotas vltimis Lib.7. cruciatibus victus,vera nedixerit,quæ facta probari nonpoterant,an falſis, tormentorumpetierit finem, re quoquerecenti,cummagispoffetliquere, dubita tum eft . SedLegislatoribusquoquefufpectaestqueſtionum files; unde ff.dequeſtionibus,l.prima,legimusbeca Vul pianodicta. NoneſſeatormentisincipiendumD.Au guſtus conftituit, nequeadeo fidemquæſtioniadhi bendam. Hæcibiproindequeinter Iurifconfultos id com muni votoobtinuit, tormenta eſſeprobationemſubſidiariam; nempe noneßeadea deueniendum, mſi infubfidium,cum aliæ probationes ceffant . Clarus in pract. crimin. quest.64. num. s.quipostConradum eam effe communem DD.Sen tentiam refert . : Hocquæſtionum caputperſeparumeſſe accommodatum politico homini, per redu tionemtamenquandampoſſevtileeſſe. VERVM nedumparum certaestfides queſtionum,ſed etiammethodus queperillas tranfigitur ,parumaccommoda za politicohomini; ad queſitoresfiquidem , ac iudices crimi numpotiuspertinet,&demum adillos, quiiurisdictioneuti poffunt aduerfus eum, cuius veraſenſaquerunt. Heri in feruos exercere poterant, patribus quoque infilios aliqua exparte patet pro iure castigationis , quod in eos habent : verùmper reductionemin alios quoque nobisnonfubiectos quoquo pacto datur; modòfintaliquade caufanobisobnoxij. Sampsonerat amore Dalide obnoxius; potuit itaque illaiugi moleftiaexprimere abillo caufamfortitudinis ,quamomnibus Z 5 tegebat : : : Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. : Canon1. Iuuenalis. Canon 2. Annotatio. tegebat: idem eritfiobvtilitatem,velhonorisſtudium, velob aliuddemumbonumfueritquisobnoxiusnobis. Sintcanones. §. Quartus. Canones continet . QVEMCVNQVE aliquisobnoxiumhabetaliquainre potest hominemadduceread detegendaſecreta animi,dum eumincommodeteain re,inqua habet obnoxium,non dando fcilicet eam,velexiguèdando uſquequo veritatemdicat. Ca nonpatetexijs,quedeDalidadiximus.Pariterfiduses, م beneficusinopi,quemfubleuarefolebat,fubtrabat liberalita tis fuæadiumenta. Itemfipotensbomo, acStudijs multorum cultusfubtrahatcuipiam colentiumamorispristinaſigna, interiores admiſſiones , ut earatione compellathominem ve ritatem detegere, omniſummota fictione; nam hec acriter punguntſequaciumanimos. Quiddas,utCostumaliquandoſalutes, Utterespiciatclauſo veientolabello? Ille metit barbam , crinemhicdeponit; amati Plenadomuslibis venalibus. Quodquedehisdefideratis bonisdixi ,dealijsomnibusdi Etumquiſquereputet . Si quis pariter quempiamobnoxiumin re aliquahabeat, minisfubtrahendi bonum concupitum adigere eum potestad aperienda veraanimiſenſa. 4 : Utpriorſcilicet canondolore,bictimoreprocedit.Amata hocmodomulieres amatoresfibidetectos redderepoßunt,etc. &principesaulicosfuosinterminationealioquingratiæ ſue . Nontamen est prorfusneceſſariamethodus,vt conſtan tianonnullorumtormenta vincit,ita etiam vincere ,atmul toma :  to magispotest minus violentas expreſſiones,qualesfunt, quasproximèmemorauimus; tumqueexdolore, tumqueex timoreprocedunt . Importunas ſollicitationes ad hoc quoque caput reduci. IMPORTVNA follicitatio, &repetita interrogatiofe cretimoleftia demumſua potis eftexprimereſecretumanimo: quiſquefecumreputet,inuenietfæpe animifecretanonfemel denegata,repetita demum,& inftante petitione expreffiffe. Dalida verè videtur eiufmodi importunitate viciffeSam pſonem,licètincommodatioinamore necteretur. Chremes pe nesTerentium , repetitainterrogatione Menedemum inclina. Heaut. act. uitadaperiendam caufamærumnefue; verumalio etiam Subiecto methodicapitearcanum demum expreffit. Quidpof 1.fcen.1. fititerata , &demum importunapetitioexfactoBlafij cum Daſio penesLiuium patet, etfi enimnonpertinetexemplum Lib.26. adaperiendumanimiſecretum,tamen maximam vimipfius oftendit ,dumBlasius amulumsuum, & studiofum puniri imperij importunitatefollicitationis ad partem Romanorum traxit. Concludit eam narrationem Liuius. Nec Blaſius ante abſtitit tam audaci incepto, quàm idem ob tundendo,docendoque,quamearesipfis,patriæque ſalutariseffetperuicit,vt præfidium Punicum (biau temNumida erant)Salapiaquetraderetur Marcello. §. Sextus . Iudices,&quæfitores criminum hacvti arte, &c. IVDICES, &quæfitoresfcelerum importunitateeiuf Z 4 modi . 360 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. modi interrogationumfatigant reos, eaque unàſapeadcon fitendumadducunt; nammultitudine interrogationumhomi nes onerant, eorumque refponfiones contrarias , &perple xas contendunt; indefatigati ,quiinterrogantur , & irreti ti, cumſeſeexplicarenequeant,ſepenonhabentquidrefpon deant , &obmutefcunt. Sape veritatem fatentur victiin dicijs , quæextorfit interrogandoiudex. Suntaliquiininter rogandi arteadeoexcellentes ,ut reosfolis interrogationibus adconfitendumadigant; nõnullosqueeiufmodi afecognitos re fertTranquillus Ambrofinus deproceffuinformatiuolibroi. capit. 2. num. s. moleſtianempe anguntur, & franguntur rei ; interdum etiam timorepeneanimo prouife. Timorepe nes PlautumdefecitTyndarus obindiciumAriftophontiscon trarium enixè affeuerantis , &ob interrogationes Hegionis heri. Aperittimoremfuum Tyndarus . TYND. Pereoprobe . Quintuquiefcisdeierectumcor meum,acfufpendete. Tufuffultas,egomiſer vixaftopreformidine.. §. Septimus. Non eſſeprorfustutammodò enarratam artem . VERVM nequeprorfuscertafidesadhiberi potest eiuf modi interrogandiperitia , utfcilicet, quicquidillaexreisex primit, omnino verumreputetur. Siquidem videmusdifpu tandi peritosredarguere veriffima quæquedictaminusperi torum,quosetiam (modolubeat)inrepugnantiamdictorum adducunt . Quinquefunt, quæſopbistefibi proponunt, & nisi rectè , &fatèoccurratur,prestant. Redargutio,Fal fum,Inopinabile, Solęcismus, &Nugatio. Ariftotel. 1.So phist. Elench.cap.3. Solertem ergo,& acutum quafitorem adducere LiberNonus. 361 adducerehominem, etiamſi veridicum , &infonteminrepu gnantias, &contrarietates, ecquod mirum? Confequens ve ròeft, utirretitus eiufmodihomo conturbetur ,atque contice Scat; deindeque tormentorum metu,adque iam indiciafua perpexitatepræbuitiudici ,fateaturdelictum ,quodnunquam perpetrauerit . Certèfiquainremediocritatemſequioportet (inomnibus Admonitio, autemoportetſequi , nam omnis virtus ,omnisque actio virtutein mediocritate eft)inbac præfertimfunctione ,quæ ex vitamnecemquehominumobiectamhabet ; immofubiectam, est earetinenda. Velle ergoexfubtilitatenimianominis cele britatem comparareadfeuitiæ exceffum tendit: negligentius contraquam parfit procedere , estcriminosorumhominum malitiam alere. Arripiat ergo iudex,acfibi proponatillud Cleobuli Αρισον μετρον, ſcilicetoptimum efſſe modum; necnonHo ratijmonitum. Rectius viues,Licini,nequealtum Semper urgendo,nequedumprocellas.. Cautushorrefcis,nimiumpramendo Litusiniquum . QuintumMethodicaput. Pramia. Qqueque §. Primus. Præmiorumtripartitadiuifio. VINTVM Methodicaputſequitur,nempepramia, adpremiarediguntur. ExeploanteaSceuolę rem illuftrauimus; nuncdistinguamusamplius. Premia ergovel datafunt, vel sperata, velpromißa, velaliter. Premia alia data, aliafperata . Que veròsperata, aliaexpromiffione Sperata, 362 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. ſperata, aliafinepromiffioneſperata. Quefinepromißioneſpe rantur,ego abfolutè ſperata vocabo ; alia pollicitafimpliciter nuncupabo : atquehocmodo prior distinctio tripartitaredibit . Premiorumdatorum, ſperatorumpromifforum. Obdatum premiumreuelauitſecretumconiurationisPorfengMutius,& Vultureiuspenes Saluſtium ,premioimpunitatisfufcepto,con iurationem Catilina detexit, Poſtvbifide publicadicere iuſſus eſt, omnia, vtgeſta erantaperuit. Ob speratum Milichius Neroni . QuadereTacitus. Namcum ſecum feruilis animus(Milichus)præmiaperfidiæreputauit, fimulqueimmenſapecunia,&potétiaobuerſabant, ceflitfas &faluspatroni,&acceptælibertatismemo ria . Tamen &ipſummouittimor,quem eiingeßit uxor,cu ius etiam confilium affumpferat, utfubiungit idem Tacitus. Premiumpromiffumlocumhabet, cumdetectoprincipio,vel coniurationis, velalicuius occultidelicti ad reliquumindagan dumpremia proponuntur reuelantibus . Hanc premiorum pollicitationem refpiciunt illa verbaTacitiin commurationeNe ronis iamfublucente, Cruciatu, aut præmio cunctaper uiaeſſe. Haceademarte , pollicitatione nempe premiorum, fiquisexulemauttraderet, autoccideret, addita etiamimpuni tate (fiquioccidebat, auttradebatforetexul) SixtusV.maxi mamexulummanum totam Ecclefiafticam ditionempertur bantiumdiſiecit, acperdidit . Cicero, ut Saluſtius refert,mul tapollicendoper Fuluiam, effecerat,ut Q.Curtius,dequopau lòante memoraui, confilia Catilinafibiproderet. 5. Secundus. Depræmijsdatis,&quæad : eareducantur . ANTEA premiorumcumadfecretadetegendain affectus, Utin LiberNonus. Utincaufasredegimus;nuncpariterconiungamus eorumcon 363 fiderationem. Premiaitaquedata voluptatemafferunt, cu iusrationeemollitusanimusfacilèaperitur,fuaqueeffundit: ex eodemhocfontefit, ut veneriscomerciareddant concubitores fibi mutuòapertos : exhibitaergoea voluptasinter data præ miareponendaeft; eſt enim bonumquoddam,fcilicetiucundum, exhibitum, &animüfufcipientiumſummopereemollit . Dym nus hac de caufa Nicomacho exoleto coniurationem in Ale- Curt.lib.6. xandrumdetexit . Curiusconiurationem , & confilia Catili- In coniur. neFuluiæ,quicumeratei vetusſtupri confuetudo. Blandi. Catil. tiæpræfertim muliebres multum & ipfe poffuntob volupta tem,quamexhibent,quaquelabaſcit animus. Multas mulier culasfolis blanditijs abamatoribus intimaanimiſenſaextorfif fe,certum est; nam, ) in maioraimpulere. AudiamusLi uiumdeprefecto præfidij Tarentipropenis . Blanditijs, in quit, muliebribus perpulit eumpræfectumadprodi tionemcuſtodiæloci ; multòmagisergopoffuntanimi ar canaelicere . Blanditie quoque potentiorum , &præfertim principum, magnam vimbabentadcommouendos,aperiendosquefibiani mos; namlocomagnihonoris,proindequeboni prestantisha benturblandeaprincipeappellationes , nedum a leuibus homi nibus,fedetiama grauioribus. Inaulaplures reperies prima rioshomines,quosfibenignèprincepsafpexerit ,idipfiproma ximohonore,ſummoquefortunebeneficiocomputent. Memi nipotientererumClementeOctauo , adeoque Petro Cardinale AldobrandinoeiusexfratreNepote, urgèreſeproceresEccle fiasticos, utabipfoinegreßibus, regreffibusvéconspicerentur. Sedquid? Repetamus illud Tacitide Seianodictum. Liber tis quoque,accanitoribus eiusnotefcerepro magni fico 364 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. fico accipiebatur: Agnofcithancblanditiarum vim Plu tarchusinlib.deimmod. verecundia, utmulti , dumlaudan tur, &extolluntur,labaſcantanimo,ſequefubmittant blan dientibus . Blanditie ergolaxant,acremittunt animum,ut Annal.lib. multi idcircò blandientibusſeſe totos aperiant . HacarteLa 4. verſus fi nem. tiniusLatiariscircumuenitpenes TacitumTitum Sabinum ; laudando enim eiusconstantiam arcanum eius in Seianum odium totum exprompfit. §. Tertius . Mirandum exponitur, etiam dolorem voluptatishacinreinterdumnaturamſubire, &lachrymas præmij dati . MIRANDVM estprimafronte,quodnuncexponam , etiam dolorem interdum voluptatis naturam&vimfufcipe re . Repetendum autem est ex Aristotel. 1. Rhetoric.ap. deiucundis,fletum , aclachrymas voluptatisfenfum include re, quodauctoritateHomeri confirmauit . Sicfatusflendi cunctis immiſitamorem. Ratio veròeaest, quodflendo, ac lachrymandodolorem ferèeffundimus, adeoque animurnoppreffumleuamus,fiaffli Etumbominemcommemoratione malorumin lachrymas conij ciamus, vixfieripoterit, utnonintimumaperiat animiſui. Confirmanturbec exemploLatiaris,quod proximo §. tetigi Latiarismi mus:placetnunc verbaTacitifubijcere. Latiaris, inquit, ia racalliditas. cerefortuitosprimum fermones,mox laudarecon ſtantiam , quod nonvtceteri florentis domus ami cus adflictam deferuiſſer; fimulhonorade Germa nico,Agrippinammiferansdiſſerebat. Etpoftquam Sabinus , vtfunt molles in calamitate mortalium animi , LiberNonus.-animi, effuditlachrymas, vinxitquæſtus, audentius iam onerat Seianum,ſeuitiam,fuperbiam,ſpes eius :  nein Tyberiumquidemconuitioabſtinet. Hacibi,at postnonnullahæcaliafubiungit . Eadem ille Sabinus,& diutius quando meſta, vbiſemelproruperediffici liusretinentur. PRAEMIA sperata, acpromiſſaaggrediamur,duohæc ca pitanuncinunumconiungentes.Exaffectuautem,quemeiuf modisperatapramiaexcitant,intelligemus,quæcunqueadipſa reducuntur, interipſaquereponidebeant, inhocpræfertimne gocio.Atquisindubiumreuocet; quincupiditatemſuſcitent? bonumenimnondumhabitum defiderium incutit, quem affe Etumfpesacuit.Primoergolocoampledignitates, tſumme diuitia,quebonaaPrincipeſperemus,auta Republica, ſperati boniapicemoccuparet . Abeiufmodi præmijsmotus Milichus detexitconiurationemaduerfusNeronem,vt vidimus:ijfdem motifuntLegati Allobrogum adconiurationem Catilinadete gendam; queenimipfosdiu deliberantesin hancdemumpar temtraxerunt,fuerunt,utinquit Saluſtius. Maiores opes, certa confilia ; pro incertaſpe,certapræmia. Atque cunque etiam speramus , & defideramusapriuatis, eandem vim,maiorem, minoremvéprodefiderijintentionehabent. Si amatapro conditione amoris pofceret, ut amator penitiſſi mumanimiarcanum proderet, vix credo amatorem futu rum,quinondetegeret quæcunquecommißaforentfideiſue. Inops item, fi eademconditione offerreteidiues multasdiui tias ,facilè denudaretarcanaanimi. Inops item confilij,aut confo A ! 366 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib &c. confolationis, aut opis , fi ea offerantur, aperiet, que prius Heaut. act. celabat . Penes Terentium Chremes Menedemum adduxit 1.fcen.1. nal. adaperiendam caufamegritudinisfuæ poſtinſtantem,acrepe titam interrogationem , pollicendo illiconfilium confolationem, &opemfuam. Atqueiftuc,quicquidest,fac merutfciam, Neretice, ne verere, crede,inquammihi, Autconfolando, autconfilio, aut reiuuero . §. Quintus. Iram etiam ,&quæiramconcitant, animum denudare excodemfunda mento præmij ſperati. VT fua uisest ultio, itaboni ſperatirationemfubit, cum Speratur. Hancob caufam ad explendamiram arcanumreue lant multi,cum exea ultionemexpectant:ataffectuspræterea ire apertus est, velutianteaquoquediximus, utipfaperfe aperiat animiſenſamagis etiam,quăcupiditas. Huiuseffectus exěplumpenesTacitumhabemus, vbi SceuinusFenniumRu fumdetexitiratus, quod,cumintercõiuratosipsequoque eßet, Lib.4. An- ineostameaccerrimus iudexforet,utque Tacitus dicit,atrox aduerfus ſocios, quo fidem inſcitiæ pararet,prodide runt ergoillum exira, & ob ultionem. RemexTacitinarra tione intelligamus . Cæterum ,inquit, militaris quoque conſpiratio nonvltra fefellit, accenfisindicibus ad prodendum FenniumRufum,quem eundemcon Icium, &inquifitorem,nontolerabant. Ergo inſtati, minitatiquerenitens Sceuinus, nemineaitpluraſci re,quàm ipſum; hortatusquevltròredderettam bo noprincipivicem. Nuncetiam,quiartemtradunt interro gandorum reorum,monent, ut reus adiramadducatur. §. Sex LiberNonus. 367 §. Sextus. Spesquoquegloriæinterdum ſecretaape ritexcodemfundamento . INTER cetera bona gloriaetiam,cumsperatur ex occul ta veritatis enarratione, aperit animiſenſa. Exemplumin Subrio FlauiopenesTacitumhabetur,dequohæcfcribitincon iurationeitidem aduerfus Neronem . Dein poftquam vr gebatur confeffionis gloriam amplexus interroga tusquea Nerone,quibus caufis ad obliuionemfacra mentiproceſſiſſet. Oderam te,inquit, nec quiſquam tibi fidelior militum fuit, dum amari meruiſti: odif ſe cepi,poſtquamparricida matris,&vxoris,auriga, hiftrio, &incendiarius extitiſti . Affectusautemtum animum denudans estcupiditasgloriæ, velſana, velinfana, ambitioſa. Queſitoresnunccriminum pronosin ambitio nemanimosineundemaffectum promouentad eliciendam ve ritatem, quadereinfraincanonibus. EBRIETAS quarto loco numerabaturinter argumenta Suprac.4.5. recludendi animum . Quadere,præter ea,quædiximus,Ho ratiushabet , Quidnonebrietasdefignat?opertarecludit. 3. AtpriorPlato . Vinumlargius epotumineamlibertatem, Inprimode &audaciamhominemadduceredicit, utintrepidèfaciat , dicat quicquidvult . Exemplum veròpræteraliamultahabe muspenes SenecamdeRufo viroordinis Senatorij. Verba Lib.3.d legibus. funt, SubDiuoAuguſtonondum hominibusverba ele fua 368 Deconiect. cuiuſquemorib.&c. fuapericuloſa erant, iammoleſta. Rufusvirordinis Senatorij inter cenamoptauerat, neCefarfaluus re diret ex eaperegrinatione,quamparabat,& adiece rat idem omnestauros ,&vitulosoptare. Fuerunt , qui illadiligenter audirent, vtprimúdiluxitferuus, qui cenanti adpedesſteterat , narrat, quæ inter cæ namebriusdixiffet; hortatur eum,vtCefarem occu pet,atqueipſeſedeferat. Energoeffectusebrietatis : quem effectumcumoptimècallerentdelatorestemporeTyberijfermo Lib. codem nemebriorumferuabant. VerbaeiuſdemSeneceprofero. Sub cap.26. 3.debenef. Tyberio, inquit, principefuit accufandifrequens ,& penè publica rabies,quæ omniciuili bellograuius togatamciuitatemconfecit: excipiebatur ebriorum fermo . A Canonescontinet . CaputDecimum . Dcanonestranfeamus,quiexprecedentiscapitisdog Canon1. 4 Declaratio. Ampliatio prima. matibuspendent. Sititaqueprimuscanon. Preſentibonohominemafficere,fiue utilebonumfueritfi ueiucundum,ipſum perfeemollitanimumaccipientis, &adſe ſeaperiendumdisponit; modòinstet, quidedit ad arcanumali quodanimiintelligendum . Debettamen ,qui arcanumanimicaptat, itadare , & ita querere, utnonideodediffe videatur, nullaquealiade cau Ja, quam utaccipientisanimumdetegeret. Arsenimprouifa perit, qui accipit (fi homo præfertim cordatusfit)fe cir cumveniri, nonbeneficioaffici credit; undeobduratur potius animus,quàm utemolleſcat,potiusque obducitur,quàm out aperiatur . Collatioboniid,quodnunccanonexprimit, magisoperatur, cum LiberNonus. 369 cumbonumfuerit magis expetitum . Nempe diuitie homini egeno, &cupidograta admodum : diuiti,&liberali non ad modum : immo neque isforfan accipiet . Amatori blanditie mulieris amatepro felicitate erunt : at alteri potius deſpecta , molesta . NonineptumfigmentumReginaldi, &Ange licæ,quæ pulcherrima cumeffèt, t )amultisfummopereexpeti ta,a Reginaldo aliquandodefpiciebatur ,immofaftidiebatur. Nafciturexampliationecanon. Intribuendobonoaddenudandumaccipientisſecretum,opor Canon2. tetconijcere, quidipfepræfertimdefideret,idquetribuere: nun quamautemdare,quefastidiat, & contemnat. FrustraMef Sallablanditiascredebat Sulpitiefuas gratas effe,quas intimè fastidiebat . Iamnimium Meſſallamei Studioſequiefcas; Nontempestiveſapepropinque vie . Neque ergo militi librostribuere, doctoriarmaconuenit, fedquequemqueviuant,acdecent. Tibullus. Hin. defidiofumhominemconijcerein otia, ) luſus, &fua- Corellariu. nembufmodi vitam confert ad retegendumfecretum ; & amatorem,fiamicaaggrediaturblanditijs; ambitiofum,siprin ceps , authomopotens blandisappellationibus, dignationibuf quehonoribusqueeiufmodiafficiat. Commouentpotiffimumbonatributa,fiabamato, autobfer- Ampliatio uatodatore procefferint , v.gr.fia principe donentur, magis fecunda. mouent, quamfiapriuato; &fiabhomine,quemfufpicimus, quamfiadespecto; &fiabamataamator, vel ab amatore amata , quamfi ab alijs quibufcunque acceperint. Sit ergo canon . Cum danturbona magna homini valdè expetenti,ab ho- Canon3. mineque ergaquem magnafitreuerentia, vel magnus amor Aa acci  Deconiect. cuiuſquemorib.&c. accipientis eiufmodi donum, ut donum, ut magna voluptate afficit,ita animumlaxat , acremittitadaperiendaſenſaintimaſua. Canonexampliationibusducitur, &ampliationes ex antea dictis in cap.præcedente. Canon4. Canon5. Canon 6. Praxis Pla tonis. Adintimos , &tectosdolorescuiufpiameruendos confert, fieorundem commemoratione malorum recrudeſcatdolor, ut inlachrymas uſque erumpat:pariterenimperos, & vocem doloridem erumpere nititur . Patetexcap.anteced. S. 3 . Iniuria accepta, velopinionesacceptaruminiuriarum,quas condimus animo ,facilèdetegentur,acerumpent, fiearumcom memorationeinpræfentem iram,prefertim magnamconijcia mur. Patetcanon excap. anteced. §. s. Vinograßariad denudandosanimosest viaefficax , modo liceat . Ex§. 7. cap. anteced. Haceft praxisaPlatonelaudatafubfinelib.1.delegibus detegendorum morum, eorumpræfertim,quipetulantia,im pudentiæquefunt affines . Verba apponamus. Атн. Inijs igitur, quæperpefli confidentes, audaces quemaxi mè fieri natura ſolemus , cogitandum videtur, vt quam minimè impudentes,& audaces ſimus, fed contrà formidoloſi ad dicendum, aut patiendum, autagendumquicquam turpe. CLIN. Ita videtur. Атн. Nonnehæcita funt,inquibustales fumus , ira,amor,petulatia,inſcitia,auaritia, ſecordia; &ad hæcilla,diuitiæ,forma,vires,&quęcunquevolupta tis ebrietatequadam hominesamentesfaciunt? Ad horum omnium leue,& innocuum periculum fa ciendum inducendamque exercitationem ,nullam habemusvoluptatemcommodioréea,quæpotione moresexaminat,ſi modòprudens quædam cautio adhi LiberNonus. adhibeatur. Videamus enim. Duri,&agreftis ani 371 mi, vnde iniuriæ millepullulant,vbi experimentum caperetutius fit: in commercijsnè, quævel maximè ingeniumdeclararevidentur, anDionyfij ſpectacu lis , autvenerea inreanimo ſuccumbente,vtmores alicuius in periculumvel filiæ,vel filij , vel vxoris pu dicitia expoſita probes?Equidemſi infinitacomme mores, nunquam inuenies,in quo per iocum fine omniprorfus periculo ſpectare ingeniafic vtin vi nolicet. QuaderenequeCretenfes, nequealiosho minum vllos dubitaturos vnquam putamus,quin huiufmodi morum examinatio conueniens fit, ac præcæteris facilis,tuta,breuis . SextumMethodi caputaggreditur, cum velamen tumperſeperlucet . Caput Undecimum. NVNCſextummethodicaput aggrediamur,cum vela mentumperlucet: duas hocpartescontinebat; cumtotum Suapte natura perlucet, & cumfuapte natura imperuium aliqua inparte difrumpitur : primam partem repetentes,ni hil eft,quodfuperius dictis cap. 4. §. s. adijciamus præterca nones. Remiſſa,acfrigidaſignificatio morisautaffectus, quem Canon1. pratendimus,fiue orationefignificetur,fiue vultu ,fiuefa Eto ,fictionem,fimulationemvéſapit. Canonisdeclaratio,ac ratioexdicto . §. s. patet. Exciperetamendebemus ,niſiremiſſaſignificatioexhomi- Exceptio. nis natura, morevéfuerit, v.gr. vir grauisbreui oratione, immotoqueplerunque vultu,quefacturusest,fignificat. Ro Aa 2 tolan 372 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. tolanduspenes Areostumpaucis verbis operamfuampollici tus est Olympie. Inparoleconleinonfidiffuſe , : Chedinaturanonne uſauatroppe. Socrates eodem vultuſecunda,&aduersapertulit; immo InPhed. Canon2. Exceptio. Canonisre calicem venenibilariter , & afpectueodemquoceteraaccepit. Platohisconfirmat verbis. Socrates verò hilariter ad modum,oEchecrates,accepit, nihilomnino com motus,nequecolore,nequevultu mutato,fedquem admodumconfueueratillumTaurineafpiciens. In naturaergoadmodumremiſſa,autinſummagrauitate,magna nimitatevécanonnon uſquequaqueretinendus. Nimiumartificiofa, affectataqueſignificatio affectus , aut morisfictionis,acfimulationisest argumentum. Canonisde claratio,&confirmatioex §. eodem s. cap. 4.habetur. Atexcipitur canon,cum moscommunisgentis, velpe culiaris perſoneineamaffectationemfuaptenaturadefcendit, verbigratia,nunc Neapolitani vehementiconatu,  cis , et vultus , &manuum,ac reliqui corporis ad expri mendaſenſaſua utuntur: ex earufufit , utque affectata fignificatioinalijs effèt ,inipfis nequaquamfit . Suntetiam perſonealique,queeandemexpreffionis affectationemex mo re contraxerunt . In eiufmodiergo hominibus immodicusfi gnificationis conatus , non preſentem fictionem,fedpotius propenfionem adfingendum indicat canonem , ergo restrin gamus. Cumhomo,quinequeexcommunimore,neque exſuoestin Arictioalte- fignificandi conatuimmodicus, nimisartificiofa,acaffectatafi gnificationeaffectum, moremque prætenderit,iustamfimula tionisfuspicionem affert. Affecta : LiberNonus. Affectationem eiufmodiindicant illaPerfijinprimaSatyra 373 in admiratione verfuum aNeroneforſan prolatorum . Etnatalitiatandemcumfardonychealbus, Sedelegens celſa, liquidocumplafmateguttur Mobilecolluerit ,patrantifractus ocello, Hicneque more probo videas, neque voceSerena IngentestrepidareTitos, cumcarminalumbum Intrant,&tremuloſcalpuntur ubiintimaverſu. Etpostea 1 Laudatur; bellumhoc. hocbellum? anRomuleceues? Declarandus veròeſtcanon; nedumenimaffectatioconfi- Declaratio ſtit iu exteriorepronunciatione,atqueingestibus,fedinfignifi catione orationis,atquein actioneipſa . Nempecũomniafacta, dictaqueſocijlaudatquis,acfufpicit,affectatio illaest, &fi Etum,acfimulatumamorem,non verumfignificat: nemoenim est, quinonin nin aliquareoffendat . Quiomniaitem amicidefi deriaapprobat; omniaeiusdicta,factaquetumadmittit,tum imitatur,affectatèſegerit, estque eaaffectataoratio, actioque, fimulqueidcircòfignumamorisnon veri , & adulatoris,non amici, utPlutarchusdocetdeadul. &amicidifcrimine. Quitamencanonaccipiendusprovero,utplurimum,fecus Exceptio. enimpoßeinterdumeousqueprogrediamorem,utexcecetpror fusamantemergaamatum,omniaqueeiusdista, &factapro rectisrepræfentet,faterioportet, &patetetiamex iamdiftis, &infradicendis; eft tamenis amorrariffimus,preterquamin Lib.feq.ca. furoreamatorio, venereoque. Caterumenimetiam fiadagio. feratur, Suum cuiquepulchrú,&fuusrexreginæpla cet; tamennoneousqueidprocedit, ut nonetiaminliberispec cata agnofcamus, &caſtigemusinterdum, utdogmaPlutar chiiure poffitpaffimin hoc coniecturalinegocioaccipi. Aa 3 Sextum 374 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. Sextum idem methodicaputcumerumpitaffectus. Caput Duodecimum . PARS aliaeiuſdemſexti capitismethodierat,cum affe Adelph. act.4.fc.5. Etus erumpit. Erumpit veròis vel voce, velvultu, velfacto. Erupitaffectus pudoris vultuÆſchinipenesTe rentiumfingentisſeforesnonpulſaſſe; undeibi Mitio. Erubuit (inquit)faluaresest. &lachrymis. Mitioibidem . Atdoloramiße, utcredebatPamphile,erupit vultu,-Quidlachrumas? Comprimebattameneum dolorem Æſchinus : at erupitidem dolor voce,dumſeperijfſſe inuictusexclamat. MIT. Hacvirgoorbaestpatre: Hicmeusamicusilligenereeftproxumus: Huiclegescoguntnuberehanc. Æs. Perij. M.Quideft? Æs.Nil:recte:perge. Atmulto magisinillis verbis enituitdolor eius,& ira cundia . Æs. Factuma vobisduriter , Immifericorditerque,atqueetiam (ſiestpater Dicendum magisapertè) illiberaliter. Eaoratiotamacris denotat hominisangorem,& iracun diam,quantanon effet nataex alieno, &dealienonegocio, vt ipſe tumfimulabat. At Clitiphonis amor in Bacchidem erupitfactis,quæilli obiecit Chremespater. CH. Vidin' ego temodòmanuminſinumhuic mere triciinferere. §. Pri LiberNonus. 375 §. Primus. Canonescontinet. VERIVS est inditiumaniminota erumpentis affectus , Canon1. quàmfignificatio contraria , quaexpropofitoobferuatushomo Utitur. NempeimmiſſiomanuumClitiphonisinfinumBac chidis verior fuitfignificatio amoriseiusergaipfam,quàmfi mulatio , quòdeßet illaamica Clinie. Exemplum penesTaci tumlib.1.Annalium . Tiberius imperium fpecie, ac oratione recufabat. Afinius Gallus improuiſa interrogatione ipfum offendit; orationeta men difimulauit offenfionemTiberius ; verumex vultueru pit, &veraeanotafuit; namfemper inuiſusfuitis deinde Tiberio; &demumdamnatus perijt . Verbafunt Tacitirem narrantis. .. TumAfiniusGallusinterrogo,inquitCafar,quam partem Reipub.mandaritibivelis.Perculfusimpro uiſa interrogationepaulatim reticuit, dein collecto animo reſpodit.Nequacquamdecorumpudoriſuo legere aliquid,auteuitareex eo,cuiin vniuerfum ex cuſari mallet. Rurfus Gallus; (etenim vultuoffenfio nemconiectauerat)nonidcircointerrogatúait,&c. Aliaest eruptio affectus,aliaeft expreffio confilij,etiam Exceptio. cum voceerumpit affectus. Placetexemplodeclarare canonem, acinterduasdictas res Declaratio. differentiam . Sumamus ergo illud Cefaris ad Oppium,& Balbumpenès CiceronemadAtticum.Ethoc, inquit, liben tius, quodmeaſpontefacereconſtitueram, vtquàm leniflimum mepreberem,&Pompeiumdaremope ram,vtreconciliarem . Inreliquapostea epistola deleni tate eademfua agit, ut illa verba,vtPompeium darem Aa 4 operam,  Deconiect.cuiufquemorib &c. operam,&reconciliarem,quafiinfertafint,atnonfunt notaaffectus erumpentis,fedconfilij , acdeliberationis,utex formaipfadicendiconftat. Corellariű. Hincfit, uteaverba,quefiaffectumemergentemexpri merent,effent vera animinota,nunccum confiliumfignifi cent,fintfubdola; adimponendumenimOppio, &Balbopa cemcupientibusdictafunt, nonquòdCafarPompeiumfibire conciliare Studeret; namad victoriam , & addiuturnamvi Etoriam cum afpiraret, utibidemfatetur,quarationepoterat vincere vellePompeium,&cumeodeminirepacem?Resque ipſa Cafaris animum indicauit,quam placet ex Cicerone ex fcribere . Omnia miſera,fedhocnilmiferius. Pom peius Cn.Magium de pace mifit,&tamen oppu gnatur,quodegononcredebam. Oportetitaqueſeiun gereexpreffionem erumpentis affectus ab expreßioneconfilij , deliberationis . §. Secundus. Differtur indago erumpentium affe tuumad ſecundampartemhuiusvoluminis. INDAGO iam erumpentium affectuum methodusque eoruminuestigandorum,adſequentempartemſpectat,queest delatitantium affectuumdignotione ; illucergo reijciatur; in terim verò,quædiximus,inpræfentiaſufficiant. : Quando contrarius SIMULATIONI AFFECTUS apertè conſter. INTERDVM affectuscontrariusfimulationinonerum pit,quafiquepertranfennamelucet;fedapertèconftat: tum verè LiberNonus.  veròfaciliusmultòfimulatiodetegitur, utcuique, velrudi tamagnofcere liceat, velutiſiprincepspaternuminfubiectos amorem verbisprofiteatur, at factis odium expilandiqueſtu diumdemonstret,ut EzelinusinPatauinos. Cumexeffectuſubſequentefimulatioaperitur.  . Continetexempla. Teffectusſubſequensfimulationem præfertim aperit, Atpatenter,namomnes velrudes, Euenturerumſtolidodidicere magiſtro . magiftro. Ex Effectustamenſubſequensapertiusdetegitfictionem morū, quàminteriorumactionum,fiuefentientisappetitus,fiue v luntatisfuerint; cum voluntas enimbumana mutetur,nilmi rum,ſipreſentideliberationi posteacontraria deliberationem ineamus; undenonfemper,qui profitebaturamorem , &po ſteaodiumcertum opereipſorepræfentat,fimulabat antea ama re; poterat enim verètumamare,at mutatusdeindeodiffe . Sforcia,tBracciusamiciſſimiprimum,&contubernalesfue re,deinde emuli, &inimici. PenesTacitum, SubriusFlavius Lib.rs.An profeßuseſtſefideliffimumprimumNeronifuiſſe,dumis ama rimeruit; atdeindeodiſſe,cuparricida,&aurigaeuafit.Con fpiratio itaque eiusin Neronem odium quidemaduerfus Im peratorem,quotemporeconſpirabat , ostendit; at noneratne ceßariafignificatio fimulationis antea amoris. Moris verò Simulationempræfert contrariaactio,atcumaliquadistinctio netamen. Sienimquisſe virtutis habitu conformatumpro fiteatur, &deindein contrariamoperationemdeflectat, fimu laße nal.  Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. lafſſe anteababitumdemonstrat. Accipiamus exemplumEgna tij penesTacitum, qui Baream Soranumprodidit. Verba Lib. 16. an funtTaciti. Tantum iræP. Egnatiusteſtis conciuit . nem. nal.propefi- Clienshic Sorani ,&tuncemptusad opprimendum amicum,auctoritatem Stoicæ ſectæ præferebat ha bitu, & oread exprimendam imaginemhonefti,& exerciti;ceterum animoperfidiofus,&fubdolusaua ritiam, aclibidinemoccultans . Quæpoftquampe cunia recluſa funt , dedit exemplum præcauendi, quomodofraudibusinuolutos,autflagitijscomma culatos, ſicſpecie bonarum artium fallos,& amici tiæ fallaces . Hecilla . Certèautem proditioſcelerofaami ciinnocentis demonstrat nunquamhabitu virtutis, quampro fitebatur, ipfum ornatum . At cum profiteturquismorem ; fednonexhabitu,contraria actio , quædeindefequitur,nons Statim declarat morem contrarium,quemisabinitiopræfere bat, fuiffefimulatum : daturenim mutationilocus. §. Secundus . Canones continet. SVBIICIAMVS canones . Sitergoprimuscanon. Canon1. : : Si quis profiteaturaliquam virtutem, utfortitudinem, aut temperantiam, dum postea contrariam virtuti actionem operatur, ostenditſeſfimulaſſe virtutem, non verèhabuiffe. Declaratio, &confirma Declaratio, & confirmatio canonisexproximè dictispa tiocanonis. tet; nempeproditioBareademonftrauit Egnatiumfimulauiſſe virtutemfidei, atquephiloKaliam; etenimſefalſum prodidit, Sat. 3. tamicitiafallacem, ut Tacitus ait. Iuuenalis vocauit eiuf modifactumfacinus maiorisabolla, fcilicetpalmarum. Atqueaudifacinus maiorisabolle , Stoicus occidit Baream, delatoramicum. Thra .  Thraſones , qui habitu , & orationeprofitenturſe inuifte fortitudinis, cumpofteaignauèfugiunt , ac timent, fimulatio nemvirtutisfuammanifestant. Idemquedealijs. CumAndronicusImperatorab initiofummamin Alexium Nepotemexfratre charitatemdemonftrauit , quemdeindenul laprouocatus iniuriaimperio, & vitaſpoliauit,certèſeſimu lafſfeinprincipio charitatem manifestauit . Idemde Ludouico Sfortia,quemItali, Moro, vocauerunt, ergaitidemfratrisfi liumIoannemGaleatium, bæredempaterniimperij dicendum , quemveneno,ut creditur,sustulit,imperiumqueeius inſe tranftulit, acliberosfuos . Etiamcum vitiumpretenditur,contraria actiofimulatio- Ampliatio. nem demonstrat. Utque Brutus aduerfus Tarquinium pro Romana libertatefecit , apertè indicant ftultitiam preceden temfuiffefimulatam. Cumineiuſdemnegocij progreßuposteriores actiones prin- Canon2. cipiorepugnant, velpropofito,acfini tumafſferto, credendum estfinemobtentuifumptum, non verumfuiffe,cum nouacau Sapræfertimnonfuperuenierit,quamobrem confequensfuerit mutareprecedensconfilium. Cæfarabinitiobelli ciuilis profeſſuseſtſepacem velle, at- Declaratio, queconcordiamcum Pompeio, verùmcuminobfidioneBrun- o dusij remiferit fine fructuMagium,quem de pace internun ciumillimiferat Pompeius,declarauit defiderium concordiæ , quodabinitioprofitebatur,fallaxfuiße, acfimulatum. Cicero eouſquecredidit defiderium eiufmodiin Caſarepacisquodtum agnouitfalfum, utetiam mutatusopinione,reputaueritabini tio nihilaliud,quam Pompeijoccifionemillipropofitam. Verba &confirma repono. Intelligo ſerius , inquit,quamvellem,propter Lib.9.ad epiſtolas, fermonefqueBalbi; fedvideoplane, nihil Att. epift 4. aliud 380 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. aliud agi, nihil actumabinitio,quam, vthuncoc cideret. Item cum Polyperchon inuitauit specie amicitia HerculemAlexandriexBarſinefiliumadcenam,quemincon Canon3. Declaratio , &confirma tio . uiuio eoipſo ſtrangulauerunt conuiue,quisdubitet,quinami citiafueritfimulataexfequutamorte? Atcumposterior actioad idemnegocium cumprimanon pertinet, velpertinetquidem,atcauſa mutandevoluntatis intercefferit, non neceffe estfictionem, &fimulationemabini tiofuiffe, etiamfiposterioractio priori repugnet,ſed mutata voluntas eiufmodi diuerfitatis ,ac contrarietatis actionum caufa effe poteft. Verbigratia,Romani usqueadtemporaPolybijinfubie Etis prouincijs regendisſummaabſtinentia , veletiam libera litate utebantur, atpostea (velutiIugurthetempestate) non minorem auaritiamprefetulere. Noneratpriorfimulatio vir tutis,fed verè virtus,quæin vitiumdeinceps, corruptismo ribus ,degenerauit . Totamrem Saluſtiusdefcripfit. Quila bores, inquit, pericula,dubias,atqueaſperas res facilè tolerauerant,ijs otium,diuitiæque optanda alijs, oneri, miferiæquefuere.Igiturprimòpecuniæ,de indeimperij cupido creuit; ea, quaſi materiesom niummalorum,fuere.Namqueauaritia fidem,pro bitatem,ceterasquebonas artesſubuertit,prohis ſu perbiam,crudelitatem,Deosnegligere,omniavena liahaberedocuit, & c. ItemAlexanderciuili Imperioabinitiorexit,acposteaty rannico: nonfuitpriorfimulatio,acposteriorfuit mutatio ani mi,acmorum,inquamobamplitudinempartiimperij ,acre rum gestarum, & ob adulationem deuiftarum gentium de flexit. Caufaergo mutationis voluntatis, quæinterceffit, fuit amplitudoimperij obaucti, &quæ incrementa imperij confe quuntur,fuperbia, &luxus. Excipiendumtamenest,cumcaufammutande voluntatis Exceptio. ipfemet,qui agit, molitusfit; namcolligitur effectum etiam ab eoprouifum, &cupitum, cuiuscaufamoperatus eft . Antonius (utexceptionemexemplodeclarem, &confir- Exemplum mem)perempto Cefare,conuocato Senatu inædemTelluris, fundamenta libertatisiecit; nam Senatuſconſultum obliuionis ex fententia CICERONE (vedasi) confectumipfefouit,ultroque Diftatu ramfunditusexRepublicafustulit, quibus, & alijspraterea multis præclarum libertatis Studiumoftendit,ut nedum bi Storici,fedCicero ipfe in primaPhilippicafatetur: at postea libertatemoppugnauit, t) imperium quefiuit. Fuitnéfimu latio abinitio, an poftea voluntatis mutatio ? Dion fimulationemfuiffe ab initio arbitratur , & ego aßentio . Verba funtDionis. Adpacificationemvtrinqueconceſſum eſt maximèAntonij opera, quáquamis longèaliud animofuoconceptumhabebat. Curverò affentiam Dioni,hæceftratio . CumPopulusRomanusaduerfusper curſores Cafaris exarfit, in eosque impetumfecit, tum ani mosfumpfit Antonius, proque timore induit audaciam : antea veròtimore adductus,foueratconiuratos, atqueliber tatis amatores. At populum ipſemet testamenti publicatio : : ne, concione habita, & veste Cafaris explicata, con citauit . Cause ergo pofteriorisactionis auctor ipfemetfuit, undeabinitio quoque eam propofitam habuit, non autem postea mutatus, elegit . : Capita 382 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. Capitafimplicia Methodi,&combinatainterdum locum habere inpropofita fimulationisinda gine . Caput Decimumquartum. §. Primus. Methodi capita in epilogum contrahuntur . DETEGENDAE simulationisartemhucusqueincapi taocto distinximus , quæfingulapercurrimus,in fubie Etasque partes fubdiuifimus . Erant autem perſone agentis qualitas . Secunda qualitas perſone ,qui cum agitur. Tertia perfuafio. Quarta pænafeu cruciatus. Quinta premium . Sexta ebrietas . Septima velum perlucens fictionis. Oftaua velum idemcum difrumpitur: at quartum caputfubdiuide baturin cruciatum præfentem, qui dolore oppugnatanimum, &inproximèfuturum,cum qui poteft minatur cruciatum, animusenimtëoppugnaturtimore. Quintumquoquediuiditur inbonum, ac premium præfens inbonum, ac premiumfutu rum, cumfcilicet promittitur , ac fperatur . Octauumdemum caputdiftinguitur; velenimdiſrumpitur velamentumfictio nis exerumpente affectu, velexaccedenteeffectu. Hocitaque modocapita omnia methodi undecim euadent . 1 Qualitas hominis agētis,fifuerit veterator, autfimplex. 2 Qualitashominis,cum quo agitur,fifueritpotens, aut defpectus . 3 Perfuafio,quahomo adducitur ad retegendamfimula tionem .  Pœna,accruciatuspræfens,uttormenta. s Pœne&cruciatusfuturimina • Premium LiberNonus. 6 Premiumpreſens. 7 Premiumpromißum,ac Speratum. 8 Ebrietas. 383 9 Velamentumfictionis perlucens. 10 Cumvelamentumfictionisexerumpente affectu difrum pitur. II Cumvelamentumfictionisexeffectufuperueniente dif rumpitur. §. Secundus. Interdumcapita plura complicari. SINGVLA eiufmodi capita , utfingillatim adhibean tur,vidimus,atcomplicanturetiam interdum,utplurafimul fictionem, fimulationemque manifestent. Verbigratia,quando quequalitasperſone fictionem , acfimulationemintercederefi gnificabit; & velamentum fictionis perlucens,& effectus deindefequutus idem monftrabunt, &eritinnostramanuvel cruciatu, velpremio elicere exhomine veritatem . Tumita quetutius eritperomnia, que dantur, capitaprocedere; quod quedehiscapitibus,de ceteris pariterdicendumerit, cumplu ra concurrunt . Sititaque Canon . Cumpluramethodi capita adeandem fictionem deprehen- Canon. dendam confpirauerint,prestat peromnia ad eiusindaginem procedere . Ex combinationeinterdumaliquam mutationemcapitaipſamethodiſufcipere. ILLVD estpræterea confiderandum ex combinatione interea mutationem aliquamfufciperecapitaipſa methodi.Ver bi gratia, fiqualitatem ipsam perſonarum spectemus, magis falfifunt ignobiles, &feruiles homines, quàm nobiles : at tamin 384 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. tamenficombinemusperſonam,cum quaagitur,interdum illustriores homines ea ratione magisfalſierunt . RemexTa Annal.lib.i. cito demonftremus . Sub exceffu ergo Augusti hæcfcribit . At Romæruerein feruitium Confules patres, equi tes quantoquis illuftrior , tantomagis falfi, acfelti nantes , vultuquecompoſito,ne leti exceſſu princi pis , neutriſtioresprimordio, lachrymas, gaudium, quæſtus , adulationesmiſcebant. Hacille.Ratiove rò estdiuerfitatis , quodaprincipemagisobferuanturproceres, quàm vulgus,imòbocne afpiciturquidem, illiacuratiffimèin ſpiciuntur. Aliudestexemplum diétædiuerfitatis, dum tor mentisimmiſcentur voluptates; ha enim fubeunt tum ratio nemmaioris cruciatus , non autemremiſſionis , aut lenimenti . HacarteChriftiani olim martyres inter iteratatormentalenif fimètractabantur, utaltiusfequentes cruciatusperſentirent, Cur meretri haurirentque.Meretrices contra voluptatibus,quas exhibent, tibus res. cesvolupta- doloresimmiſcent,ut voluptatesipfæ maiores euadaut, mazıf ſceantdolo- quefentiantur, ut anteadiximus. Doloresergoeiusmodifti muli voluptatis,quam intendunt, vicemfubeunt:quædiuer fitas excombinationenafcitur;ſecusenimdoloresperſecrucia tuumrationemſubirent, & voluptatespremiorum, acbono rumexhibitorum . Admorumindaginemquacunquedictafuntappli cantur. Caput Decimumquintum. S. Primus. Vt quæaffectus detegunt,ad morum etiamindaginemducant. primahucusqueparte quarti huius voluminis Cverfemur,inquapartedemorumindagine,noaffectuum latitan latitantiumagimus,neceſſeeſt, quedefictionibus, &fimula tionibus detegendis hucusque diximus, ea omnia ad mores sapplicare. eruendosapplicare . Aliqua ergodogmata, &canonesad mo res eliciendos rectapertinent,dequibusnonest, utquicquam adijciamus: atalij canonesadaffectusdetegendosducunt,quos ad morum uſque indaginem extendere oportet. Verùm u exnotis affectibusinmorumcognitionemdeueniamus,fatisdi ximusin præcedentelib. . &s. adeum locum reijcio legentem , qui ex eo ducat,undeſuppleatindaginem morum propofitam . §. Secundus. Exoccaſioneoperandi affectuum quemoreselici. QUONIAM veròdiximusextraoperandioccafionem, proculqueab urgentibus obiectisfacilèmoresoculi, neceſſum itaque admores detegendosestadducere hominem inoccafio nemprafentemactionis,inquepreſentiamobiecti affectum irritantis , quiad morem pertinet,cuiusindaginemmolimur . Nempefifit in animoinuestigare , utrumfithomoaudax, anpauidus ,conijciendo inpericulum aliquodipfum,inuestiga re poterimusex actione , & affectu , quemin eodifpiciemus, utrius fit moris. Inpacenonfacilèdijudicabimusferociams Turniabignauia Biancis:atpugnandiſeſe offerat occafio, tumhuic; Frigida bello Dextera Atille, Illiacotumidum, quicrefcereTibrim Sanguine.tt/c. Urgente pariter occafione venerea voluptatisdeprehen Bb demus 386 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. demus, quæfit hominisadtemperantiam,intemperantiamque difpofitio; hinc ludi ) iracundiam,() auaritiamdeteguntlu Lib. 3. Canon1. Declaratio. dentium.Ouidiusdearteamandi . Irafubit,deformemalum,lucriquecupido , Iurgiaque, &rixa,follicitusquedolor. Criminadicuntur,reſonat clamoribusather, Inuocatiratos&fibiquiſqueDeos. §. Tertius. Canonesfubijciuntur. CANONES exdictis eliciamus . Sititaque Canon primus. Addetegendum cuiuspiam morem ,inpreſentemoperandi occafionem adducamushominem,in præfensque irritamentum affectus,quemmosindagatusrefpicit. Declaratiopatetex dictis,nempèſimoremhominisintem perantie, acintemperantiægenereexplorarelubeat ,in occafio nemeumadducamusexercendi virtutem eam vitiavéoppo fita. Obiectum nempe offeramus irritans cupiditatem vene ris, aut ciborum,filubeat explorarefortitudinem, aut igna uiam , audaciamvé,difpofitionesvémedias,in pugnæ occafionem, periculaqueadducerehominemoportet. Multi magnates fatellitesfuos,quosproMachęrophorisdeligunt, experiuntur, immiſſisclăalijs,qui armis eos inuadent; prout enim audacter reftiterint, aut ignaueſegeßerint,de animis,tt )moribushomi numiudicant . Si veròfitanimusexplorare iustitiam ,iniuftitiamvéma gistratus demandemus; hincitaqueillud Ariftotelis. Magi ſtratus virum oftendit . Idemquede alijs virtutibus, ac vitijs dicendumpenitus. Plato LiberNonus. 387 Platoconfirmat canonem incalce primide legibus, ubi Cófirmatio Canonisex animiduri,&agrestisininiuriasproniexperimentüexcõmer. Platone. cijsſumi; animiintemperantisexobiectis venereis ,dicit; li cèt tutius,nontamen euidentiusexperimentumexcompotatio nelarga, / hilaricapiafferat. Atmanifeſtioreftres,quàmvt auctoritate cuiuspiamconfirmaridebeat. VerbaPlatonis an tea retulimus cap. 1 0.adcanonemfextum. Procedit veròcanon, &methodus,nifitamenfentiatis, Exceptio. aquoexperimentumcapiturſeadexamenperduci;tumenimse ipfumcomponit,&tegitſenſaſuaomniconatu,cuprefertima potentioreaffectuadſeſetegendos adducanturhomines,quàm adſeſeaperiendos. ConuiueDomitiani, ad validiffimumlicèt examenadducti, cohibebanttamëfeipfos, cumagnofcerentfeab Imperatoreattentiffimèobferuari, fique affectus doloris, vel minimumerumperet,mortefignificationemluituros. Aliquos etiam videas,quiin conuimumaPrincipibus viris adbibi ti , modeftiffimè comendant: atfi libero in loco conuiuentur, rubifuopte nutu,acſuomore edant,liguriunt, miramque ingluuiempræſeferunt . Oportet ergo vel non agnofcere exa men,quieifubijciuntur, velmagis multo pollerein eis affe Etum,aquodeteguntur, quàmaquocohibentur,verbigratia, quipugnæ obtruditur,fitqueignauus, etiamsiagnofcatſeinil lamobexprimentumconijci,adeoquea defideriohonoris, vel astudiogratię potentishominisadducaturadperfistendumin periculo; quoniamtamentimormortispotentior eft,abeoabri pitur, &impellituradignauiamfuam manifestandam. Certè Irus cupiebatpenès Homerumgratiamprocorum, eorumque in cibis largiendis liberalem manum : attamennififamulipro corumduxißent, nunquamipfeinpugnamcumUlyffèconcef fiffèt, postquamrobureius,acaudaciamconiectauit. Bb 2 Iro 2 388 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. Odyf. libr. 18. Canon 2. Iroautemmalus motusest animus: Sed&ficfamuliduxeruntcingentesneceffitate Timentem . Carnesautem circumtremebant membra. Exhacexceptioneitaqueduocanones emerguntſequentem : inmodum . Cum experimentummorum alicuiusfumere intendimus, oportet anniti , ut hominemlateatſe tuminexamenadduci . Vndeimprouiſam illioccafionem offerrefatiusest,quàm pro uisam . Canon3. Canon4. Quodfiidconfequinonliceat,utlateathominemexamen, contendendumest,utaffectus, quemin examineirritamusad denudandum animum, ſit multòpotioraffectuanimum ipſum cobibente,acobducente . Uterquecanonexdictiselucefcit 7 Cum ex effectufimulatio morum detegitur,oportet affe Etum,actionemque eam ijfdem examinare regulis adverum moremeliciendum, quasattulimus supra. Secundam Partem operis continet, quæeſt De affectuum latitantium indagine. Connectit, proponit, diuidit que tractanda Supersunt . B SOLVIMVS hucusqueindaginem morum, queeratprimaparsfimiotices,huiusfcilicet con templationis defignis . Superestinuestigatio la titantium affectuum, quæ eratfecundaOperis pars, quamnuncaggredimur. Huicindaginiea,quædefictio nibus ,&fimulationibus diximus, pleraqueferèomnia muniafunt, ut ijfdemfermè canonibus fit procedendum , quibusin indagandis moribus proceffimus , preterfupremum Supplementummethodi,quoad moresindagandoscontrahitur. com Remclarius aperio . Methodus detegendorum morum inter : cetera affectusconijcit , &ex illisposteamores inueftigat lib. preced. cap. 1 5. §. 1.priorergopars progreſſusadpropofitam nunc praximinuestigandi latitantes affectuspertinet, imòea ipſa est, utnihil aliudrestet,quamipsam perficere; etenimin terceteratum methodum inuestigandi erumpentesaffectusin . bunc locumreijciemus,quamitafubijcereoportet,& quicquid aliudadfecundæhuius indaginis integritatemexigitur. Hac veròeritdicendorum distributio, &feries . Primò.Signaaffectuumexponemus, vtpromptumfitilla, cumerumpunt,dignofcere ufqueadcap. Is. Secundò. Contrabemuspræcedentis methodicanones,appli cabimusquebuic,dequaagimus,materia cap.15. & 16. Bb 3 Tertiò  Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. Tertiò. Methodum excaufis methodoexfignisadeiusfup plementumfubiungemuscap. 17. &duobusfeqq. Quartò. In praximmethodum,indaginemque totam addu cemusreliquis tribuscapitibus. Defignisaffectuumincommuni. Cap. Secundum. A § . Primus. Signa distinguuntur trifariam. ECTVVM itaque signa primo loco ponenda. Sunt verò signa affectuum alia communia, alia propria. Communia dico, que pluribu saffectibus conveniunt. Propria, que uni.Hecautem, que propria funt, alia funt fimplicia, alia coaceruata. Simplicia dico veluti truces oculos in ira; videntur enim illiforfanfoliire conuenire: at coaceruataerunt,quę fimulfumpta unicoaffectuiconueniunt; velutiinIraconge DeIralib.1. riesilla Senece . Flagrant, &micantoculi,multus ore cap.1. totorubor, exeſtuanteabimispræcordijsfanguine, labiaquatiuntur,dentes comprimuntur,horrent,& fubijciuntur capilli, ſpiritus coactus, ac ſtridens, ar ticulorumſeipfos torquentiumſonus,gemitus,mu gitusque,&parumexplanatis vocibus sermo præruptus et comploſeſæpiusmanus &pulſatahumuspe dibus & totum concitum corpus, magnasqueminas agens , fęda viſu ,& horrendafacies deprauantium ſe,atqueintumefcentium , Congeriemhancfignorumdi camusfignum coaceruatum ;fingulaſignacumconuertuntur, dicamusfignapropriafimplicia. Triaitaqueſignorum genera ſeiungamus; signa communia; signa propri ac oaceruata; signa propria simplicia. Signorum tractatio, & vfus. SIGNA verò quomodo tractanda fint, in ſumquead hibenda ſecundūdiuiſagenerabreuiter ediſſferamus. Signorum propriorum ufus confpicuusest; exfignis enimincertamaf fectuumcognitioneducimur,cumfimulatanonfuerint. Utrum veròfimulatafintexcanonibus detegendarumfimulationum dignofcimus. Atcommuniafignaetiamfifincerafint, &abf quefallacia,in certumtamen affectum nequaquaducunt, verbi gratia,orepallesceretimori, &irainquibusdamcommuneest. Dijudicandumergo uter affectusafficiatanimum : exobiecto autem, &occafione, &circunstantijseiufmodialijsfacilèerit dijudicaredistinctos affectus,&longèinterſediſſidentes: dif ficiliusdiftinguentur affectuspropiores. Cum cohibenturaffectus, &occultantur. Ar cumaffectusoccultantur, velutiinpreſentinegocio, ubiquærimuslatitantes affectusnonapertos, acmanifestos, tumfignapropriacoaceruatain integritatefuanondantur,imò interdumnequefingulaintegra, utmagnaidcircòſolertiaplu- Difficultas rimoque acuminefitopusadeaconijcienda,&diftinguenda . coniiciédite Illud quod de rebus naturalibus dicebat Empedocles DI GIRGENTI (vedasi) femiboues, Ctus. la titantes affe tſemibominesin confufionererumpriusapparuiſſe, dehisfi gnisappofitèdicipoteſtſemiſigna,nonintegrafignaplerunque apparere , ex quibus arguto oculo , iudicioquefunt affectus eruendi . §. Quartus . Deſignis exoratione. Atnullaeft euidentiordeclaratio animi noſtriabditarūque Bb 4 ineo 392 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. ineopaffionum ,ac rerum,quamoratio ipſanostra, ut enim Aristoteles dicit , vocesſuntearumquæ in animapaf fionumnotæ. Enunciatioergoaffectuum, tſenſuumno Strorum (dumfimulatioabfit) eſteuidentiffimumfignumeo rum: verùm interdum non enunciamusapertis verbis ani mumnostrum,nempecumirafcor, nondico me conceptis ver. bisirafci,fedtamen dico,queiram arguunt neceßariaprope modumconfequutione.Hecexorationefignain postremumlo cum reijciemus. Signa affectus voluptatis. Caput Tertium. IA A AmMfignafing De quo genere voluptatis sit SERMO. Ам singulorum affectuum fingillatim aggrediamur-iuxta verò ordinem librorum de ibrorum de affectibus, primò, signa voluptatis afferemus; deinde doloris – H. P. Grice : « Pain is the first ! » -- ; tertiò cupiditatis , & amoris; quartò abominationis, & odij; quintò iræ; sextò timoriss Septimò speiimmutantes aliquantis per ordinë superiorem, dum iram ex postremo locoin quintum transferimus, &timorem Speipreponimus. Incohemusergoex voluptate, nonquecon fequituromnes affectus alternatimcumdolore,fedquediſtin Etuseft ab alijs affectus. Hæc verò vel iunctam habetex teriorem voluptatem, velabſque exteriore voluptateipsaper femanet: cum iunctamhabetexteriorem voluptatem,iuncta etiamhabetcausam voluptuariam, feu iucundum ipsum, ex quo voluptateminterioremconijcimus;plus,minusvé,deinde fignorumadminiculo. Nempe voluptasexteriorcupedię ,non nifi exfumptioneprafentecibinafcitur; cum videmus autem hominemſponte comedentem, intelligimus aliquaipſum volu ptate LiberDecimus. 393 ptateaffici ; vtrum veròmagna, velparuaexfignisconijci tur;gustus enimcomedentis exipfo comedendi modoelucet . Maiorveròconijciendidifficultas eftin voluptate interiore , quamnullaexterior voluptascomitatur , tota enim estexfi gnisdeducenda. §. Secundus. Cum voluptas exterior coniungitur, fignamaioris , vel minorisvoluptatis. Сvмvoluptasexteriorconiungitur, eò maioremintelli gemus eßeinteriorë, quòpartesipfæexteriori deferuientes ma gisintendentur; non enimremittunturille , &laxantur, nifi expletoopere ;fedinopereintentaperdurant,fiue voluptas ea 1 venereafuerit ,fiuecupedioſa ; utenim vidimus antea,con- In2.p.lib.r. Stringuntur partescircaſuſceptum iucundum, utilludaltius devolupta te, c.17. exugant, qui intentiore vultucomedunt, maioreque &crepi tantiorefuctu ciborum, eosmaioremex cibisgustum capere intelligemus,acmaiore intus voluptate affici. §. Tertius. Cumvoluptas interior ab exte riore difiungitur . AT cumvoluptasinteriorabexterioredifiungitur, nem peeapreſentenonfit ,induoadhucmembra diftinguitur ; alia enim abexteriore tamen voluptate recens percepta, velquæ nonmultopoſtſuſcipietur,proficifcitur ; aliaexfolainteriore meditatione nafcitur, velſcilicet obiectiiucundigraphicèpro pofiti, velexcontemplatione ipfa,queestcontemplatorisbo minis voluptas: prioris voluptatis, exemplumeft illudChe- Eun.act. 2 rea gaudium penes Terentium: eratenimexvoluptate tum fee percepta . Lain ? 394 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib &c. Iamneerumpereboclicet mihigaudium ? probIuppiter, Nunctempusprofectoest,cumperpetimepoffum interfici: Ne vitaaliquahocgaudiumcontaminetægritudine . Interioris voluptatis , ) exfolameditationenafcentisme In2.par.lib. minimus antea , ) vidimustumnoneffundiextrorfumfpiri 1.devolupt. C.17. Canon1.ex vultu . Declaratio. tus , ut obductopotius vultubomoin ea constitutus existat quàmbilari, &explicato,immotoquecorporenon moto. Scitè itaqueadmodumde gaudio viriprobi , quod est ſpecies volu ptatis eiufmodiinterioris, dictum eſt a Seneca, Seuera res eſt verum gaudium: atin voluptateinterioreinnixaexteriori velpreſenti,velpropinqua, effunduntur(velutiexfuperio ribusconstat) spiritus. §. Quartus. Canones continet ex vultu. AD canonesaccedamus. Sititaquecanon . Oculibilares ; fronsexporrecta;gene colore,&habitu vi uida; os ridens, voluptatisinteriorisfignafunt. Hecfcilicet vultumletitiaconformant . Oculi hilares ] quifintperſe patet ,& antea declarauimus quantum res exigebat. Fronsexporrecta] contracteopponi tur,quæpræfertimcuminrugas cogitur , contracte nomen ob tinet: estquetristitiafignum,ficut contraria, latitia. Cum frons veròexporrigitur , &extenditur, confluuntilluc Spiri tus, partesvéspirituoſe; quamobremnefcioquidcumextenfio ne claritatis, &nitoris indefronsacquirit, exquonitorefrons letaprefertimdicitur . Genecolore, &habitu viuidę]gene quoque exfpirituum effuſione explicantur, atque eandem obcaufamcoloratioresred duntur, idest, quoddiximus, vinidasgenas colore, &habitu 1 fieri: Liber Decimus. fieri:attamennonaquèin letitiagene,atquefrons exporrigun 395 tur; namosridens, velrenidensrugasquibufdamingenisex citat alijsfoßulasquafdam , quemgentilitium moremmaxima cumgratia obtinuit Laura filia mea, quepreſtantiſſimeindo lis, &fummiingenijoftennisobijt. Osridens] estvisus voluptatis, & letitiæfignum, pre fertimriſusſolutus; namfubridereinterdumaffli&tiffimis con tingit, & iratis, ut Annibaliin CarthaginenfiSenatu . Nififictiotamen , &fimulatiointercefferit; namincompo- Exceptio. nendo vultu multifunt excellentes . Addetegendamautem fimulationemfuperiore methodo utendumest . Cumincompoſito aliter vultubilaritasoculorum, exporre- Canon2. Etio,nitorquefrontis,aut riſus in oreeruperint, rurfusque cobi beantur, latitantislætitiæfuntfigna: clariusautemfignum ,fi omnesfimulnoteapparuerint: obfcuriusfifingule : medio mo do,fipluresexcanone cap. 2. huius lib. §. 1. Excipiendustameneftriſusinore, cumderisionefignificat. Exceptiode tumenimpotiusamatoremanimi,quàm verèletitiamdemon- rifuinore. Strat: fuitderiſionis,non letitia,riſus Sare,cum anusexiſtens, audiuitſeparituram;queriſitoccultèdicens: Poſtquam con Gen.cap.18. ſenui ,&Dominusmeus vetuluseſt, voluptati ope ramdabo ? Signa verò,quediximusnõconuerticumfignificatare,fa- Annotatio. tis exdictis constat, utfintidcircofignaparticularia. Nem pèſi oculorumhilaritas adfit, exporrectiofrontis,genarum que,etc. Osridens letitia animiarguitur; verumnon ,ſile titiaadestanimi,ſtatimeafignaconfequuntur, cumlætitiaali quafrontem, & vultum contractum patiatur,oculosquere tractos, ut diximus. Interdumpratereacummagnavoluptatelachrymeconiun guntur, 396 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. to magna Cũvolupta- guntur, &fletus, utinagnitionibus carorumpostdiutur Jūgilachry. numtempus. Noniniuriaitaque HomerusdeUlyße, & Te tum. mas,& fle- lemacho postmutuamagnitionem lib. 1 6.Odyß. Telemachusautem Circumfufuspatrembonum lugebat, lachrymasfundēs, Ambobusautemhisdefideriumobortumeſt luctus : Flebant autem Stridulè abundantius, quàmaues Aquila, vel vulturescurua Unguibus,quibusfilios Rusticiexcipiunt,antequam volatilesfierent . Sic,bi miferabiliterfubfupercilijslachrymasfundebant. §. Quintus. Canonescontinetexpulfibus. Ex pulſuetiamfumipoſſuntſignaletitia;namfuusleti Libr. 4. de tiæpulfustribuitur . Galenustribuitpulfum magnum,rarum, pit.3. cauf. pulf.catardum,atnullam in vehemetiadifferentiamſuſcipientem letitia non excedenti; namfiexcefferit, tum exoluitur virtus admortem uſqueinterdum , utpulſusidcircòexoluanturipsi quoque,contrarijfaltemfiant memoratis. HecGalenidoctrina congruitfuperioribus meis dogmatibus : vidimus enimin le titia corprimogenia alteratione calore augeri, eoqueblando, t moderato : vidimusquoque ex spirituum moderato efluxиех corde, calorem itidemintendi ; motusfiquidemamateria, mo deratus tamen ignemauget,utin letitiaidcircònonimmodica pulſus ob auctum calorem augeri debeat ,ut dicit Galenus, cumblandustamenfitcaloreiufmodi , minusfuliginum, ille que minus acres excitantur; unde minus quoque irritatur virtusadeasexpellendas , utfrequentia pulfus a letitianon augeatur,quodidem Galenustradit . Eademquerationenon augetur vehementia; cùenim virtusnonirritetur, nonetiam acrius : LiberDecimus. 397 acrius infurgit adpercutiendum; unde vehementia ,queinea percuffione consistit,non augetur. Prorsus ergo refpondent Galenidoctrinahec,que exiactisolimprincipijsdeducimus • SintnuncCanones . Pulſus magnus,rarus,tardus,atnonvehemens, letitia Canon1. estindex . Patetexdictis. Simanu cuiuspiampulſuiadmotaſentiamus,adcuiuspiam Canon2. persona ,aut rei commemorationem,vel præfentiam pulfum magnitudineaugeri, atnonceleritate, aut vehementia, intelli gemushominemeareletari, utfcilicet tuminnotefcat affectus letitia, unaquecaufa eius. Multatamendiligentia opuseftinhacexpulfibusindagi- Annotatio. neaffectuum ; nam videndumeft,necontrectatio ipſa pulfus pro qualitatepersona ,quetangitur,&eius,que tangit ,pro Scilicet intercedente amore, velodio, velreuerentia, velcon temptu, velalioeiufmodi affectu erga contrectantem varie turpulfus; itaeniminterdum affectusexprafentia, velcom memorationeobiectioculetur . §. Sextus . Canonescontinetex reliquis corporismotibus. PLATO infecundode legibus afferit,dum letamur,nos quiefcere non valere; quodresipfaindicat, cumeatamenexce ptione, nifi voluptasexfolacommentatione,& meditatione nafcatur; tum enimimmotipotius confiftunt,fiqueprofunda fuerit,quafiextatitij : veruntamen non poffe consistere , non estfignumcumletitiaconuertibile; nam &anxijquiefcerene queunt,fedfusque dequeferuntur . Trepidantishominis,& coramiudicibusconſtituti speciem defcribit Apuleius . Tunc pedes incertisalterationibus cómouere, modòhanc, modò 398 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. modòillampartemſcalperecapitis, &orefemiclau fo balbutiens nefcio quas affanias, effutire. Motus ergo, & locibucilluc variationoneſtſignumpeculiareletitia, fedcommuneetiamanxietatis: verùmfimotusfitgeſtiens,& cum exultatione,veluticumfaltatione, & lufw,signumestle titie . Sititaquecanon . Canon1. Canon2. Annotatio. Motusgestiens, &cumexultatione,cumfaltationenem pè,&lusu,ſigniweftletitie; dico,cumſpontefuafit: namaliqui interdum ex occafionefaltantqui varijs, &acribuscurispre muntur. Itemquifaltantexofficia, utolimSalcares, Fidici ne, Choraule non rapiebantur, concitabunturque a letitiaad faltum,fedexofficio, studioque quastus. Cumadfignaletitiæex vultu acceduntmotiones corporis non confiftentis in eodemloco, efficatius tum argumentumleti tiænafcitur,&habetur . Patet exdictis. Nonconuertiturtamenfignum; letitiaenimexmeditatio ne, & commentationeinteriorefolumcorpuspotiusamotupro hibet , quamquòd inmotum concitet,quodfuperioribuscobe rensest . Canonesexvocisſonocon tinet , vbi derifu . Vox,queletitiamfignificat, eftpræfertimrifus,ficutfle tus dolorem : at riſusnon unius eftgeneris; nam &irridere, tſubrideredanturquæfuntrifusquædamfpecies: aliæprete reafuntriſusſpecies; eftenimcachinnus,ideftriſusſolutus: est rifusfinecachinno,dequibus Cicero ait, Vt ſi ridereconcef fumfit,vitupereturtamencachinnatio. Atfortèexa Etior eritdiuifio,fidicamus riſum velinfolafiguraorisconfi flere , velfiguræ eiusfonum adiungere. Sonus autem vel reddit LiberDecimus. : reddit vocalemA, vel vocalemE, velvocalemI, velvo 399 calem O, velvocalemV. Apertior, &folutiorqui A red. dit. HuicproximusquiſonatO.DepreffiorquiE. Athocde preffiorquiresonat I. Qui verò U reddit, non orefonat,fed naribus: infingulis tamen eiufmodi differentijs eftfonus ,2 ) 1 vehementior, & lenior. Cumfonusest vehementiorcachin nusest,etpræfertimcumA, &O,resonat. Cum nullusſo nus,velcumleniseſtſonusacachinnoabest, præfertim cum vocalesfummiffiores E,I,V, refonat . Verum riſus V, eo magis abesta cachinno, quodorenonſonet, ut nihil biet os . Cachinnus veròfine hiatualiquo effe nequit. Canones nunc fubijciamus. Risus – cf. H. P. Grice: “As when Occam says that ‘risus significat naturaliter laetitia animi” -- vehementior, quipræfertim vocales A, O, refonet, Canon1. concitatiorem, acfolutiorem voluptatemfignificat . Riſusleniornonaquèconcitatam, blanditiorem tamen vo- Canon2. luptatemindicat; undeilludLucretij; Suaueridens venus. Hicautemrisuseft merum voluptatisfignum atrifusfupe rior&cachinnuspoteftprætereafignumeffederifionis. Riſus,quiſonatV,remißiorem voluptatem, velmagiste- Canon3. neque Etamfignificat; nequeenimriſusex oreniſifiguraprodit, non etiamfono. Nonconuertiturautemfignum; namletitiaexmeditatione Annotatio. graphicaque rerum iucundarumdefcriptionetaciturna eft, & absquerifu, utplurimum. Voxgrauiorfactaletitiam animinouam, velobauctamfi- Canon4. gnificatexdoctrinaAristot. probl. 1 5. vult enimexremiffio- Seſs.II. necorporis,quæ in voluptatefit,grauitatemgigni vocis , ut eadoctrina , nedumadriſum,qui ibiexprimitur, fed ad reli quametiam vocempertineat . Verùm 11. 400 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. Annotatio. Verùmgrauitas ipsaaucta vocisnoneftpersefignumle titia; namalijs etiam excaufis voxgrauefcere poteft:fedfi alijs letitiæfignis accedat etiamgrauitas vocis obaucta, argu mentumletitieintenditur,ficut contraacumen triſtitie; Un deLydie acute, ) mixolydiæ harmonie queacutaerat, me ſtæ habebantur, męstisque cantibus accomodabantur, acquæ rulis. Plato in 3. de Republ. Quænam igitur quærulæ harmoniæfunt,dicmihi.Tu enimmuſicus esLydię mixtæ,Lydiæqueacuta,cæteræquehuiufmodi.Hec Plato : atidem voluptuarias, ac molles harmonias remiffas ac relaxas afferit, adeoquegrauiores,namexremiffionegraui tas: audiamus Platonem. Quænam igitur molles,&te mulentæharmoniæ ?quæcunque χαλάραιvocant?Vo cemautemχαλάραι Ficinustribus vocibusexprimit,ſcilicetre miſſe,relaxa,ac reſoluta. Homerus &ipfeacumenmeſtis vo cibus tribuit; namflentibus Vlyffi, & Telemacho,acumentri buit,utpaulòprius vidimus. Flebantautem striduleabundantius, quam aues Aquila,velvultures &c. Signa affectusdoloris. SIGNA affectus doloris – H. P. Grice – “My favourite example is Chiaramonti’s analysis of a groan meaning pain!” -- ,exproximèdictis,locoacontra rio deducipoffunt ; undenonoportet latius digredi . Prorifuergo eritfletus,pro vocegrauiore erit voxacutior, pro motu eritquies corporis immoti, utfcitafitcommentatio. QuaNiobesextremo victadoloreinſaxum mutata traditur, Ouid. lib.6. Metamor. utindoloreimmotushabituscorporisfignificetur,&c. Diriguitquemalis; nullos mouetauracapillos, In vultucolorestfineſanguine;luminameſtis Stant LiberDecimus. 401 Stantimmotagenis,nihilestin imagine viuum? Ipſaquoqueinteriuscumdurolinguapalato Congelat,& venadefiftuntpoße moueri, Necflecticeruix,necbracchiaredderegestus, Necpesirepoteft. Excipitur tamen,ficumdoloremiſceaturtrepidatio,autan xietas; tum enimestin agitatione, &corporis motuanimal. Pulſus eft,teſteGaleno,paruus,languidus,tardus, tra rus . Oculiitemtriftes,contractafrons,demißegena,osgeme bundum, velcompreſſumſaltem;fufpiria accedunt,reliquis dolorisfignis, quæ,quoprofundiorafuerint , quoquedifficilio raeo maioremfignificantdolorem; maioremenimindicantcor dis angustiam, &compreſſionemobimmodicuſcilicetinipſum confluxum caloris,ſpirituumque. Signa amoris ergarem,fiue bonumformale,fiue ergafinemcuiusgratia, qui amordemumest ipfametcupiditas. CaputQuintum . AM ORISfignafunt nuncadducenda; verumamor, utvidimus,aliusestergafinem,cuius gratia voca uit D. Thom.aliter bonum formale; alius est ergafinem cui ,fiue perfonam, cui bonum defideramus. Primus amor idemcum cupiditateest; quo circa primum exponamusfigna cupiditatis. Cupiditas itaqueinintentione cordisconfiftere, cumqueca lore, acferuoreeiufdem vidimus , undeeafignaprodibuntin corpus,queexcordisferuore,acintentione,feucontentionepro cedunt, fcilicet motus,inquiescorporis,oculiistantes,&proca ces,dumpræfensardet cupiditas. Virgilius. Cc Vritur Ancid.4. Sat.9. 402 Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. Vritur infelixDido,totaque vagatur Vrbefurens. Hecquidema cupiditate in uniuerfumfigna procedunt, atficupiditatespeculiares lubeat distinguere,figna ipfarum peculiarium apponere oportet . Cupiditas ergo peculiarisqua quefignaquedamininstrumenta,quibusexercetur, effundit; ineaqueprimo,atſecundarioin confpirantesquoquepartes, verbi gratia,cupiditas venereainpartes veneridestinatas refundit effectus aliquosfenfiles,qui eam ipsam cupiditatem fignificant; undeniſipudoreas partes velaret,facilè in gruentemcupiditatem veneream agnofceremus. Catullo eiuf modifignum inerat, Namiaceopranſus ,&fatur,ſupinus Pertundotunicamque,palliumque. os peculiarequoppiamfi gnuminijsetiampartibusdefcribitur. Suntenimoculiarguti, Verùmcumconfpirent oculi, tos &natantesin venerea cupiditate; vocateiufmodiafpectum tremulum, aclaſcinumTaffius. Vicißitudinem linguainter labraantea quoquefignum venerea cupiditatis diximus : at Saliuainlabia uſquerefluere,aſtuante cupiditate venerisfcri bitIuuenalis. Nilfacietlongimenfuraincognitanerui, QuamuistenudumspumantiVirro labello Viderit . In cupiditate ciborumosplerunquefigna exhibet; inmagno enim cibi cuiuspiamdefiderio videmus quosdam deglutire pro cibofaliuam; labiorumariditas, difficultas deſfuendifitim fignificanteuidenteradmodum. Adidestfignumcuiuſque rei appetitioniseuidens , argutis )petacibus oculis rem ipfamin fpicere. Qui itainfpexerit mulierem illamcupit: qui cibos,ci bos: ! LiberDecimus. bos:quinummos,nummosoptat. Talequippiamillud. 403 Tucurſum spectes,egote:ſpectemus vterque, : Ouid.lib.3. Amor.el.2. Quodiuuat, atque oculospaſcat uteriqueſuos. Perfius pallorem afpectui adiunxit ad cupiditatemfigni- Sat.4. ficandam .-- Viſo,fipallesimprobe,numo . Verùmexcupiditatepallor vixeffe potest,nifi alius ad mifceaturaffectus,utinuidiain alienisconfpiciendisdiuitijs:fi tameniniraadultionem aggrediendamspiritus in externas partes , bracchia , &manus ultionisquealiainstrumentain gruant,&afuperioribuspartibus,prafertimagenisauertan tur, ita cupiditasadexequutionemfestinet;poteftinterdum oriri pallor : atquodplurimumest, acfuapte natura osrubi cundumexcupiditatefit.Memini me videreobuiosfibiama torem, t mafiam,quicumſeinstantibusoculisafpexerunt facieambo,circiteroculos præfertim fronte,&genis erubue re; licèt amorquoquopactotectuseßet;tumvir,tumfœmi naenimalienoerantinnodatimatrimonio. Cupiditas etiam arguitur,cumexcarentia rei meſtitiaob oritur,prefertim verò,fifufpiria, lachryme,&ſtetusfucce dant; undepuellorum,acinfantiumcupiditates exfletupra fertim conijcimus. Galenus lib. 1. defanit.tuend.cap. 8.ex fletu infantis coniecit immunditie ledi , adeoque munditiem cupere ; nam,ablutisfordibus, & mundis pannisinuolutus, quieuit. Quiex diſceſſu amiciflet, intelligimus eum hominis preſentiamcupere. Maximam certè virifui cupiditatem preſeferebat Ouidij uxor,dum Semodòdefertos,modòdeploraſſepenates, Nomentademptiſepevocaſſeviri. Atinquietquisfuiffe illumdolorem, nonergocupiditatem, Cc 2 Sed Lib.1.detri Aibus. 404 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. 3.part.lib.4. fed vidimus antea affectus eodemtemporeplures infiderepoſſe cap.s. animo. Verumquoniamindagareaffectumex affectuestcom mune omnibus affectibus,differemus in locum posteriorem , cumpriusfingulorum affectuum figna expofuerimus. Signa ergo cupiditatis expulſu rutrumdentur,nonvideturinterfcri ptoresconstare. Galenus enimnegatpulſumamatoriumlib. de precogn.adPosthum.cap. 6.infinedicens,Nugæ funtigi turquod aiuntaliquipulſumamatoriè moueri co rum,quivelneſciuntamorispulſumnullum eſſe,vel putantre quapiamanimoperturbatopulfumnon immutari, fedineandem æqualitatem, & ordinem Lib.3.can. cumperfeuerare. At Auicennapulfumfuum amori dare 4.cap.23. Fen.tract. videtur,pulfum nempediuerfum, &prorfus inordinatum. Atquicquidfit dediuerfitatefententiarum borumin remedi ca principum virorum; attamencertum estdeamore ipfosin perfonamaliquamloqui, noninrem, autformalebonum : adeo quenonageredecupiditate,dequanunc agimus. Cupiditatis autempulfus instarirapulſus est,cum ) iracupiditasfitque dam. Irapulfumtribuitaltummagnum, vehementem, cele rem,crebrum: intenſe cupiditatisidem videturpulfus; nam calortumprimigenius,tuminfluens magnus estuatincorde, utindepulfum, &altum,&magnumeßeoporteat: ceditta men vehementia, celeritate , &crebritate ire ,licèt enimeas qualitates, etiamcupiditasaggreget,non equetamen; quiane que estadeo concitatus affectus, acfubitus,utreipfa experi mur, &Aristot.etiamindicat lib. 7. Eth.cap. 6. atratiopre tereaidemfuadet,quamanteaattulimuslib.deIra, cap. 3.mo dòexpremiſſis canonesdeducamus. Signa ſe ponuntur. REMaliquam instantibus, acprocacibus oculis inspicere 1.Signum. prafentemeiusrei cupiditatem indicat,fiue res venerea,fiue cupediofa , fiue pecuniaria fuerit . Exemplum penesPlutar chumin vitaPirrhiOplaciFerentani,quidiuintentiſſimisocu lis cuminfpexiffetPirrbum , ipſumquoque hasta inuafit,ut inuafurum exeoipſo defixoobtutu coniecerat, Regiqueprædi xerat Leonatus . Non conuertiturtamencanon,utquicunque cupit, procacibus oculis infpiciat,atque instantibus:pudorfæpe retinet,prefertim puellas; nam, utdicit Ouidiusdefemina. Virmalediffimulat; tectiusillacupit. &modesti demum homines cohibentſe, neccupiditatesfuas apertèindicant . Siprateroculorum instantiam etiamruborin ore accenda- 2.Signum. tur, argumentum intenditur cupiditatis inspectarei; ex di Etispatet. Siinstantibusoculis, velperſona, vel instrumentumve- 3.Signum. neri aptumafpiciatur, ruborquepræterea accendatur in ore, & labellum spumet, utdicitIuuenalis, estpræfentiſſimumlibidi nisfignum,quodfioculi,tuminſtantes,tumnatantesfint, con firmaturmultomagisfignumincenfa venereacupiditatis; au geturadhuc,fi vicißitudolinguæinterlabraaccedat. Sioculilubrici,&natantesfint, ruborinore,diſcurſus va- Signum. gus , et varius ,labrum spumansin abfentia etiam obiecti venerei, cupiditatemtamen venereamfignificat; prefertim fiagitatio illa linguæ inter labella acceßerit ,de quafupranon femel. Ad ciborum preſentiam, velcommemorationemfaliuam s.Signum. deglutireargumentumestcupiditatis illiufmodi ciborum . Cc 3 Ad 406 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib. &c. 6.Signum. Admotapulſui manuſiſentiaturadpræfentiam, velcom memorationem cuiufpiamrei pulfus acutus magnitudine ,alti tudine, vehementia, celeritate, crebritate , & non appareant iracundiæfigna ,intelligitur hominem incentum effe cupiditate rei oblatæ, velmemorate . Defignisamorisergaperſonam,amorisnempecon A cupiscentia, ac venerei. CaputSextum . §. Primus. Amordiftinguitur. Damoremergaperſonamtranfeamus ,quiduplex infu perioribuslibris distinguebatur, altereratamorfiniscui, adeoque amicitię vera, alterpotiusaquo ,seu cauſe effectricis vtilitatis, aut voluptatisnoſtre: amor , exquo amatoresdici mur, Italiceque innamorati , esthuiuspostremi generis; de eoque nunc dicamus : nam ideoamant homines amicas,quòd voluptatem ex eis veneream cupiant , & expectent . Fer uentis itaque eiufmodi amoris, acfuriofifermèfigna adduca mus. Distinguere tamen primumoportet amorem , ut ha bitumfignificat, utquefignificatpræſentemactum;namama tordicitur nonquinuncfolumamat,sedqui radicato amore amauit , & amabitetiampostpræfentemactumamoris . Rem quoque anteadistinximus: inpreſenti verò negocio confundi turuterque amor,immo veriuspro amorehabitufumitur; eiufmodi enim amoreminAntiocho Erafiftratus , in muliercula Ad Poſthu. Galenusdetexerunt. Itaſumptiamorisfignaadducamus,vel potius exfuperioribusrepetamus. Lib. 3. dea more. §. Secundus.Repetútur ex ſuperioribusfigna amoris. VIDIMVSSupraeffectusamoris,tuminanimum,tum incorpus> LiberDecimus. incorpus , quicunque ex illis obferuationi noftræ patent,ſigna 407 euadunt amoris. Incorporeergo (cumamor iam adfummum euaferat)erat macies ,inomnibusque eius membris,præterquă in oculis,quiquidemprofundifunt, attamenmagni, &turgi di,quoniamfit multain eiufmodi affectu euaporatio ad caput propterfufpiriafrequentia. ItatumexAuicennadiximus,pal- Lib. codem lorquoque confequituramorem, noctes infomnes, inappetentia 3.cap.7. cibi,suspiria, &gemitusfrequentes. Ouidius, cuiusetiamfu praattulimuscarmina . Fugerat ore color, maciesqueadduxeratartus, Sumebantminimosoracoactacibos: Necfomnifaciles, &noxerat annuanobis. Atplacet rurfus exfundamentis,ſuccinctè tamen,ſigna deducere . §. Tertius. Reponunturfundamenta. REPETAMVS ergoamoremhuncferuentem , dequo nuncdicimusin cupiditateferuentieffe: cupiditas veròeiufmo. diomnis obſenſum egeſtatis boniferuenter expetiti dolorem , punctionemque experiturinfignem ; cuidoloritamen admifce tur voluptaspaffiuaexobiecto amato,probonoque apprehen So: quod,fispespotiundiadfit, multòmaior voluptasimmiſce tur . Atrurfustamen,quipotiusest, velpotiundoimminet, timore angitur, ne cadatagratiaamati, nevèalijsintrudatur, queestzelotypia, utſpespotiundiſquotimoris, ac zelotypię morfu interim laceretur; quodficupiditasſpe deftituatur, tum tenuis voluptas,quæ exobiecti oblationenascitur,multame roris moleopprimitur. Fitex his, utamor babitumelle, t felleredundet,quod antea diximus; utque apparetfemper, velutplurimum,felexfuperet. Cumtristitia ergo, & me Cc 4 ror  Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. rorabundat, macies corporisconfequitur; tristitia enim exiftat oſſa, cum inflammetcupiditas, effectus cupiditatispatitur,quos proximèdiximus: præfertim veròſiſpes vidende,autpotiun deamiceiungatur, nullisretinetur , aut temporum , aut itine Lib. 2. ris impedimentis, quinſubitoaduolet ; mareſquiens procellis non retinuit Leandrum , quominus herum adiret. Interdum voluptategeßitsi spespotiunda breuiamice adfit,velft ) ma ximèfipotiatur; prodiuinitateenim idreputat Propertius. Sidabithæcmultas,fiam immortalisinillis. Nocte unaquiuis, velDeuseffepoteft. Tumergo voluptatis effectus patitur ,atquosftatimfuc cedens timor, ac zelotypia permutet , acperturbet . Atcum nullaſpe vidende ,aut potiunde amate excitatur, tumsese eius cogitationeinanipafcit ,idque præfertim, cumad extafim patiendamdeuenit , velpropè accedit; tum veròfolitudinem querit, utminusabea cogitatione prohibeatur, ineaque ple runquemultumtemporisdetinetur:fefeergo oblectateamedi tatione amator ; at cum ab extafi experrectustamfuaui, tam amatarecarereſe intelligit, tum inſuſpiria, lachrymas, &fle Etus erumpit; indecauitasoculorum, & magnitudo oritur. Ex bacitaqueferie inordinata affectuumfit, utamatornulli certe periodofignorumfubijciatur,fedvariæ omnino, &incerta; præftet tamentempore, acduratione,ſepe etiamintentionetri Stitia, atquetriftitiæfigna . Quiergotribuunt amori pulfum , qualis triftitiæ conuenit , fiintelligunt, utplurimumeße ta lem, rectèdicunt: atſiſemper, malè. Cum enimin profunda, extaticaque cogitationedetinentur, pulſus est contractus, qua liscogitabundorum, t )contemplantium : cumexardet cupidi tas, magnus, t) altus &c. Cumtimoropprimit,longèdiuer fus. Adpreſentiam veròamataperſone varijfimulaffectus 1 i infur LiberDecimus. 409 infurgunt, cupiditas, pudor, &reuerentia , &ceu Stuporqui dam, spes, timorpro afpectu amice ut benignafuerit, vel aspera. Undepulfus tum quoquenullacertaperiodo, acmodo procedit: idfolum estilliperpetuum, utadſubitum aduentum (tumquepræfertim) velfubitam commemorationem amate perſona vehementeralteretur, utde Antiocho diciturfubcu va Erafistrati ad Sratonice aduentum ; & Galenus afferitde Ad Poſthu. muliere,quamipfecurabat adcommemorationemPyladis. Lo- deprecogn. quunturetiamlibenterdeamatare amatores, utfæpiusdeali quaperſonaloquiindiciumfitamorisinillam. Qui teftè amant Specie auerfantis nominant, utamorisfufpicionem vitent, t) interimdegrata materia, acperſonaloquantur . cap.6. §. Quartus. Signaſeponuntur. Si quemcogitabundumobferuemus,acineacogitatione,li- 1.Signum. cètdefixum, attamennon mestumafpiciamus , verum cums excitatur,inſuſpiria erumpat,multò magisfierumpatinlachry mas, &fletus; argumentumidreputemus, acfignumamoris umentum idreput estuoſi, acconfirmati. Multò euidentius fignumeſt,ſi inter cogitandumaliquislætitiæ radius effulgeat . Ratio pendetex dictis; nam dum amator amatamdefixè cogitat, voluptatem exearecapit, atintimam, &reconditam, utnonerumpatfa cilè: attamen couſque potest permouere animum, ut aliquid eius exore, velexoculisfubluceat: at cum expergifciturexco gitationeamator, tumfalſamagnofcens, quamfibipriusrepræ ſentauerat amateprafentiam,inſuſpiria, &lachrymasproce dit, inftarfomniantiumdiuitias, acfelicitatem, qui experrecti vacuosſeabomnibonoinueniunt, &ingemifcunt . Paulus Æginęta amantibustribuit oculosconcauos, qui nonillachry mant,fedtanquam voluptatepleniapparent . Diffi  Deconiect.cuiufquemorib &c. Annotatio. 2.Signum. Annotatio. 3.Signum. Difficileest diftinguere habitum vultuscogitabundi, leti interiore, & obductaletitia, atque cogitabundi, meſtiinterio remestitia ; uterqueenim vultus estobductus: attamen di ſtinguipoteft, illeenim vultusferenitatem aliquam,licètabdi tam, praſefert, interdumque aliquos,ceuradiosletitiæ aperit, (hoctamennonſemper)bic autemteftricam contractionemcon tinet, &depreffiorem obductionem : quo ad uſum autem ab obferuationefrequenti,ſolumpoteft acquiriprudentiaagnofcen darum eiufmodi differentiarum. Simifceriinquopiamintelligamusfufpiria,&letitiam,cre dendumeftipfumamorecuiuspiamteneri, &affici. Namafferit Marfilius Ficinusin Conuiu. Platon. . orat.  Verbafunt , Amore illaqueati viciffim ſuſpi rant, & gaudent. Pendet veròexdictis; Namamormelle, fellefecundius est . Cùm amoriamde sperationeabundat,adeoque męstitia,non ampliusgaudiofouetur,nifiextatica confideratione,accommen tatione amati obiecti: noneft viciffitudo poſtſuſpiriagaudij. Talis fuit Rotolandi penes Areostum habitus post agnitum Angelica, acMedoriamorem . Nonergofignumconuertitur, fcilicet,nonomnis,qui amat, viciffimſuſpirat, &gaudet;sed numomnis,qui viciffimfufpirat, &gaudet , est amator? t non videtur; nam quicunque inter Spem, ac metumdegit , verfatur pariter inter letitiam, &mestitiam, unde vicif fimletari, &fufpirare potest. Dicendumestergo non effe veram in uniuerfum præpofitionem, qui vicißimsuspi rat , &gaudet, estamator, utfitfignumboc commune,non Tecmirion . Egetidcircoalijsadminiculis adcertiorem con iecturam . Frequens mentioalicuiusperſona, qui cumnullumfitnego cium, } LiberDecimus. 411 cium, exquo nafcatur occafiofrequentis commemorationis,pro babileeftfignumamoris . Dicoprobabile; Nametiamodium poteft effecaufa comme- Declaratio. morationisfrequentis perſona exofæ ad vltionisfpem,velper ditionis eius ; ſepè etiam ob timorem, quocirca Nero, post quamdefciuit Vindex,fæpe illudinculcabat (fiper Vindicem licebit ) Augetur,&roboraturfignum,fiodiumnullumfubeffe,aut PrimaSigni iram ,auttimorem conijciatur . : cófirmano. Atconfirmaturadhucmagis,ſiſuſpiria vicißim, & leti- SecundaSi tia commifceantur ; tumenimcertum euadit timorisfignum eni cófirma etiamfi tectèmentionemfaciat; naminterdum,quospudet me morareperfonam, memorantexercitiaeius, uthominisitafibi tio . obuerfetur, clamalijs, fimulachrum: itapenes Euripideming Hipp.Phedravenatum &equestrem exercitationemloque batur, utfibireferret Hippolytum , Mitte mein montem: abeoadfiluam, Etadpinus, vbifericide Caneslustrant , Varijs ceruisappropinquantes: PerDeoscupiocanesinfremere . Preſes Sanctao DianaLimne, EtGymnafiorumpulſatorumabequis, Et, Utinameßeminſuaarea , Equos Venetosdomans. velin mentione odiumfimuletur. Quippiam tale estpenes Ouidiumdum Cypaffimancillam Corinnereipsa amatutdi- aLib. 2.de a Eto ſpernit, &abhorret.b Dijmelius,quàmficmihifitpeccaſſelibido, Sordidacontemptæſortisamicaiuuet. Quis amoribuse. leg. 8. bEleg. 7. !  Deconiect. cuiuſquemorib&c. 4.Signum. QuisVenerisfamule connubialibetinire Tergaquecomplecti verbereſecta velit? Inordinatus vitæ habitus, utmodòfcilicetfitletus, modò absque apparentecauſa meſtus,modòimmotus,modò inquies, modòaudax, modòtimidus, modò pudibundus ergaſcilicetpe culiarem perſonam, modòimpudensergaalios ,amorisincenfio nemſignificat. 1 Patet exdictis . Atfignum euidentiusredditur, fihomo fuapte natura non inconſtansin eiufmodi inconftantiam tran feat, atqueinordinationempenes Eurip. in eodemloco Phadra s.Signum. noneundemcorporisfitumretinebat, nechabitum ) modòde tegerefibicaput, modòoperirefamulabus iubebat. Siadmotamanupulſuicuiufpiamfentiamuspulfum fub ad uentum alicuius perſona vehementer alterari , ac inordinatè, idque nõſemelobferuemus,idemque accidatadciufdemperſone factam commemorationem; credendumesthominem,cuiuspul fusalteratur , amore teneri perſone ,quæ accedit, vel cuius mentioincidit . Erafiftratus hoc modo amorem Antiochideprehendiffedici tur, &Galenus afferitſedeprehendiße amorem muliercula , quaminuiſebat, cuiushiftoriainfrainpraxireponetur. §. Quintus. Cumamoriamapertioreſt. Ат interdum amornon tegitur,fed palam aperitur vel afpectu cupido, &inſtante, vel vocisconfeffione, acproteſta tione; tumitaquefolumautdifpiciendum,numſubſitfictio,aut gradusamoris inquirendus; quorum primum exfuperioribus regulis deprehendetur, ſecundumexfignisnunctraditisproin tenfione eorum,atqueaggregatione. De LiberDecimus. 413 Defignisamoris ergaperſonam, utfinemcui,fiue amorisamicitia. CaputSeptimum . Monamicitia, licètipſequoque affectusfit, inpartem enimſentientemrefunditur: attamen , cum prefertimin appetiturationis, voluntatequerefideat,ideoindago eiufmodi amoris,utinpartefentientenon equèeminentis, potiusadmo rumindaginemredigi debet, ex eiusque procedere principijs, quàm veladindaginemaffectuum,exqueprincipijshuius. Id autempræcipuumin amore amicitia videtur,ut eum nemo diffimulet: undecontrafimulationempotius, quàmcontradif fimulationempramunireinquifitionem, ) indaginemoportet . Procedendumnempeeſtexconfiderationeactionum,que ami citia vereconueniunt: exfiabfint,intelligemus, amoremami citia non adeffe . Siadfintautem,difpiciendum eft,num om nisabfitfictio,acfimulatio; ea enimniſiſuberit, verumamici tiaamoremineßecrediiure meritopoterit. Ad excludendum verumamicitiaamoremfatiserit,ficauſaturpisamorem con glutinauerit; nonenimturpifundamento,adeoqueinſtabilipo teſtſolidaamicitia honeſtasſuperſtrui: qua ratione adductus Aristot.ſolam amicitiamhonestampermanerepronunciauit,eo Lib 8.Ethic. quodvirtus,cuiinitur, Stabilisest. Defignis odij . Caput Octauum . §. Primus . Non eademmethodo odium EX omneindagari . XPONAMVS nuncodijfigna,tum, utcupiditatiop ponitur tum,utamori ergaperſonasaduerfatur odium cap.3. perso  Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. 1 perſonarum confirmatum occultiffimumest, utet ipsum po tiusindaginemorum,quàm indagine affectuumfit inquiren dum: odiumabhominationisdictum,fcilicetcupiditati contra rium,t) odiumperſonarumrecens,euidentiorcumfit affectus, inquifitione affectuum inquiripotest, acdebet. §. Secundus. Odij ſignumexaſpectuprimum. AVERSIO aspectusfignumestodij. Itapenes Euripi demHecubanonfustinebat aspicere Polymneſtorem; excufa bat verò,falfafcilicet, neidipfe odiotribueret. Nequequeamintueriterectisoculis, Sedhocipfum,ne malevolentiam exiftimestui . EtVirgilius de DidoneininfernoÆneamperofa. Illafolo affixosoculos auerfa tenebat . Annotatio. Annotatio. Noneftfignumconuertibile tamen; nam& pudor, ti mor urgentes abafpiciendoauertunt: verùmfipudorem,& timoremnon ineffeconijciamus ,quiaffectuseuidentioresfunt, tumexeofignoodium arguere licebit. §. Tertius. Signumexafpectuſecundum. ASPECTVS retractusfignumest odij,faltem offenfio nis, aspicere,neque licet auertereoculos. Eoafpectupatibulumiampræfensrespiciunt damnati,nonin nis, cumnempe neceſſe estast ſtanteſcilicet &procaci,fed(uti vocoipſe)retracto. Nontamenconuertiturfignum, cum &timor, acpudor,ac reuerentia afpectum eiufmodipoffint efficere , ut antea dixi mus. Siergoargumentahabeamus excludendi eiufmodi alios affectus,odiumpotestexcoafpectuinferri . §. Quar LiberDecimus.  §. Quartus. Signumexaſpectutertium . ASPECTVS toruusfignumestodijVirgiliusde Dido neaduerfus Æneams. Talibus Æneasardentem, &toruatuentem. Toruusafpectusfignumest velodij, velire: atiniraafpe- Annotatio. Elustoruitascummaiorecorporis commotione , & alteratione coniungitur, quàminodio, ututrius affectusfitfignum , nondifficilefitdignofcere . §. Quintus. Signumquartumex dictis . MALEDICTA, detractionesque praterea etiam dicta minacia odiumindicant, veliram;fieximpetunempeiram;fi Sedate, odiumfignificant . Sedfuadereetiamcuipiamfermone, utaliumperimat, velledat, eſtodijſignum. EratNumaniinTeucros odijfignumcumillis maledicebat. O verèPhrygia,nequeenimPhryges. MinaciaPandaridictaodiuminTurnumpræſeferebant. Caftrainimica vides,nullahincexirepotestas . CumSeianus eainAgrippinam,& Neronem,ac Drufum ferebat,quibusdemum exarfitineorum cedesTyberius , erat idpenitiffimiodijfignum. Significant veròodium,cumſedatèdicuntur: iramcumex animiimpetu . Signum quintum ex factis. FACTA contradignitatem, aut utilitatem, autfalutem cuiuspiamodiuminillumſignificant,autiram.Sifubitònempe, tteximpetu,irammonftrant;ſiſedatè, &meditato,odium . Oportet tamen fictionem precauere; nam interdumaliqui Annotatio. fimu 416 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. fimulantodium,&inimicitiaminquempiam,utalium,quiil tum. PenesTaci- lum verèoderit,ſibiobnoxiumreddant. Latiarisdumamorem in Germanicidomum, odiumin SeianumfimularetTit. Sabi numperuertit , dum Syrusalialicet decauſa odium , veliram fimulansin EtefiphonemdecepitDemeam. InAdelphis Nonpuduiſſe verberarehominemfenem, Queegomodòpuerütantillumin manibus geſtauimeis. Exregulis itaqueſuperioribusfictio eftdetegenda, velad idfaltem annitendum . Defignis Ira. Caput Nonum . SIIGNA ireiamcumfignisodijconiunximus.Sunt untquebe Expulfibus. fempermanifestiora illis. Non estitaque curinhisprolixio resfimus. Noto,quæde pulſuſcribitGalenus. Dicit ergoirepulfumeffealtum, magnum, vehementem, celerem,crebrum : quecongruuntillis etiam,que nos anteade irafcripfimus lib. deIra cap. 19. ubi etiam vidimus rubefcere corpus,ſpirationem vehementëreddi,tremerelabiuminferius, &quibusdamtotumcorpus:atnönullifunt,quipallentquoque fermonemparumexplanatisvocibuspreruptum;interdumetia filentiumfequiintelleximus:aliospretereaireeffectus,necnon, &caufamipforumexeodemloco peterepotestlector, breuita tiscaufa; cumprefertim potioranuncfignaattulerimus. A De signis timoris. Qui timoris effectus sint eius signa. Dtimoris signa tranfeamus.Huiusperturbationis Etus incorpusantearetulimusin lib.detimorec. 31.32. quipræfertimfignaeiufdem euadunt:effectus,etiaminanimam Sentien 1 LiberDecimus. Jentientemfignaeffepoffunttimoris,& multo minusconfpicua quaquiincorpuscadunt. Erantergo tum effectus,nuncfigna. §. Secundus . Signaex tremore,&perfrigera tione corporis . TREMOR labijinferioris,&reliquicorporis Gelidusqueperimacucurrit Offa tremor . Virgilius. precipuumautem eftfignumtimoris,cumgenualabant,utdi cit Virgilius;namtremorinferiorislabij,&reliquicorporisest fignumcommuneetiamire;& dentium crepitusfignumtimo-- rismanifestariumest. Suntitemfigna. Corporis refrigeratio, trigor,pallorque, interdumquear- 2.Signum. rectecome,que Poetequoqueagnouerunt. Diriguere metu.-- Frigidus concreuit frigoreſanguis . Illimembranouusfoluitformidinefanguis, Arrectaquehorrorecome . Lucanus. Et Virgilius. Galenus,utvidimus, omniaconiungit. Subeo&color Libro 2.de abit , & perfrigerantur,& rigent, tremuntque, ac pulſuſuntparuo. §. Tertius . Signaexvoce. TREMOR vocis interdüuerò, et SUPPRESSIO SIGNUM TIMORIS EST. SIGNUM . De tremore vocisegimus fupra. De suppreffione est illud VIRGILIO (vedasi). Arrectaquehorrore come,&voxfaucibushefit. Sunt autem in voceobtimorem tres gradusalterationis. *Tremor. Oratio nonſeſe explicans . 3 Oratiofuppreffa . Secundusgradus est, quemdefcribitApuleiusinſceleštofer uo, quem medicus inconcione veneficij attentati accufabat. Dd Trepi. A  1.Signum. cau.Symph. cap.s.  Deconiect.cuiufque morib &c. Trepidans enim is ad indiciavehementia, oreſe miclauſo , balbutiens nefcio quas affanias (Apuleius dicit ) effutiebat. Atoratiofuppreffaest postremusgradus timoris, cumperfrigeratione enim vehementi vocalis virtus concidit,feu cumprincipum vocêefficiensperfrigeratumemar cuit, vocemtumnullampotest reddere. Signum. Signum. Signum. Signaexpulſu,&excordisſaltu . PVLSVS paruus, & depreßusimmominimus, &maximè imbecillus, ut ex Galenoproximèdiximus,&nuncquoque. Ratio veròpatetexiactisprincipijs,cũcordiscalorfermèexol uatur,corqueipſumflauefcat, & concidat. Palpitatio cordis magna(nonmorboſaſcilicet)timoris estfi gnumpræfentiſſimum . Scitum illudPlautideTyndarocumob indicium Aristophontis iamfallaciaeiusdetectafermè effet. Quinquiescedieretumcor meum ,&suspendete. Tufußultas,egomiſer vixastopreformidine. Diximuslib. detimorecap.1 0.dehoccordis motu, eiusque caufamattulimus. Timor uſqueexcrementaeijcit,ut anteadiximus,cauſam queexAristoteleattulimuslib.de timore cap. 3 2. §. Quintus. Signaex aſpectu, &vultu. In magnotimoreStupet vultus,ſtupentqueoculi:nempe, retractus estafpectus, &defixus . Virgilius de Androgeo cumfenfitſeinmedios Troianosdelapſum Obsłupuit, retroque pedemcum vocerepreffit . Vulgò nosdicimusquempiamhabere oculosexterritos,cum fcilicetftupentisinftar eos defixos alicubitenet, ac retractos. De 1 Liber Decimus. T 419 Depudorisfignis . Caput Undecimum. IMORISfignapercurrimus;erittamenistimormalina ture, quemtimoremfimpliciterdicimus. Reftat timorin famie,fcilicetpudor,cuiusfignafunt; erubefcereore; oculorum demiffio . Virgiliusde Didone, Tumbreuiter Dido vultumdemißaprofatur. Vocemorationemqueperturbari,ac impediri . Itaplerunque adeuntesprincipes, acpotestatesſummas voxdeftituit :faltem oratio illis deficit , antea premeditata. Multafunt exempla eorum,quihancobcanfamdefeceruntindicendo . Despe,feuspeifignis. Caput Duodecimum. §. Primus. Signaſpeiperſe ſumptæ. PES,fiperfeipfamconfideretur, non admodum euidentia figna,ac erumpentia obtinet ; cumenimintenorecontineat , ipſatantum animum,&ſenſorium, eſterioresproindepartes, utaspectus , & colorimmotipermanent; quem habitumex preffit in MezentioVirgilius Æneamoperienti.- Manetimperterritusille Hostemmagnanimumoperiens,t moleſua stat, Atqueoculis fpatiumemenfus . &c. Hicest tenor, acanimorum ſtabilitas, quaminviroforti Inlib.defor defcribit Plato in 6.de Iusto,utfupramemorauimus. Cüitaque erga bonum operosum, & difficileperſtarehominemintono vi demus,tum aspectus,tumuocisſpemineo vigereagnofcimus; fpemtumquoque +cumaduerfusmalumimminenseandemretinetconstantia, uoquein eo arguimus,quamtamenpeculiari nomine dicimus Audaciam. Sit ergofumma. tit. cap.7. Constantia,afpectus, & vocis,&orationis,colorisquoque Signum . erga Dd 2 420 Deconiect.cuiuſquemorib.&c. ergabonum operofum,acdifficile;item aduerfus malūimminens fignumeſt ſpei; quam cumaduerfus malumimminenseft, au daciampeculiarinominedicimus. Signa eiuſdem affectus, cumdeſide rium , iravè adiungitur. Атcumſpeiaduerfusbonumdefideriūiniungitur,tumfer uoret acumencupiditatis,ſignorūque eius , fuperuenit,atquead iungiturconftantię fignorŭ ſpei,quamconftantia etidcircòal terat, infuasquepartesaliquomodotrahit: nëpefignacupidita tis adfunt,fedexplicatiora,et letiora, utſpesuoluptateaffert in letitiaque animücontinet. Cùveròaudaciędefideriŭpugnęad iungitur,atque inuafionis, motus, &fignaireilliplus minusvé lib.de annectunt,quęexlib.deSpefuprac.9.inſolutione 2.dubitatio nispatent . Sunt veròfignaira, &cupiditatispugnatum la veròſigna tiora, & alacriora; nam spesfemper voluptatemadhibet. Cumpluresaffectus,eorumý , SIGNA concurrunt. Hfignatribuentes:atnic itaquediximusſuacuiqueaffectui perſe, acfeorfum idin mentereuocamus,quodantea docuimus,plureseodětéporeaffectusplerüque occupareanimü:   quaratione,&quoidfiat,anteadiftinximus. Sutueròaffectus aliquiplurimüconnexi,v.g.timoridolor,nedumillepaffiuus,ac precedens, fedvitalis:năſepequitimetpræoccupās malū,quasi illudacciderit, fibirepresentat,et mirauiciffitudinedoloris,etti moris torquet. Spesdefiderio,et audaciairę,acdefideriopugna diiunguntur,etdemű alij affectusinterse conexi,quorüaliquos memoramusetiainfrac.feq. I.2. Sedex obiectorúoccurſu etia cotrarij affectus interdūfimulanimüagitāt,interdū veròactio phifica affectuŭin intimascorporis partes alios affectusgignit; nempetimorfæpein ventriculūmelancholicumfuccumexlienę refundit, quigrauateamfenfiliſſimampartem; doloritaque cor poreusgrauatiuus (vt vocantaliqui medici)gignitur,exquo inprimoſenſorioaffectusdoloris,actristitia excitatur. Pariter dumexdolorelachryma ciuntur, vaportum abfumitur,qui pregrauabatinteriorespartes; isenimin lachrymas vertitur: ateæ partesleuate voluptatemcorporeampercipiunt,& inte rioreminprimoſenſorioexcitant. Cumtotergodecaufisplures interdumaffectusfimulanimioccupent,ſignaquoqueaffectuū nonpura, fedpermiſtaoccurrunt; aliquando autem illa confun duntur; aliquando mira velocitateſeſubindeexcipiunt. Infer uoillo Apuleiano venenario,dequoproximè diximus,priora representant illafigna timorem repræfentant, purumfcilicet. Etinuicem humanicolorisſucceditpallor infernus perquevni uerſamébrafrigidusſudoremanabat. Atquefequun turmixtumtimoridefideriumſeſedefendendi,&aliquemſpei gradum,quipofteainualuit,monstrant , Túcpedesincertis alternationibus commoueremodòhác, modò illam partemſcalperecapitis,&oreſemiclauſobalbutiens, nefcio quas affanias effutire.Atdemumfignaſpei,&au dacieiamprouectępuraemergunt. Conſtatiſſimenegare, &accerferemendacij medicumnõdefinit.Nequeego in Apuleio veritatemhiſtorie,fed verifimilitudinemcommen ticonfidero.Dum amatores, ) ardereſe,&algereſentiuntvi ciffitudinem cupiditatis,exquaardent,ettimoris, exquoalget, experiuntur. Inobferuatione ergofignorum affectuum, & in affectibus ex illisdijudicandis debet commixtio eiufmodidiligen teranimaduerti, utrumfubfit, necne, & que, fit;nam q qualisquefub mfifignumcommixtumpropuro interpretabimur,in affectumiudicandum coniecturanosdiscet,quäqui aliu nosdiscet,quäquiverè afficit. Dd  De  Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. Defignisex oratione. Caput Decimumquartum. §. Primus. Cum apertiſſimis verbis affe tus enunciatur. Dorationemnunc veniamus,ſignaqueaffectuŭexeape AD tita. Siitaque oratioipfiffimis uerbis affectŭaliquěprofi teatur,noneft cur (fifimulatioabfit) aliudfignumqueramus.  CICERONE (vedasi). adD.Fratrefcribit,ſe Cefaris amore,queadipfumperfcri pfit, unicèdelectari . Intelligimus voluptatemCiceronis,qua tum exeoamoreafficiebatur:folum autěeft difpiciendum,num ratiofubfit,curtum mentitusfitfratri, alioquinamatiſſimo, cuiqueplurimumfidebat. Arsitaque, ac methodusfimulatio nispræcauenda estadhibenda . Ceterumnibil . Cum affectus apertènon exprimitur,at confequutionequadam exdictis elicitur. INTERDVM affectusnonaperitur verbis explicitis; elicitur tamenconſequutionequadam , v.gr. quidicitſedolere alicuius abfentia,indicatſeamarehominem,eiusfcilicet præfen .Ethi. tiamdefiderare; in quoconſiſtit differentia amoris exAristot. fcilicet affectusaliquiſeſeſupponūt,acconfequutur,vtdolorob malum aliquod,voluptatemexcontrariobono.Itemdefiderium boni eiufdem,fcilicetdolorobpaupertatem confequitur, volu ptatemexdiuitijs, &defiderium diuitiarum; viciffimquedo loremobpaupertatem,voluptas ex diuitijs t) defiderium di uitiarumconfequuntur. Voluptatemitidemexdiuitijsearum dem defideriumcomitatur. Quiigitur aliquemexhis affecti busexplicitèfatetur, alios confequentesimplicitèfibiineffein dicat.Rurfus quoniamex obiectopro cognitione nostra affe Etus LiberDecimus. 423 Etusnafcunturnempe exobiecto, ut bonoanobis iudicato, vo luptasfipræfens,defideriumfiabſens,velnon habitumfit.Ex contrarioautem dolor, &odium, abominatiové . Ideo, dumin telligimusquippiam abaliquoiudicatum malum,exeo,fiaccide rit,dolorem accepißeplus,minusvéarbitrandumest: niſi verò acciderit aut timorem , autabbominationem excitatam.Cicero adQ. Fratremfentit abfolutionem Gabinijfuiſſeperniciofam , Lib.3. fuiffeiniuftiffimam. Usurpat enimde iudicibusillud Homeri. Qui violentiainforoobliquas iudicantiuftitias; Iuftitiam autëexpellunt Deorum religionenoncurătes. arbitraturdemumlegem eße impunitatis , ergo neceße babuit agreferre, modozelo Reipublicæ teneretur,dumautemfatetur leniſſimetuliße,ostendit torpuiſſezelum,quopriusacriterpun gebatur. Quamnostramconiecturamapertèposteafateturipse met. Verbarefero. Exitum iudicijfædum,&pernicio fumleniſſimetuli, quodquidem bonúmihinúcde niqueredundat,vthis malis Reipublicę,licentiaque audacium,qua anterumpebar,nuncnemouearqui dem. Incanones contrabamusdicta. Canones continet. Ex iudiciodeobiectoconijcimus affectumanimi,nempeſi Canon 1. bonumiudicemus amorem,velſipotiamur voluptatemexcon trario iudicio, contrarios affectus. VerèapudTerentiumexlaudibus, quibusCherea extolle- Exemplum. Bat Pamphilęformam, coniecit ipſum incenfum amore Par meno;dequeamoreloqui,licètdepulchritudinediceret,& amo ris nufquammeminiffet. CHER. Ofaciempulchram,deleoomnesdebincexanimo mulieres Dd Teht  Deconiect.cuiuſquemorib.&c. Tędet quotidianarum harumformarum. PARM.Ecce autemalterum. Deamore,nefcioquid,loquitur. Ex comendatione isitaque forma de amore agi interpretatur. Verum INDICIVM hoc affectus clarius, & inoffenfiusprocedet,--ſicùiudiciodeobiectohominisiudicantisdiſpoſitionë agnoueri mus; certèenimfiquicquaminiustèfactum, atqueReipublicæ perniciofum homo Reipublicę zelatoriudicauerit,intelligemus ipſumearetorqueri: atſimalus ciuis , & fibinonReipublice confulensquicquaminiustumiudicet,nonneceſſeesteareangi, immoutplurimum,ſiſitidſuisrutile, gaudebit. Ampliatio. Canon 2. Exemplum. And.Att. 1. Scen. 1. Augetur efficaciafignidicti,cum resimmodicèfufpicitur,& laudatur;nampulchrioreviderimulierem,quafit,t ) meliorem arguitimmodicumamorem: unde videsilli, fed veri verſus. Siquisamatranam,ranamputateſſeDianam . Omnisamanscęcus: nonestamansarbiteraquus. Affectusconnexi alter alterum SIGNIFICA.Nempefiexplici tèaliquemcognofcamusaffectum,connexos etiamimplicitèar guimus . Patetexdictis, acdeclaratis.-- Simopenes eundemTerentiumconiecit amorem mutuum Pamphili, Glycerij:extimore magnoPamphili,neimpuden tius illainignem rueret . Intereahacforor , Quamdixi, adflammamacceſſitimprudentius, Satis cum periclo : ibitum exanimatusPamphilus, Benediſſimulatum amorem,&celatumindicat: Accurrit:mediammulieremcomplectitur; MeaGlycerium,inquit,quidagis? curteisperditum ? Atexfiduciamulieris ergaPamphilum eiuſdeminipſum amoremagnouit. Tum LiberDecimus. Tumilla,ut confuetumfacileamoremcerneres, Reiecitſe ineumflensquàmfamiliariter.  Applicanturdicta deſignis affectuum propofita affectuumindagini. Enumeratgradusquatuoraffectuum . Отiamdictisde affectuumfignis,nuncenitamurpropo Ifitonoftrotraditădoctrinăapplicare.Propofitum veròeft latitantes affectus eruere . Siergofuerint apertiaffectus , vix bac methodoegent. Diftinguamus gradus apertorum & tecto rumaffectuum,quiquatuor eße videntur. Primuscumapertè oratione ipfa affectum nostrum profi temur. ItapenesEuripidem Hippolytus odiuminPhędrame, )nutricempalamprofeſſus est. Abbominor; nemoiniustusest mihiamicus . Secundus gradus est cum cetera signa libera permittuntur: ORATIO, et confessio supprimitur. SIGNA Paridis amoris erga Helenam,que commemoratHelenapenes Ouidium in episto lisadhuncgradum pertinebant. Illudquoquelib. 3. amorum Elegia 2. huc spectat. Rifit, argutisquiddampromifitocellis. Hocfatiseft ; aliocaterareddeloco . Tertiusgradusestcumfigna affectusfupprimuntur;erum punttamenquadamexparteilla. Tiberiuspenes Tacitumdif Tiberiuspenes fimulabat, &comprimebatfignadefiderijimperij,etiræ etiam in Gallum,quieainreipſumoffendit: attamenerupitnotaire, quamfagaciter Gallusconiectauit. Etenim (inquitTacitus) vultuoffenfionem coniectauerat . Postremusgradus estcumcohibenturomniafigna latentis affectus, 426 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. affectus , utnullumeorum erumpat. Hunc gradumexpreffit cap.33. Lib.2.deira Senecain Pastoresplendido equite, qui eademdieaccerfitusad conuiuium a Caligulafuit , quafilium eiusduci iufſferat; impo fuerat veròcustodemadexplorandum,fiquoddolorisfignum velminimumdaret. Isergo,ut Senece utar verbis, Cum interim nonlachrymas emifit,nec dolorem aliquo ſignoerumperepaſſus eſt. §. Secundus . Inprimocafu,cumenun ciantur affectus . Cvm affectusnoftrosipfimetfatemur, nonfuntaliquaar te eruendi; nonenimlatitant:folum autemestprecauendum fictio, acfimulationequaſubſit. §. Tertius. Inquarto caſu,cumnullum erumpitfignum . Arinquartocafucumnullumerumpitfignum,nullusquo queesthuicexfignis methodolocus : oportettum alia progredi methodo,quaminhuiusipfiusſupplementumproximèfubijcie mus ex caufisductam . §. Quartus. In fecundocafu cum affectus diuerſi concurrunt. Сvм veròfuppreffa enunciatione, atqueconfeffioneaffe Etus, ceteratamenfignaerumperepermittuntur, tumfacilèaf fectus conijcitur, nifiduo obfint , SIMULATIO ſcilicet ,fallaciavé, #pluriumaffectuumconcurſus,atquecommistio:quorumpri mo methodo deprehendendafimulationis occurritur: fecundo autemimpedimentobacalia via obuiamitur,quamincanones contrabemus. : Cum LiberDecimus.  Cumfignadiuerforumaffectuumſeſe integra excipiunt, Canon1. tumpronunciandum abomnibus illisaffectibus viciffim ani mumoccupari . Videmuseos,qui magnumaliquemprincipem, acpræfentem adituri locum expectant , varioin ea expectatio. necolore tingi, nuncfcilicettimentium,nunccupientium. An tonius Caetanus nunc Archiepifcopus Capuanus , potiente olim rerumClementeVIII. adeoque Petro Aldobrandino eius exfratre nepote, falsèobferuabateiufmodi motus, variationes que vultuŭinturbaconfluentiumad Cardinalem publicè om nesaufcultantem ; indicabatque Paulo Sabellio Principi nunc Alba,quimihipoftearetulit: ut ergoalicuiiam patereincipie bataditus, is nuncquafi cupiditate incenfus erubefcebat , nunc reuerentia op quaſi timore, &reuerentiaoppreffuspallebat, nunc , ut accef Surusingrediparabat, nuncrurfusconſiſtebat. Atcumexconfufione affectuumeorundemfignapermiſcen- Canon 2. tur,nequeſuntpura, nifiattentaindagine concedaturdemüfi gnumpræualentis affectusdijudicareabalijs,quæ commiſcen tur, nonlicet exbac methodoaffectumdignofcere ; at oportebit fupplere indaginem methodo, quamfubijciemus ,&iam me Subiecturumfumpollicitus excaufis. DeclarocanonemexemploHelenapenes Ouidium . Affe- Declaratio, Etus ridendiin ipſa ingruebat, et unà affectus refpondendi tio. marito,pollicendique operamfuamin illis, queiufſferat;prefer- Inepift.He timincura hofpitis Troici, aqua etiam,utipsafatetur, non abhorrebat; quinimohominem,licètdißimulanter,amabat. Ex pugnaautem contrariorumaffectuum ,dum rifum compefcere Etabatur,impedita est, quo minus refponderet,præterquam unum verbum , Erit. Breuis adeo refponfio tum abituro marito, velmonftrabatingruentemluctum, aquone pluralo queretur, impediebatur ; velipfamgrauato animofacturam , quæ &confirma  Deconiect.cuiuſquemorib.&c. quæimperabat. Certè duos veros affectusnemo ex eo curta refponfionisfignoconieciffet . Omine letatus, deditofcula, resque, domusque, Ettibifit curaTroicushospes,ait. Vixtenuiriſum, quemdumcompefcereluctor, Nilillipotuidicerepreter, Erit . Oportebititaque moliri exfubijciendamoxmethodoindaginč. Cumfigna affectuumfupprimuntur aliqua tamen exparteerumpunt. CaputDecimumſextum. SVPERES Ttertiumdiuifionis membrum, cumfupprimun turaffectuumfigna, & illa tamenaliqua exparte erum punt. Tumveròeſtiscommuniscanonrepetendus,quemfu praStatuimuslib. preced. cap.   2. nempe affectus erum pens veriusindicat animum,quamquodcontra oratione, & habituhomoprofitetur,remtumdeclarauimus,atqueetiamS. Exemplum MarijexPlu 1. eiufdem capitisdeclaraueramus . Atplacetfubiungerealia exempla . Plutarchus de Mario Romam cumCinna post victoriam tarchoinvi. redeuntedicit; Cumvelletisſehumilem repreſentare, taMarij. Aliud exem plum. Canon1. accommiferationedignű,&habitu &inceſſutranf luxiſſetamenineo iracundiam,&feuitiem ,quam ſtatimfactis expreffit. Meminimecumpeteremab homine, inquemnonvulgaria mea merita erant,nescio,quod mutuumin multa,fedinani verborumbenignitateobferuaffeineiusoculis illiberalemquan damretractionem, exquaconiectaui, quodres ipsapofteamon Strauit, deponendameße, fiquamanteahabuiſſem,ineofiducia. Sunt ergoobferuandaque erumpuntfigna,& affectuiſuo fingula LiberDecimus.  fingulaapplicanda,ſignaamoris amori,ſignaodij odio, idem quede alijs; nempeſiprofitentiamorem, erumpat odijfignum , eum credamuspræfenti odio, non amoreteneri . Signaergoaf fectuumproximèexpofitahaberein promptu oportet, ut ob uiumfit occurrentia agnofcere . Etiamfifignanon integraadfint affectus, velfi integra Canon2. fint,atfintfugacia,tamenidemeftiudicandum.Patetex dictis. Atfiplurafignaeiusdemaffectus imperfecta, velfugacia Ampliatio. concurrerint , multòmagis affectusispresumi debebit, ac in terpretari. Difficilis eft in eiufmodi erumpentibus SIGNIS SIMULATIO; ef- Annotat. r. Quantu re fetenimfimulatioinfimulatione verum, &illudaddoetiamfi feratvfus,ef acciderepoffit, tamenmultuminboc cafu poffeperitum oculum fequeinfen ingeni distinguere, quod verbis nonequèexprimi poteft:idemquod tamnotitia, in diftinguendis coloribus , ac dijudicandis , fimilitudine qua quævideat quodlite dameuenitinhisaffectuumfignis cenfendis; nempeilli alieno ristradine lumine, )fitus, &interuallo alijapparent,quafint,atappo fitè collocati, illuminatiquefuam adamuſſimſpeciem referunt , at collocatio accommodata , &par illuminationonniſiaſenſu quit. ipſonoſtroinfitanotitiadignofcitur; utenimCicerodicit. Lu- Accad.que menſepemutarivolumus,& fitusearumrerum,quas intuemur, & interualla autcontrahimus, aut didu cimus,multaquefacimusvſqueeò,dumaſpectusip ſe fidem faciatiudicij ſui. Simillimèomninofintnéquæ apparent erumpentium verè affectuumſigna, anfimulentur preterid, quod complecti poffumuscanonibus ,fenfuum dili gens,&peritaobferuatioplurimumexhibebit, ut corellarijlo copendeathinc. Oportere hancartem nedumfibi ex lectione comparare,fedetiam ufu exercitationeque confirmare, atque familiaremfibireddere, &expeditam . Sed ſtio.lib.2. Annotat. 2. fequentime  Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. Sedfubijciendumquoque estſupplerihancipfam methodum doupe nuncqueadhibitoscanonesea,quæfubijcietur methodo;que, tem. pleri præſen uthacexfignis, ipſaprocedetexcaufis. Nempefi intelliga museum,quiamorefimulat,caufam habereodij & videamus fignumodijerumpens,multò tum certius odij affectum conie Etarepoterimus. Quodidemdealijs affectibus erit dicendum. Methodus excaufis affectuum, quaestfupplemen tumpracedentismethodiexfignis. Caufæ affectuum repetuntur. IAMveròfubijciamus promiſſam methoduminſupplemen . Zuumcaufafu tum proxime : erat illa exfignis ; erit hac ex caufis affe Etuum ,ſummaque eius in hoc confistet. Si cuipiam homini aderunt omnes alicuius affectus caufa, iudicandum erit in ipso affectum eundemreperiri. Affectuum caufafuntexfuperiori buslibris repetenda,fcilicetex librisde affectibus. Erant autem cauſe,aliæprimaria,aliafecundaria; &bealeinſtrumētarie, aliæ preparantes,acdifponentes;quærurfus,aut naturalesfunt, aut aduentitia ; &naturales, alia intrinfece, aliæ extrinfeca . Hasfingulas causasfecundariasin bac quartaparte profe quutifumus, quidfcilicetfingulepoffint , &adquos moresdi ſponant: difponuntautemadrefpondentes affectus, immo, vt adaffectusdifponunt eatenus admores etiaminclinant; nempe adfortitudinem inclinat caufa aliqua , ut adaffectum audacie adtenoremvéanimiducit : adignauiam contrà reddit propen fum, utadtimorem inclinat . Quæergotum diximus,nunc quiſqueexco loco repetataduſumhuius methodi. Inquosſii licet affectus reddathominempropenfum temperamentum tum cordis, tumhepatis,&cerebri, fanguinisque &fpirituum; pariterin quosconformatiopartium. Itemclimata ,regio, ſitus , atates , ſtatus, conditionesquefortune , praterea instituta , )Studia vite. Eiufmodiautemcaufa adaffectusdifponunt, nonipseperſeeos actuinducunt : atcognofcere propenfionem hominis, acdispofitionemplurimirefertadaffectus aftuinexi Stentes deprehendendos. Interdum autem cauſeomnesin eun demaffectumconfpirant: interdumadcontrarios. Tum verò .. contraria mometafuntlibrādaealance, quafupraexbibuimus. &feq. §. Secundus. Cauſæprimariærepetuntur . CAVSAE deindeprimarieconfiderande ,primoque obie Etum . Erantilletres, obiectum,facultas cognofcens, &facul tas appetens . Primòde obiecto agamus. Quodnamfitfin gulorumaffectuum obiectum , exfuperioribus de affectibus li brispatuit,fedetiamperfeconstat. Inaffectibusenim adbo numestillud, adquod obtinendumaffectus adspirat; uthonor in ambitione; voluptas venereain eacupiditate; perfonapul chra in amore amatorio; diuitiæin earum cupiditate; idemque dealijs. Atin affectibusex malo; odio, abhominatione, ira , obiectumeft malum,adcuiusdepulfionemadfpirat animus : in ira,iniuria,autparuifactio; quaderefupra: inodioperſongper- Primaparte Sonamala, velut malaapprehenſa,cuiusperditionemoptat : inlibro deira odio rei,fiuein abbominatione malumipſumformale, quodde testaturanimus. Sedhæcdemumomniafupraexfuis locisre petantur . Idveròpræfertim; obiectum interdum incomple xumſumi, utinira, iniuria illata; interdumcomplexum, ut cap. . : in eodemaffectuperſona, quæ iniuriamintulit . Canones ex obiecto continet. Cvm obiectumalicuius affectusadest velpræfens, vel Canon1. recens, Deconiect. cuiufquemorib &c. Ampliatio. recens, iuremerito credi potestineße etiam animo affectum eiufmodi, etiamfinullum eiusfignum appareat. Ampliaturcumetiamobiectumfitantiquum,fifueritma Iuftinusli.1. gnü. ConfirmaturampliatioexemploHarpagiin AstyagemRe gem,aquo,cummultis anteaannisiniuriammagnamſuſcepif fet,(filium enimeius Rex occidi iufferat,patrique epulandum tradiderat ) diſſimulatam iramtamdiuferuauit , quamdiu vl tionis occafionemRexipfe illiprestitit , demandato exercitus in CyrüImperio: adCyrūenimdefciuit, copiasque adillumtra Additio 1. Iouius. Additio alia. duxit;quofactoRexdemu, &RegnuminCyrimanusceſſere. Augetur coniectura euidentia , cumhomofuerit tenaxme moria . Melancholicuseiufmodiest; undediu isretinet ſpe cies lefionumpræfertim, malorum. Talis, nifallor,fuitis Turca, quioccidit MahometemſummumimperiumTurcicimi niftrum,obiniuriam nongrauiſſimam,postquamftipe quotidia nafuerat ab eodemquadragintafortèannisdonatus:occiditta mencertus &ipſe moriendi. Sedhæcadditio pertinetetiamad caputfacultatis cognofcentis . Augeturdemumconiectura,cum homofueritfuaptenatura in eumaffectumpronus; undepropenfusin venerem,ſi pre fentemhabetfæminam,præfertimpulchram, etiamfinullum cupiditatisfignumexhibeat, potesttamen credicupiditate eiuf .amo- modiipsum velteneri, veltentari. Ouidius deſefateturque rumeleg.4. cunqueoccurreretpuella, eamfibiplacuiße. Nonestcerta,meosqueformainuitetamores: Centumfunt cause,curegofemperamem. &c. Itemiracundusfiquisfit, iniuriamqueacceperit,pareftcre dereipfumirafci, licètiram contineat,ſipreſensfit,qui leſit, velprefens eius aliqua ex cauſamemoria; idemquedeomnibus alijs affectibusdicendū. Dicoautěprafentemmemoria, cūvel i commemoratioleſionis ,autperſonaledentisinciderit, velall quodearumfimulachrum,aut veftigium. Themistoclem incen debantconfpectatropheaMiltiadis, & Alexadrum Magnum gloria Achillis extimulauit, qua illi ex afpectuſepulchriAchilli Plutarchus invitaAlex. inmemoriapofttantumtemporis,tanquāprafens,venit.Cefari etiam in HifpaniafimulacrumAlexandriMagnitotpostannos Plutarchus emulationem eiusgloriaindidit, &lachrymas usqueexciuit, invitaCaf. Defacultatecognofcente . Caput XVIII. ONSIDEREMVs nuncfacultatemcognofcentem:hęc Cveròquafit &quomodooperetur,reſiſtatvéaffectibus, antealuculenterdeclarauimus lib.2.de affect.c..In preſentia Primapar. autëtriafuntdehacfacultate confideranda,fitnéperſpicax, ) trumfit tenax,&quibusprincipijsin iudiciobonorum , ma lorumvé;ineopræfertimgenere,dequo tumagitur,utatur.Ex primocapiteintelligimus, quicquidboni,aut maliillifactumfit ab fuerit.co ipſo agnofci, ſiperſpicaxfuerit:contrà veròlaterepoffè,fifit hebes. Aliquifunt,quosimpunèdeludere licet,ſiprætendamus palam obferuantiam,atclam ledamus, ob eorumhebetudinem. Narciſſusplurahoc modocum Claudiofaciebat,ut usqueMef Salinam occidiiufferit,Claudioquepofteaita ab ipfoftatutum af ferereauferit, isque crediderit, et verbafibidarinõagnouerit: atcumTyberionibiltalene Seianusquidemaufuseffet. Perfpi caces itaquehomines velminimaminiuria,leſionem véagno fcunt,etiamfifortèinterdüdiſſimulent uidere,iuxtailludSene- Lib.2.deira cemonitum, Sępeſatiusfuitdiſſimulare,quamvlcifci. cap.33. Sitnè tenaxmemoria. SECVNDA confideratioest; fitnétenaxmemoria; qui Ee enim  Deconiect.cuiufquemorib&c. enimtalesdiuretinentiniurias, &beneficia. Melancholiciho mines tenacesfunt prefertimmalorum obtemperiem intristi tiam, &meſtitiamducentem; undeetiamacerbiredduntur:at funtetiamtenaces amoris;fimulachrumenim amata mulieris Cap.pręc.§. diutiſſimaſeruant, cumfueritimpreſſum. Exemplumtenaci 3.add.1. 7 tatis eiufmodiest,is Turca ,quemproximèretulimus. Atficontràfehabeat,poßumuscredereoblitumhominem iniuria , velobiectialterius affectus , cumantiquumidfuerit, ſcilicet multo anteatépore inciderit;licètfaciliusbeneficia vul gòexcidant,quàminiuria. Sitqueillud ſuſatisconfirmatum. Ledensinpuluere,leſusin marmorefcribit. §. Secundus. Quæ principia fintin facultate cogno ſcenterecondita,ſeuquibuseavraturprincipijs. TERTIO loco, utdifcernamusſenſuminiuria,autbene ficij, neceſſeestcognofcereprincipia, quibus in illisdijudicandis homo,dequoiudicamus, utatur. Ea verò exduobuspræfer timintelligemus , expublicisopinionibus, quæ eoinloco,eoque temporevagatur,&exhominis studio,ac vita,exempligra tia, tempore Iuuenalis . Simatrona prapotentiobiecißetquif piamadulterium, vixiniuria loco accepiffet; prefertim fiil lud Sulpitiælocumhabuiffet. Cumdignodignafuißeferar. Atabantiquioribus Romanis , &nuncabintegrisCiuita tibus, t) non abaule magne vitijscorruptisinfamèreputare tur . Detrectaffefingularecertamen Ciuemcum Ciuein Roma naRepublicanedum probri locohabitumfuiffet,fedprolaude, cum nequeaduerfusprouocantem abſquedictatoris veniapro LIVIO (vedasi) lib. cefferit Manlius : at interplurimos Europeosnunc, &pre fertim Gallos , vituperabileeffet. Quæiudiciorumdifferentia exfola LiberDecimus. 1  exfoladiuerfitateprincipiorumfacultatis cognofcentisprocedit. Expedit ergohominiprudenti,atque inhacindagine verſatu ro,communesgentium opinionesingenerehocagibilinouiße, quefupraetiameratprudentiæparslib. deprud. Priuata quoqueſtudia,ac vita institutadiuerfalongèalijs, utplurimü,principijs utuntur. Mercatoresenimet Doctores, Milites non ijſdeminnituntur regulisineligendo,atquevi uendo. Mercatoresfaltem viliores illud SanionispenesTeren tiumfequuntur . : Eumqueſtumocceperis . Accipiunda, &muſſitandainiuriaadolofcentiumest. Miles contrà,modò vlcifcaturiniuriam,mortem spernit . Achilles penes Homerum. Nuncautevado, utdilecticapitisperditorëinueniam Hectora, mortem autemegotuncfufcipiamquandoiam luppiter vultperficere, & immortalesDeialij. Fit exhis,utfiMilitiignauiaexprobretur,pro maximaipſe iniuriaaccipiat. AtDoctoricontrà,ſiobijciaturignorantiafcien tie, quàmprofitetur , &Mercatori,fidecoxiſſe,quisdixerit, maioremcontumeliamarbitrentur. Sedpreterhocetiam etates, Illiad.. &fortune conditiones aliquamprincipiorum varietatemfug gerit, quam varietatemexfuperioribusfacilèeftcolligere:illuc Lib.3.huius ergoablego lectorem. R De facultate appetente. ESTAT postremolocofacultas appetens, quamquidem fuprafatisexplicauimus.Inprafentia veroid unumin quirendum eft,quobabitu,autdifpofitioneteneatur ex xaßuetu dine; ceteras enimextemperamento,acnaturalibus caufis, aut ex conditionibus fortuna , acſtudijspropenfiones effenotasex Ee 2 4.partis. cogni  Deconiect,cuiufquemorib.&c. Exemplum. cognitione caufarumpreparantium,acinstrumentariarum iamfupponitur. Exaffuetudine mollis vite,actripudijsdeditaarguittimi ditateminTroianispenesVirgilium Remulus. OverèPhrygia (nequeenimPhryges)iteperalta Dindyma,ubiaffuetisbiforemdattibiacantum, Tympanavos,buxusque vocat Berecynthiamatris Idee,finitearma viris, &cediteferro . Erititaque canonfinouerimushominem irafcifolitum ex obiecto iracundiæ ,fcilicet ex iniuria, velſpretu intus irafci etiamfidiffimulet. Itemvaga veneri affuetumadconfpectum mulieris cupiditate incendi, etiam fieamtegat; pariterquede alijsaffectibus dicendum, &iudicandumprobabilitamen con iectura: isenimpotestpro arbitrij libertate resistere; attamen nifi affectui cefferit , ab eotamenpertentaridicendumerit,cum babitus , utplurimum inactuserumpatfimiles. Etfiratio refiftit affectibus , neeamrapiant , &proturbent,non refi Stit tamen proarbitrio , neincendantur, cum , utſepe vidi mus,inuitarationeſuſcitentur, &astuent; nonenimpotest eosratioproimperioſopire, acextinguere. Rem declarauimus intertiaparte . R Inpraxim methodus tradita adducitur. CaputVigefimum . ESTAT demumprohuiuspartiscolumine, utinpra ximtraditam methodumdetegendilatitantes affectusdu camusremabinitiorepetentes.Proponoautemindaginemaffe Etushabitu,interim tamet ) affectusactu elucebit; tfeorfum, etiäaliopropofitoexëplo affectus actuindaginërepresētabimus. §. Pri ! ExemplumTyberij ergaGerma ; nicum proponitur. PROPONO ergoproexemploTyberijergaGermanicum affectum inquirendu. Tacitusodio illumfuiffe afferits Sedan xius, inquit, patrui,&auiæ inſeodijs, quorumcaufæ acriores,quiainique.Verùm nosnolumusaffectumquasi tumexTacitointelligere,fednostramethodoindagare. Pro cedamusergo primòexcaufis ,quodqueexillisdeduceturcum fignis posteaconferemus . i Secundus. Cauſæ præparantes, acſecundariæ. CAVSAE inTyberiopræparanteseranttemperamentum inbilematrampropendens,exquoisingeniopollebat, ) infu perbiam,aciracundiam,immofeuitiampronus. Verùmetfufpi caxobannexamfrigiditatereddebatur, quæfrigiditas abata teiamingrauefcenteaugebatur; nam annorum ss.imperium inijt:nobilisfuit: ex Claudia enimfamiliaortus,inquafuper bia quædam ceunatiua, obferuatafuit; uthacetiamrationein fuperbiampropenderet: vitaeiusperſummosbonorestraducta alebatbonorumdefiderium: atetiamperturbatus, &depref fus vixit,utmultosoderit,odioque,etiracundiaanimumim buerit,&excreuerit . Satisfithæcdecaufispreparantibusin quifiuiffe. Sawitiemhuius principis testantur ubiqueHisto rici, Suetonius, t Tacituslatè. Suspiciofumdeclarantijdem Tacitus, Suſpicacem animum perſtrinxere. Deobiecto. SVCCEDIT inquiſitio,quodnamobiectumeßetGerma nicus Tyberio, videturquidemprimoafpectuearumfuiffe,& : Ee 3 gratum Deconiect,cuiufquemorib &c. gratumobſanguinisnexum, obadoptionem,ob virtutemeius, acfingularia corporis,&fortune ornamenta;queomniafingu larimodestia , atqueergaTyberium cultufummoinduebat : at exTyberijfinecontrariumpenitusdeducetur: namistotoani moincumbebatinimperium integrum ,atque pleniffimumfibi viventituendum,&filijspostmortemrelinquendum. Solus autemGermanicusimpedimentoeße poteratvtriqueeius desiderio; cũ enimineius manueffentlegionesGermanice, nem peimperij Romanirobur,ſummaqueineo effetbellica virtus, omnesque eummaximoamoreprofequerentur,potuiset etiam potiushabere imperium,quàmexpectare; quefufpicioangebat .Ann. Tyberium, utTacitusetiamrefert,cuiushæc verba. Caufa præcipuaexformidine,neGermanicus,in cuiusma nutotlegiones, immenſa ſociorum auxilia, mirus apudpopulumfauor,habereimperium,quamexpe Etaremallet.AtmultòmagisexdeGermanici virtus,& au Etoritas , nixa numeroſafiliorumfoboleobſtabat,neimperium postmortem Tyberijin Drufumfiliumeius proueniret , ſed in Germanicoreftaret, eiusquedomo. Neceße ergoerat Germanicu odiofum effe Tyberio, nocarum: quemetiamftatim, utAgryp 1 pam &parirationeextinxiffet,fieademfacilitatepotuiffet. Defacultatecognofcente. AD facultatem cognofcentemtranfeundo erat ipſe multe Sagacitatis, &calliditatis, prudentiam vulgòdixerint: namis interprudentiffimos principesreponitur; inlongumqueproui debatrerummomenta,exquibuscertum reddituripſumpræcla rècognouiſſequantumpericuliaGermanicofuæfecuritati,& filij amplitudini immineret; ex melancolia etiamnigrore pro penfuseratadiudicandumindeteriorempartem. Defacultate appetente. 439 AThabitu,& sunedum propenſione ſuperbus erat, cupidiffi musimperij ,cuiusarrogantiam,&feuitiam vulgò etiam cognofcebant; undeTacitus dicitfubexceffuAugustia nonnullisiactitatum,ideo abAuguſtoſucceſſorem relictü,quòd arrogantiam, feuitiamque eius cum introfpexerit,comparatione deterrimafibigloriamquafiuerit. Pretereaconftatipſum utiliafibiconfiliaſequutum,non fpeciofa,et amicitiasprefertim ex utilitate, non honestatecen fuiffe,utdubiumbincnonfueritipfum ex virtutibus 1 Virtutibus Germa miciminimè allectum,fedcontrà odiohabuiße,quaexearum magnitudineimminerepoffentpericula velfibi, velfilio. Signa per curruntur. OMNES ergo causeconspirantfecundumrationespotio resinid, quod Tyberius oderitGermanicum ,eiusque depref--fionem,&mortemexoptauerit, utquetutò potuerit, molitus fuerit. Confideremusnuncfigna. Primum autemfuitproconſulareimperium, quodilliaSe natuimpetrauit.Tacitus.At Germanico Cæfariprocon- .t.Ann. ſulareimperiúpetiuit, miſſiquelegati,qui deferrent fimulmeſtitiaeiusob exceſſumAuguſti ſolarentur. Secundumfuit , cumretulitdeGermanici victoria, rebuf que ab eogestis, easquelaudauit. IdemTacitus.Retulitta- Lib.cod.1. menad Senatumderebusgeſtis,multaque devirtu te eius memorauit, magis in ſpeciemverbisador an nata,quàmvtpenitusſentirecrederetur. Fertum fignumfuit Decretus Germanicotriumphusnon dumfinitobello. IdemTacitus.Druſo Cefare,C.Norba- Lib.eod. Ee 4 no  Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. noCoff.decreuit Germanico thumphusmanerebel lo. Sunthæcomniafigna amoris,at multòleuiora,quàm con traria cauſe,utfimulationes amoris verius,quamamorisfi gnacredi debeant,præfertim boc tertium, quod erat veluti illicium, fed & anſa retrahendi Germanicum ab admini Stratione belli , & ductu legionum deuinctiffimarum: qua deremox. Quartumfignum iam iracundia, ) odij,dumindeterius Tacitus. Lib.2. traxit pietatemGermanicierga manes ,&offalegionuminſe pultarum Vari. Item cum Agrippina in legiones auctorita tem ,ipfamqueauſam legionibus gratiasagere, tinuißepe cunia, acriterfenfit,atque reprehendit;fitamenaperuit eaTy berius,nonautem fidis tantum,&intimisestdetestatus. In malamautem partemfactainterpretari est odijſignum. Huс pertinent, quæ Suetonius dicit : Germanico usqueadeo obtre Etauiffe,vtpreclarafacta eiusprofuperuacuis eleuaret, &glo riofiffimas eius victorias ceudamnoſas populoRomanoincre paret. Quòd verò Alexandriampropterimmenfam,&repen tinamfameminconfultòſeadiſſet, questusestin Senatu. Quintum signum. Atcertèquintumfuit apertuodijfignum, licètinuidiafitinterpretatus cumGermanico Tacitus: nempe cumalegionibusGermanicisabstraxit,abelliqueaduerfusGer manosadministratione. Tacitus. Tyberiusmonebat, re diret addecretumtriumphum;fatisiameuétiuum. Etnonnullis interiectis ,fubiungit. Precante Germanico annum efficiendis ceptisacrius modeftiam eiusag gredituralterum conſulatum offerendo, cuiusmu nia præſens obiret. Demumergo: Haudconctatus eft vlterius Germanicus, quamquam fingiea,ſeque per inuidiampartoiam decori abſtrahi intelligeret. Verum LiberDecimus.  Verùmfuitmetus, &odijſignum verius,quàminuidia, veluti enimabarce quadam,inquanullis erat infidijs obno xius, in planum deduxit, ubi expofitus iam eße incipiebat multis dolis ,ac periculis : interim ipfealijs minus multò for midolofus ; non amplius enim fido militefultus ,pro arbitrio poterat imperium inuadere,immo ufurpare. Quod idemTa citus anteafaßusfuerat,ut ea specieGermanicumfuetisle gionibusabstraberet ,nouisque principijs impofitum,dolofi mult cafibusobiectaret. Atfextumfignum, ) odijſignificantiſſimumcumfpecie honorisin Orientem mißus adignotasfcilicetfermèlegiones,at immiſſoetiamPifone, qui Syria legiones preoccuparet, & per verteret, utfecit; demumomnia Germanicifactaoppugnaret, utfecretioraetiam mandatailli,acPlancinedatatollendiho minis veneficijs,que paſſimtumcreditafunt, credi iure pof fint: interim efficiebatur apertaeainimicitia profeffione, ut quicquid in Germanicum molitusfuiſſetPiso, & coniunx, Pifoni totum imputaretur, non Tyberio:faltem idipfecre derepotuit. Septimumfignumfuit frigidiſſima vltio eiuſdemGerma nicimortis, cum& PlancinamipfeSenatuscognitionifubtra xerit. Tacitus . Pro Plancina cumpudore,&flagitio defſſeruitmatrispreces obtendens, in quam optimi cuiuſque ſecretiquæſtus magisardefcebant. §. Septimus . Iudicium percipitur . CVM ergocumcaufis vehementiffimi odij conspirentfi gna urgentia, lemiaque tantumfigna aduerfentur,creden dumestinuifumfummoperefuiffeGermanicum Tyberio. Quod ductumexnostra methodo iudicium Tacitus , & Suetonius paffim 1  Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. paffimconfirmant;fuitquetum temporiscommunis Romanorum Sententia,utmultinoctucirca Tyberij palatium exauditifue rint, clamantes , Reddenobis Germanicum . Dixi exemplum pertinere adaffectum habitu, ut verè Annotat . 1. pertinet, at interim etiamdeaffectu actuiudicium constitutum: conftitit verdin affectu,quo Tyberius Germanicum abelloGer manicoabillisquelegionibus abstraxit:inuidiam reputauitGer manicus,&affentiſſe visus estTacitus. Egocummetuodium cenfui : obtrectatio quoque Tyberijpræfentisaffectus,& odij actupreſensfignumerat . Annotat. 2. deaffectup Atproexemplo,acpraxieliciendi affectusprafentis propo seteactuque noPorfenam, cumMutiuspoftoccifum ScribamproRegema eliciendo. num.accenſofoculoiniecit,ſummaqueconstantiacombuffit. Li uius stuporemtum Regitribuit, actimorem, utquæfubiungit verba,indicant, dum legatosRomam propacemiſſos dicit; timoreenimadductum adidRegem dicit adid citt &tranſacti periculi, )imminentis. Ategoadmirationem virtutisMutij,& cha ritatemergatantamvirtutem,atque urbem matricemegre giorumadeociuium,credo;moueor autem,namfactaPorfenea LiuioipsonarratamagnanimumhominemPorſenamoftendunt.-Pacemcum Romanisfecit;atimperatis, &receptisobfidibus, aufugit Clelia; interminationebellirepetijt ; at receptamliberè remifit, donis etiam ornatam. Fortis ergo animus, &ad uerfus contumaces acer, atplacidusergaobnoxios, t ) virtutis admirator. In eiufmodiergohominem caditadmiratio virtutis, ac eius amorpotiusquàmtimor: nequeei timorconfuluiſſetdi mittere Mutium cumincertitudineadbucfuture pacis;nam eaindulgentia,permanente bello, animatiores reddidiffetconiu ratos adipfum adoriendum ; quod Rexprudens fui compos facilèagnofcerepotuit,etquòdcõtraſuppliciumde Mutiofum ptum LiberDecimus. :  piumexteruiffetaggreffores,quipræfertim certòfcirent Regem acriore custodiadeindeſeptum,t) minus expofitumiriinfidijs. Eandempraxim adamoremamicitia poße detor queri, acreliquosaffectus . Applicatio fita ſimili . ADEMpraxisnormaex contrariopotest applicari af fectuiamorisamicitiainquirendo:cauſasfcilicetprimò con con fiderareomnes : deindefigna: tertiò conferrehac cumillis: ac alijsaffectibus potestapplicariafimili. S. Secundus. Caput est investigare obiectum gratum, cuiusrei methodus traditur. QUONIAM autemcaput esthominis,cuius affectum querimus,fines cognofcere;finesideoinquirere oportet. Obie Etumitagratum,&ingratumconftabit; atfines, cum ex mori busconstet,methodus amoris, &odijpræcedentimethodo mo res indagandinititur, utanteaquoqueproteſtatusfum . Sier gohonestascuipiamfitfinis; ut viroproboobveram virtu bonestascuipiamfit fint temmoralem, velexnaturali conftitutionefaltem probèpro penſo,perſonaprobailli, & virtutibusprædita,eritgratum obiectum. Siveròfinisfitutilitas,perſona utilis erit obie Etumgratum. Contrà,fi voluptas,finis,perſonavoluptaria carum obiectum, amatumerit,contrarię veròperſoneerunt inuiſe. Cum autemquis &voluptatem, &vtilitatemque rit,tum voluptarijhomines,tum utilesgratierunt; uterau temmagiscognofcemus, ſiconftiterit uterfinismagisexpeti tus. ExemplumexNeronemutuetur (isin voluptatesomnes propenfuserat)atinimperij,dominatusqueconferuationempro penfior, Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. penfior,procuiusacquifitione,& conferuatione patrem, ado ptiuumlicèt,venenoſustulit,matrem interfecit,fratrem,pre ceptorem, proceresfummos: miniſtriergoadimperiumretinen dumgratiores,quam voluptarij: hincTigellinusapudeumpo tior Petronio,quemideoperderepotuit. Tacituslib.16.Ann. Interpaucos Petroniusfamiliarium Neronis aſſum ptuseſtelegantiæ arbiter,dumnil amenum,&molle affluentia putat, nifiquod ei Petronius approbauif ſer; vnde inuidia Tigellini quaſiaduerfus emulum , &ſcientiavoluptatumpotiorem;ergo crudelitatem Principis, cui cęterælibidines cedebant, aggreditur amicitiam SeuiniPetronio obiecit, corrupto adin dicium feruo , ademptaque defenfione, & maiore partefamiliæ invincularapta. Annotationemcontinet. VOLVI hacdeobiectigrati,inuifiqueindaginedicere: de reliquis caufis nihilfubijcioex præcedenteexemplo protenfione excontrarioindagentur,quæ indagandatum vidimus: atan notandum eftidprætereaeßeconfiderandum,numconstansbo mofitinfuisaffectibus,ut etiam conftet,numquempræceden tiafigna indicauerunt amorem, perſiſtereadhuccredendumfit. Secus enimNero ante criminationemTigellini Petronium diligebat ; at ea auditaſtatimodit . Sapeenim illudcontingit. Quinunctefruiturcredulusaurea, Quiſemper vacuam,femperamabilem Sperat, nefciusaure : Fallacis. etiam extra venereumamorem. Quedehisduobus affectibuspropraxidixi,pariterde alijs affectibus diciafimili debent,eodemque modo tractādapraxis. Galeni praxis adducitur ad detegendum decum bentis muliercula amorem . ContinetverbaGalenilibrode Præcognitione. VBIICERE placetmodum,ac methodum, qua Galenus fcibit afe detectumamoremcui cuiufpiam muliercule;eft autem cap. 6. lib. de precognit. adPosthumum. Sunt ergohæc eius verba . Vocatus,vt infpicerem fæminam noctuvi gilantem,&exvnaiacendifigurain aliam crebroſe transferentem, vtipfam finefebrereperi ,perconta tus ſumquæcunque fingillatim illi contigiffe pote rant, obquævigilias euenireſcimus: illaautemvix, & interdumnihilreſpondebat,perindeatquefruſtra ſe interrogari, ſignificaret:demum auerſa,ſtragulis adductis,ſetotamoperuit,&quodamparuovelofu pracaputadductoinmodúeorum,quidormirevo luntcubarecępit:idvidens,diſceſſi duorumalterum mecumipſecolligens , vel arræ bilis vitio mulierem animi deiectionempati, vel rei ,quamfaterinollet , meſtitia laborare; quam obrem poſterodiecuncta diligentius obferuare decreui. Cum itaqueacceflif ſem,ex ancilla , quæipſiaſſiſtebatcomperi fieri non poffe, vttuncægramdominamviſerem; abij igitur, &deinderediens ,vtidemdenuò comperi:tertiore uerſusſum,fed&tumancilla renunciante,vtdiſce derem 446 Deconiect. cuiufquemorib.&c. derem(nolleenim tum hæramvexari,nam fimul, atquefecúdorecefliſſem, abluiſſeſeillam, &folitum cibum fumpfifle)diſceſſi,&fequentidierediensſo lumcumancilla devarijsrebusdiu collocutus, aper tè mæſtitia quapiamdominamlaborare cognoui ; quácaſupoftea reperi(opinor)quomodo Erafiſtrato quoqueobtigit.Namcumpriusnofceremnullacor porisparte mulierem afflictari,verùm animimole ſtia tantum quapiam perturbari, contigit, vt quo temporefœminam infpicerem, iſtud ipfum,quod effefufpicabar,mihiconfirmaret;naquidam èThea tro cumveniffet, narraſſetque Pyladem faltantem ſevidiſſe, ſtatim mulierisvultus,&facieicolorimmu tatus eft:quodcumviderem,brachiomanum ſtatim admoui , pulſumque ſubitovarijs modis agitatum inueni,id quod animiperturbatiindiciumeſt,talem enimpulfum,&quiderealiquacertant, haberefoli tifunt. Quocircaſequentidiecuipiam ex ijs, qui me ſequebatur, præcepi,vtcumadmulieremveniſſem, meparúpoſtſubſequeretur,&nunciaretMorphum codiefaltaſſe,quodcum feciffet, nullam in pulſumu tationéobferuaui. Sequenti diequoquecúiuſſiſſem, vtidem annunciaret hiftrionem,qui ex tribus reli quus erat, faltaſſe, ſimiliterpulfusnon ſe mutauit. Quartodiecumadmultamnoctemdeinduſtriaex pectaffem,vbi renunciatum effetPyladem ſaltaſſe,di ligenter annotaui pulfumvarijs modis ſubſultaſſe, atqueitamulierem Pyladisamorecaptădeprehédi; quodfequutis etiãdiebusattentiusobferuatu,me in opinione adhucmagis confirmauit . HecGalenus. Examen dictorum Galeni. FATERI oportetmulto plusdiligentia adhiberipotuiſſe aGaleno,quàmquæadhibitaeft,velexpreffa:nămutatiopul fus, cum & exodio, iracundiaqueprocederepotuerit,poteratis facilèdifcernere,quis eorum affectuumperturbaret mulierem multis modis, nempeferendodePyladefermonesin laudem, velin vituperationem; prout enim mulier vel voce,vel vultu,autexlaude letitiam,aut ex vituperationeiracundiam prefetuliffet , dignouiffet , vtrum Pyladisodio , an amorete neretur. Et quoniamforte zelotypia mulier torquebatur, fi amoreminquampiamaliamPyladisquifpiamexperimentigra tia afferuiffet , erupißet tum affectus zelotypiemanifeftisfi gnis,exquoetiamamoremarguiſſetillatione neceffaria. Fateor tamen, &ipseprobabiliusex ea obferuatione amoremmulie ris inPyladem,quàmalium affectum coniectum effe: facilè autem tummulieres, utpotètheatris, &ludis affueta arno re capiebantur excellentium histrionum, & myrmillonum, id quegenushominum; illudenim fpectari abomnibuscum lau de,in operepræfertim voluptario, &gratoamoremfacilène Etit. Iuuenalis. Accipis uxorem,dequaCitharadus Echion , AutGlaphirusfiat pater,Ambrofiusque Choraule, Longaperangustosfigamuspulpita vicos : Ornenturpostes, & grandiianualauro , Utteſtudineotibi, Lentule, conopeo Nobilis Euryalum myrmillonem exprimatinfans Nupta Senatoricomitataeſt Hippialudum Ad Pharon, && Nilumfamoſaquemenia Lagi Hacergo excaufaargumentumpoterat coniunge Gale pus, Satyr. Deconiect.cuiufquemorib.&c. nus,confirmaremque ipfum , ſi muliercorum spectaculorum curiofafuiffet , acfrequens . Hecitafubijcere voluideobfer uatione,&iudicio Galeni:cetera,qua exeademnostrametho doadijcipoterant, quiſquepotestperſefacilènegociodeducere. Interimnosfinem imponamus huic quarte curatoriorum partis, qua Græcè Symioticè, nobis de signis dicitur, in duo membrafe catur. Primum inquirit mores. Secundum latitante saffectus. Indago procedittum ex caufis, tum ex affectibus consequentibus, quos signa dicamus peculiariterſumptofigninomine. AD fiexcaufis, & signis progressus iungantur, certior inuestiga tioeuadit. Nome compiuto: Chiaramonti. Keywords: de signis, H. P. Grice, ‘Meaning,’ segno naturale, segno artificiale. Refs.: Luigi Speranza, “Grice e Chiaramonti,” The Swimming-Pool Library, Villa Speranza, Liguria, Italia.

 

Luigi Speranza -- Grice e Chiavacci: la ragione conversazionale e l’implicatura conversazionale poetica di  Gentile – scuola di Foiano della Chiana – filosofia aretina – filosofia toscana. filosofia italiana – Luigi Speranza, pwl Gruppo di Gioco di H. P. Grice, The Swimming-Pool Library (Foiano della Chiana). Filosofo aretino. Filosofo toscano. Filosofo italiano. Foiano della Chiana, Arezzo, Toscana. Grice: “Chiavacci is a good one; Italians tend to identify him with Miichelstaedter, but surely there is more to Chiavacci than an exegesis of Michelstaedter (especially to refute Gentile’s) – my favourite tracts are three: his ‘critique of poetical reason’ – a critique we were lacking! --, his little treatise on ‘man’ – and his ‘reality’ and not appearance, as Bradley would have it, but ‘illusion,’ which is related to Latin ‘ludus,’ game – His ‘philosophical studies’ cap it all!” Partecipe della stagione neoidealista italiana, fu tra i più innovativi interpreti ed eredi dell'attualismo gentiliano. Riceve l'istruzione primaria a Cortona, e quella secondaria nel liceo di Iesi. Frequenta la facoltà di lettere del Regio Istituto di Studi Superiori a Firenze, dove fu allievo di Mazzoni, e conobbe tra gli altri il poeta filosofo Michelstaedter, di cui divenne grande amico, insieme ad Arangio-Ruiz, Cecchi, De Robertis, Lamanna, Facibeni. Si laureò con una tesi sul Decameron di Boccaccio, e l'anno seguente ottenne una cattedra di insegnamento per il ginnasio inferiore. Con l'entrata dell'Italia nella prima guerra mondiale, C. combatté al fronte come capitano di artiglieria. Tornato all'insegnamento, nell'immediato dopoguerra vinse una cattedra per il ginnasio superiore, e iniziò nel contempo a frequentare la facoltà di filosofia a Roma, dove incontrò Gentile, col quale si laureò con una tesi su Antonio Rosmini. Comincia a insegnare filosofia nei licei, e due anni dopo fu promosso a preside di varie scuole, tra cui Siena dove nacque suo figlio Enrico. Divenne professore universitario di pedagogia alla Scuola normale di Pisa, e insegnò filosofia teoretica a Firenze, anche la cattedra di estetica. Entra a far parte dell'Accademia Roveretana degli Agiati. Gli verranno quindi elargiti diversi altri titoli accademici e riconoscimenti, come la medaglia d'oro ai benemeriti della scuola, della cultura e dell'arte. L'idealismo: tra Gentile e Michelstädter «Se mi domando che cosa debba al pensiero filosofico di Gentile, quale mi sembri essere il nucleo più vitale della sua dottrina, non trovo, a voler tutto restringere in una parola, risposta più esatta di questa: la dottrina dell'atto puro. C., L'eredità di Gentile, in «Giornale di metafisica». La filosofia di C. si muove tra l'idealismo attuale di Gentile da un lato, e l'anti-dialettica esistenziale di Michelstaedter dall'altro, conciliati in un'ottica spiritualista cristiana. Dell'attualismo gentiliano egli intende rivalutare la portata atemporale dell'atto puro dello Spirito, a cui riconosce piena realtà, a differenza dell'attualità concepita come un presente situato storicamente tra un passato e un futuro illusori. Riappropriandosi al contempo del criterio della persuasione di Michelstädter, Chiavacci ritiene che non si debba a sua volta fare dell'atto una teoria, una filosofia panlogista staccata dalla vita e dal suo stesso attuarsi, «perché deve essere essa la vita». Gentile ha avuto il merito di elaborare una filosofia anti-intellettualistica che non si esaurisce nel concetto, ma è autoconcetto, mostrando come il mondo consista nell'autocoscienza dell'atto pensante, in cui vi è «assoluto possesso, realtà attuale immanente al suo farsi». Egli tuttavia non avrebbe compreso appieno le conseguenze di questo attuarsi dell'atto, e sarebbe rimasto a sua volta dentro un "concetto" dell'autoconcetto, cioè in una forma di mediazione logica, di costruzione intellettuale, in un logo astratto che supera e smarrisce la «fonte della verità». L'atto invece, per C., proprio perché non può essere ridotto a fatto, cioè ad oggetto, è un atto «che sfugge ad ogni metro di criterio preconcetto, e che, per comprenderlo, bisogna rivivere dal di dentro». Tale consapevolezza interiore che «il soggetto ha di sè senza oggettivarsi», è per C. fondamentalmente un'intuizione, un sentimento, che permea la dialettica dell'atto pensante articolata nel soggetto e nell'oggetto. Essa bensì è anche un processo mediato, da cui risulta un logo "pensato" senza cui non si avrebbe coscienza formante della sua stessa origine intuitiva, ma un pensato che resterebbe vuota astrazione, «caput mortuum, se si distacca dalla sintesi di cui vuol rendere conto, da quella sintesi che gli dà un contenuto vivo e sempre nuovo, e che è l'intuizione costitutiva dell'attualità dell'io e che forse meglio si potrebbe dire sensus sui». Essa è infine, negli esiti religiosi dell'ultimo C., essenzialmente fede. Opere Tesi di laurea: La Commedia nel Decamerone (Iesi, Fiori) Il valore morale nel Rosmini (Firenze, Vallecchi) Illusione e realtà. Saggio di filosofia come educazione (Firenze, La Nuova Italia), concepita come una traduzione in forma propositiva del tema della «persuasione» che era stata esposta nell'opera di Michelstaedter in maniera indiretta e non sistematica come contrapposizione alla «rettorica». Saggio sulla natura dell'uomo (Firenze, Sansoni), dove il conflitto michelstädteriano tra illusione e realtà diventa quello tra natura e ragione umana, superato dalla dialettica dell'atto spirituale. La ragione poetica (Firenze, Sansoni), divisa in due parti: Il momento dell'Indifferenza, che affronta il problema della discordanza tra natura e intelletto, ovvero tra fatti e concetti, e tra questi e valori; e Il momento della libertà, che assegna alla libera creatività di una ragione non logica ma poetica il fondamento di quei valori, attraverso le dimensioni dell'arte e della religione. C. ha inoltre curato l'edizione delle Opere di Michelstaedter (Firenze, Sansoni), oltre a redigere, su richiesta di Gentile, la voce "Michelstaedter" per l'Enciclopedia Italiana. A lui si devono poi altri due saggi sul Rosmini: Filosofia e religione nella vita spirituale di A. Rosmini (Milano, Bocca), e La filosofia politica di A. Rosmini (Milano, Bocca). Postume Quid est veritas? Saggi filosofici, Leonardi, introduzione di Garin, Firenze, Olschki, Gentile-C.. Carteggio, Simoncelli, Firenze, Le Lettere. Grita, C., su treccani. Antonio Russo, C., interprete di Michelstaedter, Trieste. Così C. ricorderà il suo primo incontro con la figura di Gentile: «Leggendo per la prima volta la Teoria generale dello spirito, ebbi un lampo di luce, pel quale intravidi la possibilità di comprender la vita, di potervi trovare quel valore senza del quale ogni altra cosa non ha pregio» (da una lettera di C. a Gentile, cit. in Gentile-C.: Carteggio Simoncelli, Firenze). Scheda su C. su agiati.org. Cit. anche in G. C., Quid est veritas? Saggi filosofici, C. Leonardi, Olschki. C., Il pensiero di Michelstaedter, articolo sul «Giornale critico della filosofia italiana». C., Il centro della speculazione gentiliana: l'attualità dell'atto, in «Giornale critico della filosofia italiana», C., Il centro della speculazione gentiliana: l'attualità dell'atto, C., Quid est veritas? Saggi filosofici, C. Leonardi, Olschki, C., Quid est veritas? Saggi filosofici, Russo, C. interprete di Michelstaedter. Eugenio Garin, Introduzione a G. Chiavacci, Quid est veritas? Saggi filosofici, Russo, C. interprete di Michelstaedter, C. su sapere. Gaetano Chiavacci, Michelstaedter in «Enciclopedia Italiana», Roma.Bontadini, Dall'attualismo al problematicismo, Brescia, La Scuola, Guzzo, C. la "Ragione poetica", in «Giornale di metafisica», Francesco Valentini, Recenti studi sull'attualismo, in «Rassegna di filosofia», Antonio Testa, Michelstaedter e i suoi critici, in «Rassegna di Filosofia», Gianfranco Morra, La scuola gentiliana e l'eredità dell'attualismo, in «Teoresi», Vito A. Bellezza, Gentile e l'attualismo nell'ultimo ventennio, in «Cultura e Scuola», Dario Faucci, L'«attualismo» di C., in «Filosofia», Negri, Gentile: sviluppi e incidenza dell'attualismo, Firenze, La Nuova Italia, Antonio Russo, C. interprete di Michelstaedter, Campailla, in La via della persuasione. Carlo Michelstaedter un secolo dopo, Venezia, Marsilio, Attualismo (filosofia) Gentile Idealismo italiano Michelstaedter La Persuasione e la Rettorica C. C., in Dizionario biografico degli italiani. L’encomiabile Bibliografia michelstaedteriana1, regolarmente aggiornata, che appare sul sito della Biblioteca statale isontina, ha ormai assunto dimensioni più che ragguardevolie, nell’ultimo anno, per via del centesimo anniversario della sua morte, essa s’è di molto arricchita. Sembra, quindi, cosa ardua dire qualcosa di nuovo su Michelstaedter. Un’ulteriore problema, poi, che presenta lo studio della sua opera, sorge allorché si tien conto che con il giovane pensatore goriziano ci troviamo di fronte ad un intellettuale anomalo, del tutto sconosciuto in vita e scomparso in un’età in cui di solito gli altri muovono i primi passi nella vita pubblica. La stessa sua opera principale, La persuasione e la rettorica, era destinata ad essere la sua tesi di laurea ed è stata data alle stampe postuma; sicché il riconoscimento tardivo e la fortuna, non solo nell’ambito del panorama culturale italiano, ma anche di carattere internazionale, che essa ha avuto, sono in gran parte dovuti alla devota sollecitudine di un pugno di amici, cui si deve la sua pubblicazione e quella degli altri scritti di Michelstaedter. A loro si deve, infatti, dopo la sua scomparsa prematura, il merito di aver sottratto alla morte la sua memoria3 Tra di essi, e sono soprattutto i nomi che contano nella ristrettissima cerchia degli amici fiorentini, spiccano Arangio–Ruiz e C.. Il lavoro paziente e meticoloso del secondo, in particolare, per rendere accessibile la conoscenza degli scritti di Michelstaedter, con la sua edizione delle Opere (Firenze, Sansoni), “costituisce una pietra miliare nella vicenda storico-culturale e storico-critica del filosofo goriziano. L’edizione Sansoni di C. è all’origine del lavorio critico e interpretativo che è seguito negli ultimi trent’anni e che non accenna ormai a declinare” In uno studio su Michelstedater, non si può allora perdere di vista questa verità; e, soprattutto non si può non tenerne conto. Occorre, allora, affrontare il compito di chiarire il senso e i termini della ricostruzione del suo pensiero proposti da C.e da Ruiz. E parlare dei due fraterni amici di Michelstaedter significa non poter passare sotto silenzio un autore, Gentile, le cui suggestioni sono penetrate per canali vari e hanno raggiunto un’egemonia ancora non del tutto esaurita nella cultura italiana. Non a caso, con aderenza più o meno piena, da lui hanno preso le mosse molti autori che poi hanno svolto idee originali e autonome, accentuando, ripensando o rivedendo l’uno o l’altro aspetto della sua filosofia. Nella sterminata letteratura critica che gravita sull’attualismo, i due filosofi fiorentini compaiono, sia pure con caratteristiche proprie che li distinguono dall’uno e dall’altro indirizzo d’interpretazione, come “notevoli esponenti” della sinistra (Ruiz) o della destra gentiliana (C.) Tuttavia, il loro lungo e travagliato svolgimento dell’eredità neo-idealistica, sia pure ripensata in novitate spiritus, perloppiù non è stato mai messo a fuoco con efficacia e nei suoi risvolti più significativi ed è stato oggetto solo di qualche timida e stentata paginaNon deve perciò apparire strano che su questi problemi e su questi autori, e in particolare sulla loro collocazione speculativa nell’ambito del panorama attualistico, si torni ad insistere: essi esordirono come attualisti; poi, seguirono e amarono Gentile ; non persero mai di vista l’approfondimento del suo pensiero e si riconobbero in esso nell’arco d’alcuni decenni, giungendo ad un suo sincero ripensamento. Una lettera di dedica a Gentile (che apre La ragione poetica, Firenze, Sansoni), mette ampiamente in evidenza l’effetto che provoca su C. la lettura della Teoria generale dello spirito come atto puro :”ebbi un lampo di luce, pel quale intravidi la possibilità di comprendere la vita, di potervi trovare quel valore, senza del quale ogni altra cosa non ha pregio. A questi dati se ne potrebbero aggiungere molti altri. Qui, tuttavia, per ragioni di tempo e di spazio, occorre prescindere da una approfondita analisi delle rispettive biografie teoretiche e del contesto. E, poi, per lo stesso motivo, si rende necessaria una ulteriore limitazione del discorso al solo rapporto C.-Michelstaedter-Gentile, anche perché Ruiz non ha lasciato un grosso volume sistematico, ma solo volumi di saggi; e quanto a Conoscenza e moralità, che già subito non lo appagava più egli stesso lo considera un saggio, non un trattato; e, poi, egli è non tanto un filosofo sistematico (come H. P. Grice), quanto un fine e colto letterato, un autore di prosa morale o di polemica anti-ntellettualistica o di discussione su problemi di estetica e di critica d’arte Infine, tutta la sua opera è pervasa sin dai suoi momenti iniziali da una polemica coi suoi più vicini maestri: CROCE (si veda) e Gentile; invece, le posizioni speculative di C. presentano tratti più sistematici, rientrano nel grande alveo dei motivi tipicamente attualistici e culminano con maggior consapevolezza ed esiti più cospicui in un tentativo di rielaborazione, di compiuta espressione dell’idealismo. Qui, come termine di riferimento e di confronto, occorre prendere in considerazione l’insegnamento di Gentile negli anni in cui la sua attività didattica e scientifica trovò il suo più maturo affermarsi, a partire a Roma. Sono, infatti, gli anni in cui si pongono le basi di un fitto tessuto di relazioni che interviene a connettere C. a Gentile, in un rapporto che diventerà sempre di più assiduo, “amichevole e confidente”. La prima domanda da porsi, per sgomberare il terreno da equivoci, è di sapere, attraverso l’analisi puntuale dei principali documenti letterari, quali furono il consenso e i punti di dissenso. Ma vediamo i termini del discorso, senza perdere il contatto con i testi. Gentile si occupa ripetutamente di Michelstaedter. Su sollecitazione di C., che si era iscritto in Filosofia, a Roma dopo averne letto i testi e ascoltato le lezioni, interviene presso Vallecchi, una delle sue cittadelle editoriali, per caldeggiare l’edizione de LA PERSUASIONE E LA RETTORICA data effettivamente alle stampe; in lettera a C.) chiede allo stesso C. di redigere per l’enciclopedia Italiana la voce Michelstaedter di 10 linee, e qualche giorno dopo decide di elevare lo spazio per la stessa voce a 30 righe. Poi, recensisce l’opera di Michelstaedter data alle stampe per i tipi della Vallecchi. Nel farlo, tributa innanzitutto elogi all’iniziativa ad opera di un fido gruppo di amici di Michelstaedter; rileva subito dopo che si tratta di uno scritto giovanile in cui non c’è un approfondimento metodico degli argomenti trattati, e né un loro sviluppo sistematico. Infine, prende in considerazione “il problema dell’opposizione tra la persuasione vera, che corrisponde al possesso della vita, e la falsa persuasione, scopo della rettorica”. Per Gentile, in Michelstaedter la persuasione serve ad indicare il fatto che il “possesso della realtà e della verità...non cerca vanamente fuori di sé il suo mondo”, ma è caratteristica della sufficienza, dell’autarchia, come dissero i greci. La persuasione del vero sapere, come lo intuì e lo volle Socrate, tranquillo, sereno, saldo sul punto che è il centro del suo mondo: nel suo animo”. Di contro, la rettorica è espressione dell’individualità illusoria, inganna e s’inganna, è superficiale, prende il posto del vero sapere, si prende “gioco dell’uomo, gli fa credere di vivere in mezzo ai piaceri; la rettorica uccide la vita, irretisce l’uomo “nella vana teoria dei concetti, sdoppia il sapere e la vita, oppone alle cose direttamente affermate il pensiero che afferma le cose” e così mostra “l’insufficienza delle cose che hanno nella persona il loro correlato e l’insufficienza della persona, che ha nelle cose il suo termine integrante. Tuttavia, per Gentile, anche se il Michelstaedter sceglie giustamente a suo bersaglio la rettorica, alla quale dedica gran parte delle proprie forze speculative e del proprio lavoro di tesi, non ha né tempo né animo per considerare direttamente e con pari studio la persuasione. Sono accenni qua e là, e qualche spunto del suo pensiero positivo si può scorgere nelle Appendici e, più precisamente, ne Il prediletto punto d’appoggio della dialettica socratica. La persuasione, è vero, dice Gentile, viene definita come caratteristica di chi permane. L’unica via di chi permane è la sua forza; la forza di non asservirsi al futuro, e tenere raccolta nel presente la propria vita. Ma qui si ha a che fare con una immagine poetica, non con un concetto filosoficamente dimostrato; permangono perciò interrogativi sul cos’è la vita, questo permanere, ecc. Il merito indiscusso di Michelstaedter, il suo guadagno speculativo più cospicuo, secondo Gentile, consiste nel mettere in rilievo un universale aspetto di verità, che consiste nel fatto che l’uomo “rientra in se stesso, liberandosi della rettorica e gettando la salda ancora della vita nel porto della persuasione. Quali sono le reazioni di C. a questo giudizio di Gentile Uno sguardo da vicino all’elenco dei suoi scritti e una loro attenta analisi consente di accertare che la sua personalità speculativa, ma anche quella di Ruiz, nasce dall’incontro con Michelsteadter, cioè d’un humus fortemente sentimentale, e il suo culto per l’amico comune resta fino all’ultimo sempre vivo. Entrambi gli autori, poi, pur se procedono con diversa, e non certo marginale, fisionomia sistematica e speculativa, fanno proprie le istanze teoretiche gentiliane centrali e le affrontano sotto le suggestioni di Michelstaedter, nel tentativo di riguadagnare, come nel caso di C., l’essenza dell’attualismo e così d’offrire un contributo, perfettamente consentaneo, alla sua più compiuta espressione. L’intero percorso speculativo di C., ad esempio, manifesta fino in fondo la fedeltà a conservare queste istanze, comunque egli si muova, quali che siano gli andarivieni del suo pensiero. In particolare, egli dà alle stampe nella “Rivista di cultura”, di cui Gentile è membro del comitato di redazione, un testo intitolato Le due nature. In esso, egli affronta il problema del rapporto tra finito e infinito, sostenendo che “l’infinito ideale non può realizzarsi come immanente al finito, ma come immanente alla negazione del finito. Il testo viene pubblicato con una postilla dello stesso Gentile, in cui il filosofo siciliano lo invita a non insistere tanto sulle differenze tra le sue posizioni e quelle dell’attualismo e, soprattutto, ad approfondire meglio gli aspetti relativi al ruolo della “negatività nella dialettica propria dell’idealismo”, con particolare riferimento al tema dell’attuosità dell’atto, della negazione in cui si deve cogliere una attività che passa e supera il limite che si è posto e si afferma nella “sua libertà da ogni limite”, come valore o realtà infinita, laddove il finito non rinvia ad una trascendenza, ma è il “campo nel quale si celebra e trionfa la potenza dello spirito nella sua concretezza”. Dopo questo intervento, due anni dopo, e sulla scia evidente delle sollecitazioni di Gentile, nel Giornale critico della filosofia italiana, la rivista fondata e diretta dallo stesso Gentile, C. dà alle stampe un corposo articolo su Michelstaedter in cui cerca di mostrare, rispondendo ai rilievi critici del suo maestro siciliano, che il pensiero di Michelstaedter non è riconducibile ad una realtà negativa, ma è la positività dell’atto negante, in quanto vero atto, cioè vita; esso non è “pura negatività”, e tutta la sua novità consiste nel fatto che il positivo di Michelstaedter è l’attività che crea se stessa dal nulla” e perciò è senza condizioni o, in termini gentiliani, “libertà senza limiti”. Tutto il testo di C. è una serrata, e pacata, replica e a Gentile, in cui si pone il problema di precisare e difendere le giuste esigenze, quasi come una esplicitazione in positivo del pensiero di Michelstaedter e in particolare come una prosecuzione della sua tesi sulla persuasione e la retorica.Già il titolo dell’articolo di C. è una risposta a Gentile, che nega al Michelstaedter l’esistenza di una vera e propria dottrina filosofica, d’un approfondimento metodico e d’uno sviluppo sistematico e parla piuttosto di personalità filosofica. Per C., invece, Michelstaedter non parla direttamente della persuasione, ma non per questo è giusto dire che ne dia pochi cenni della persuasione si parla in tutto il saggio, perché essa è il criterio della lotta contro la rettorica”. Egli non ne fa la teoria, come non fa la teoria del positivo della PERSUASIONE, così si rifuta di considerarne il risultato, come un fatto staccato dal processo”. Il criterio che Michelstaedter usa non è una nuova teoria accanto a tante altre teorie che si sono avute nel corso della storia del pensiero, ma “è Michelstaedter stesso vivente. Filosofia non sistematica, perché ogni sua affermazione è il sistema, e il suo organismo vivo che non può contraddirsi”; e perciò la definizione della persuasione risulta “da tutto il saggio”. Una tale filosofia, nel nucleo essenziale del suo pensiero, è l’attività vera, la vita, non ha fuori di sé la vita “perché deve essere essa la vita. La via della persuasione è se stessa e non ha un fine fuori di sé. Essa intanto è la vita dell’infinito nell’individuo finito, è la vera vita del finito: è processo, vita. Michelstaedter non è un mistico; il suo ideale non è un qualcosa di trascendente, “ma è la realtà stessa più profonda del soggetto; quel che egli nega del particolare è insieme affermazione, come dice l’idealismo. Si nega la particolarità del particolare, nella sua [C., Michelstaedter, Giornale critico della filosofia italiana, pretesa immediata, quel che si afferma è quel che implicitamente è in lui di universale, senza di che non puo neppure esser particolare: è lo sviluppo della sua parte migliore che dormiva. Quel che di lui perisce era quel che non valeva, che non era mai stato reale: quel che del particolare ci deve premere, la sua aspirazione all’universalità, quella non perisce, ma s’invera. E’ in fondo quel che dice Gentile stesso quando parla dell’immortalità”. Questo particolare, questo esserci del mondo come particolare, come finito, non è possibile senza “la richiesta dell’universale”, è “il campo in cui lo spirito si celebra e trionfa è il lampo che rompe la nebbia; è sviluppo spirituale, mondo come fare non come è dato. La convergenza delle due posizioni, e su punti e aspetti decisivi della vulgata attualistica, diventa qui profonda. In concreto, l’idea di individuo, non più un essere naturale e che “non si restringe nei limiti del particolare: perché egli non può né pensare, né sentire, né altrimenti realizzarsi, che in un modo universale, caposaldo e tipica espressione dell’attualismo gentiliano chiamata in causa nel testo di C., viene pienamente accolta. E si pongono così le basi di un consenso che non si discosterà molto negli ulteriori svolgimenti del confronto tra i due autori. Per cogliere ulteriormente i tratti principali del consenso tra Gentile e C., al di là dei punti di convergenza fin qui messi in risalto, è necessario tener presente i principali scritti di Gentile di quegli anni, in cui la sua attività didattica e scientifica “trovò…il suo primo affermarsi con volontà rivoluzionaria. Si determinava una svolta essenziale del suo pensiero e della sua azione. Gentile, infatti, inizia il corso di storia della filosofia. E, nel concludere la sua prolusione, traccia le linee direttrici per un programma di rinnovamento della filosofia, con l’intento di rifare l’uomo intero, che senta come pensa, e operi come parla, perché il vecchio letterato è morto l’accademia e la filosofia d’eruditi devono essere davvero un passato irrevocabile: la vita deve diventare una milizia continua. Come documento più significativo di questa svolta può essere preso il proemio del primo numero del Giornale critico della filosofia italiana, la rivista della Scuola romana gentiliana, in cui viene portato avanti lo stesso discorso della prolusione. Non a caso, in esso, Gentile propone di guardare all’avvenire” per incominciare una nuova vita, uscendo dall’individualismo e dall’egoismo. E, per farlo, egli dice, occorreprecisare il rapporto tra scienza e filosofia, contrapponendo le due forme di sapere. Da una parte c’è la scienza e dall’altra LA FILOSOFIA. La prima presuppone il proprio oggetto di conoscenza ed è analisi disgregatrice sintesi impotente a ricreare la vita distrutta la quale se potesse veramente realizzare il suo stesso ideale, sarebbe affatto morta e quindi inesistente: critica presuntuosa, intenta a rendersi conto della vita restandone fuori; la seconda, invece, e lo stesso discorso vale per la religione, non presuppone, ma PONE; non guarda, ma crea; non analizza perciò, ma vive; non è astratta teoria, ma teoria che è prassi. Il problema di questo rapporto è un principio essenziale dell’attualismo e costituisce l’aspetto fondamentale del programma della nuova rivista. Gentile parla qui di sviluppo dialettico che si risolve e si supera in un dramma eterno, che, proprio perché continuo superamento, rinvia necessariamente al continuo superato, all'oggetto nel soggetto. Cosicché la realtà, o atto spirituale, è una unità, ma non una mera unità immediata, bensì unità del suo opposto, ossia della molteplicità. Tale idea di uno svolgimento dialettico dello spirito, ribadita a più riprese, significa che la filosofia non è più "teoria e contemplazione del mondo, ma solo azione e creazione del mondo stesso. Azione che non è, tuttavia, un immediato agire, bensì coscienza d’agire. Tanto che, come afferma SPIRITO (si veda), l'idealismo trionfa veramente di ogni intellettualismo non in quanto esso rimane una teoria dell'atto, ma solo in quanto si attua, sicché il suo valore teoretico è assolutamente nulla (intellettualismo) se non diventa etico (attualismo). Gentile insiste, in altre parole, sul valore dell’attività creatrice dell’uomo e sviluppa il concetto di un mondo che noi facciamo e dobbiamo fare. Anzi, esso è l’unico veramente esistente. Tutto il suo pensiero, perciò, è caratterizzato dall’esigenza pedagogica e dal posto che il problema dell’educazione occupa nella sua speculazione, che è così ”il massimo centro della sua concezione” e mette in luce “la finalità più profonda del suo pensiero, tutta raccolta in quell’umanesimo, che dà significato fin da principio alla teoria e alla storiografia dell’attualismo. La vita spirituale è educazione, anzi autoeducazione questa affermazione non ha un significato parziale, e relativo ad una determinata questione, ma rappresenta l’essenza del concetto di spirito che qualifica tutto il pensiero del Gentile. E, perciò, per intenderne a fondo il senso e l’importanza, occorre ”guardare al lato più propriamente etico della sua filosofia: a quello cioè per cui la filosofia, essendo giunta alla completa liquidazionedel vecchio significato intellettualistico, si afferma come identica alla vita, come il valore stesso della vita. La filosofia di Gentile è tutta etica o meglio pedagogia. Poiché una filosofia che non è concetto della realtà, ma auto-concetto, non può essere più teoria e contemplazione del mondo, ma solo azione e creazione del mondo stesso. In forza di queste considerazioni, è chiaro che non si può indulgere a nessuna inerzia. Una tale filosofia, infatti, non può risolversi più in una pura e semplice contemplazione. Prima il filosofo poteva rintanarsi nell’ozio speculativo, far propria una ideologia estetizzante da filosofo-letterato, ed avere come unico compito quello di guardare e giudicare, per intendere una realtà altra ed indipendente da lui. Si trova così dinanzi a sé un mondo già dato, che per il suo stesso esserci limitava e vanificava la libertà dell’uomo. Con Gentile, invece, cessa ogni dualismo e ogni astratto concetto di filosofia. Quest’ultima, anzi, diventa, azione consapevole di sé, vita umana, sociale, e quindi anche educazione e politica. Vi è identità di conoscere e fare e viene meno la separazione meccanicistica, e con essa ogni residuo dualistico, tra le varie sfere dell’attività umana; perciò filosofo, educatore e politico diventano tutti termini sinonimi di uomo. Noi siamo artefici assolutamente liberi e responsabili del nostro mondo e di conseguenza natura, società, storia, ecc. non costituiscono più un limite. Tutto, infatti, è assolutamente immanente nel nostro io più intimo. La nostra stessa umanità non è più quella degl’uomini presi nel loro atomismo particolaristico, ma quella della nostra personalità, più profonda che non è di fronte ad altre personalità, ma tutte le affratella raccogliendole nel suo seno in una vita unica che deve farsi sempre più una, e cioè sempre meno particolare ed egoista. Così viene vanificata la nozione individualistica della persona, nel tentativo di guadagnare una societas in interiore homine, perché, per usare le stesse parole del Gentile della teoria generale dello spirito come atto puro: altri, oltre di noi, non ci può essere, parlando a rigore, se noi lo conosciamo, e ne parliamo. Conoscere è identificare, superare l’alterità come tale. L’altro è semplicemente una tappa attraverso di cui noi dobbiamo passare, se dobbiamo obbedire alla natura immanente del nostro spirito: ma passare, non fermarci. Questo stesso concetto, poi, verrà ripreso e ulteriormente approfondito in Genesi e struttura della società, dove si afferma che l’individuo non da considerare come un atomo; ad esso, infatti, è: immanente al concetto di individuo è il concetto di società. Perché non c’è io, in cui si realizzi individuo, che non abbia, non seco, ma in sé medesimo, un alter, che è il suo essenziale socius. L’uomo, allora, non può più rinchiudersi nella sua angustaempiricità e nella sua particolare competenza, ma deve invece realizzare se stesso e la propria personalità nella coscienza di una vita universale. Gentile, secondo SPIRITO (si veda), non solo è pervenuto a questo nuovo concetto della realtà, ma con la propria vita ci ha dato l’esempio per l’attuazione più alta e coerente della nuova idealità. In lui filosofia e politica, vita individuale e vita sociale si sono realizzate nella sintesi più concreta e consapevole. Egli, perciò, nel significato più proprio dell’espressione hegeliana, è un individuo portatore dello spirito; anzi, è il simbolo, e, meglio, che il simbolo, l’iniziatore di una nuova Italia, perché la sua umanità non si riduce ad una vuota e vaga astrazione, ma egli è un uomo intero, appunto perché è quella universalità che si concretizza nella storia e nell’individuo...vive concretandosi nell’individuo. Il che, nei suoi termini essenziali, non è altro che lo stesso discorso che C. aveva svolto nel suo articolo. Per il filosofo fiorentino, infatti, come abbiamo avuto modo di vederlo più sopra, anche Michelstaedter non elabora una teoria della persuasione, e il criterio che egli usa è Michelstaedter stesso vivente. Filosofia non sistematica, perché ogni sua affermazione è il sistema, e il suo organismo vivo che non può contraddirsi; e il nucleo essenziale del suo pensiero, quindi, è l’attività vera, la vita, che non ha fuori di sé la vita perché deve essere essa la vita. La via della persuasione è se stessa e non ha un fine fuori di sé. Essa intanto è la vita dell’infinito nell’individuo finito, è la vera vita del finito: è processo, vita. Lo stesso tema verrà ulteriormente ripreso da C. Illusione e realtà, e sua prima opera sistematica di filosofia, per usare un’espressione di GARIN (si veda), può essere intesa come una sorta di esplicitazione in positivo dela filosofia di Michelstaedter e in particolare come una prosecuzione della sua tesi su La persuasione e la retorica volta a metterne in risalto gli aspetti per così dire positivi, cioè il tema della persuasione. Dà alle stampe un Saggio sulla natura dell’uomo, Firenze, Sansoni, animato dal proposito di tradurre nella tensione dialettica di natura/uomo la precedente coppia di termini illusione/realtà e, così, di continuare la chiarificazione delle principali istanze michelstadteriane in rapporto alle posizioni gentiliane. Tale compito campeggia sin dalle prime battute discorsive del saggio, che perciò viene presentato come una visione di scorcio, un discorso che dovrebbe riuscire ad una riaffermazione di idealismo. Nell’Epilogo, poi, il risultato dell’argomentazione discorsiva, considerato nelle sue rigorose e ultime conseguenze, lo porta ad individuare nell’atto gentiliano, ossia in quella che egli chiama la ragione poetica, il punto focale della riflessione attorno a cui disegnare il tracciato del confronto Michelstaedter-Gentile. E questo atto consiste in una liberazione e in un distacco da tutto ciò che è caduco e relativo; epperò, nello stesso tempo, conduce a vivere con altra mente la vita che ci troviamo a vivere, un consistere nel qualunque punto la sorte ci abbia gettato, è accettazione, perché tale atto “non cerca nulla fuori di sè e l’unica sua gioia – unica pura gioia, se tale può dirsi – è lo stesso suo puro conoscere, la stessa sua assoluta liberazione interiore. In un altro saggio, apparso ancora una volta nel Giornale critico della filosofia italiana, C. affronta di nuovo, e non a caso, Il centro della speculazione gentiliana: l’attualità dell’atto. Nel farlo ammette che il centro dell’attualismo è l’attualità dell’atto, ossia l’affermare la realtà come un unico processo, un perenne farsi quel che deve essere e non è, atto come processo che è “assoluto possesso, realtà attuale immanente al suo farsi. Per spiegare come sia da intendere questa affermazione di carattere fondamentale, C. analizza alcuni dei principali testi di GENTILE (vedasi). Mette in evidenza, poi, che la realtà di cui il filosofo di Castelvetrano [“As Strawson referred to me, ‘the philosopher from Halborne’” – Grice] parla non è un fatto, ma libera creatività che sfugge ad ogni metro di criterio preconcetto, e che, per comprenderlo, bisogna rivivere dal di dentro. In questo processo, il finito, l’io empirico, il mondo, “che deve essere negato nella sua pretesa sufficienza, nella sua pretesa di sostituirsi all’infinito”, non viene abolito, ma acquista tutto il suo valore, quando, vedendosene l’insufficienza in sé, è considerato nel suo essenziale rapporto con l’infinito...perché visto con altri occhi nella sua vera realtà. Per C., in questo consiste la verità elementare e il valore incontestabile, positivo, di ciò che il gentilianesimo indica quando parla di attualità dell’atto. Non più filosofia in senso logico, ma vita in atto, attività giudicante e nello stesso tempo attività creatrice. Questo è l’aspetto più importante, avvincente e persuasivo, ossia il concetto della processualità dello spirito, in cui “il processo è veduto come perenne farsi, come assoluta perenne novità, e al tempo stesso come assoluta unità, come un nuovo che è sempre identico, un conoscere che è nello stesso tempo fare e vivere. In questa concezione, per C. sembra annidarsi, comunque, una difficoltà di fondo, cioè: anche l’attualità dell’atto sembra essere una forma di mediazione, di logica, e quindi in definitiva di oggetto; e perciò sembra cadere nell’accusa di panlogismo già rivolta a suo tempo contro la filosofia hegeliana. Ma questa difficoltà si supera se si tien conto che per Gentile l’attualità non è da considerare come una cosa, ma come “spirito, non fatto ma atto, farsi. Viene facilmente pensato che questa sia la nuova mediazione; giacché un farsi, un divenire, non può essere in sé un immediato, ma deve essere passaggio in atto dal non essere all’essere...Ma anche questa è mediazione logica. La soluzione di questo problema è di capitale importanza per poter intendere effettivamente il pensiero di Gentile e per far si che esso non sia da abbandonare come una realtà del passato definitivamente tramontato, ma sia più vivo che mai. Per sciogliere i nodi del problema e dissipare i dubbi, in modo da comprendere l’essenza stessa del nucleo centrale dell’attualismo, occorre tener presente che la mediazione attuale, di cui parla Gentile, nel caratterizzare il suo modo di intendere l’atto in atto, è una mediazione non di opposizione, ma di distinzione, in cui non si afferma né si nega più, ma si vive direttamente, si possiede la propria vita, in quanto si vive la vita altrui, e si vive l’altrui in quanto si vive la nostra. Questo è il vero e incontestabile attualismo, ossia lo spirito che sempre si fa, sempre non è, e che pure giunge a vivere questo suo non essere (cioè questo suo superare il finito) come l’eterna assoluta realtà (cioè come vita del finito in cui si realizza l’infinito. Nei testi Filosofia dell’arte e Genesi e struttura della società, in particolare, C. trova conferma a questa sua rilettura del Gentile, soprattutto quando si parla nell’ultima opera del filosofo siciliano dell’individuo all’interno della società trascendentale o societas in interiore homine: “la realtà, che è spirito, è originariamente, già nel suo principio, non un’unità semplice, un io indivisibile, un individuo atomistico: ma è unità fra un io e un altro che noi portiamo dentro di noi, una società orginaria per la quale soltanto ci possono essere l’io e l’altro. Si tratta di fondare una società, in cui l’io, essendo conciliato con se stesso, si trova anche conciliato con gli altri, e la vita di ciascuno è la stessa, identica vita di tutti. Solo nella misura in cui l’uomo giunge a realizzare se stesso, si crea per lui una più vera e libera società in cui l’uomo non è homini lupus, ma io nella sua più vera realtà, ora consapevole e perciò soltanto ora veramente reale nella sua concreta individualità. Si tratta in altri termini di una dialettica tra logo e attualità o attualità dell’atto, che consente al Gentile, secondo C., di prendere le distanze e di realizzare un fondamentale progresso rispetto allo stesso Hegel. Gli stessi termini fondamentali del lessico gentiliano fin qui illustrati (ma poi anche quelli di illusione e realtà traducono in linguaggo attualistico la distinzione michelstaedteriana tra persuasione (vita del finito in cui si realizza l’infinito, campo in cui lo spirito si celebra e trionfa) e rettorica (affernazione illusoria di vita, individuo atomistico, ecc.). A ulteriore dimostrazione di quanto fin qui affermato, c’è un altro testo di C., significativamente intitolato L’INDIVIDUO [cf. Grice on Strawson, INDIVIDUAL]. L’individuo, in cui sin dalle prime battute discorsive si dice che non si comprende Michelstaedter se non si comprende cosa significhi per lui individuo. Per cogliere il vero senso del pensiero di Michelstaedter, occorre allora tener presente che egli è un uomo d’azione: il suo parlare è agire un imperativo dunque, volto a creare una nuova realtà, in cui il mondo e gli altri siano a lui identici, siano una cosa sola con lui, in quanto egli abbia raggiunto una vita che abbia in sé la ragione, e che perciò sia giusta verso tutti, perché abbia raggiunto quel valore individuale che fa vivere ‘le cose lontane. E, nella stessa pagina, nell’intento di mettere a in luce e cogliere il vero significato del pensiero di Michelstaedter, C. ribadisce ulteriormente che il valore individuale è la concreta consapevolezza che la nostra essenziale esigenza trascende ogni singola determinazione. In tal modo si porta a una decisione la nostra vita,...allora la coscienza acquisterà un’unità reale, che né spazio e né tempo potranno minacciare, e il molteplice del mondo s’unifica anch’esso e si fa a noi interiore. Giunti fin qui, il quadro che nei suoi tratti più peculiari ci si presenta agl’occhi, in particolare dopo la sintetica analisi svolta di alcuni dei passi fondamentali e della vulgata attualistica e dei testi dati alle stampe da C. nell’arco di alcuni decenni, è quello di un tentativo di riguadagnare il più profondo significato dell’attualismo. C., in altri termini, riprende un motivo tipicamente attualistico, espressione di quell’idealismo che egli considera come la più ricca eredità tramandataci dalla storia della filosofia moderna, e cerca di mostrare i legami di fondo che stringono Gentile a Michelstaedter. Colloca così in primo piano i punti di forza del momento della persuasione e, nello stesso tempo, del momento dell’attualità dell’atto per mostrare in che misura entrambi convergono, seguitando a dare frutti. Di Michelstaedter accentua, prolunga e rinnova il problema della persuasione e di Gentile quello dell’atto in atto, che si fa continuamente, che è vita. Il suo intento è quello di collocarsi all'interno dell'attualismo nell'intento di chiarirne alcuni suoi problemi fondamentali, per cogliere il senso più pieno, più recondito, del lascito gentiliano - e de La persuasione e la rettorica - e di non lasciare che esso venga ridotto a teoria, ad una chiusura sinteticistica o una formulistica ripetuta pedissequamente. Lo stesso Gentile, per C., non sempre ha piena coscienza degl’ulteriori svolgimenti impliciti nel suo discorso sulla affermazione dell’attualità dell’atto, e ancor di più ai suoi seguaci è sfuggito il significato profondo di questa sua conquista, ma questo non autorizza ad arrestarsi alla lettera del suo discorso, ad una ripetizione puramente verbale di ciò che egli disse. Anzi, proprio questo “sarebbe non solo tradire lo spirito del suo pensiero, ma addirittura contravvenire al suo esplicito imperativo, di superare perennemente le forme individuate in cui il pensiero via via si realizza. Così C. ritiene di poter cogliere negli scritti di Michelsteadter una forme maitresse, la cui chiave d’oro è data dal significato che quest’ultimo attribuisce all’individuo, come una di quelle verità fondamentali che una volta scorte non possono più essere perse di vista, ma che possono essere pienamente accolte e fatte oggetto soltanto di ulteriori svolgimenti e approfondimenti. Questa caratterizzazione dell’individuo, non più inteso come atomo e che perciò non può più rinchiudersi nella sua angusta empiricità, ma deve realizzare se stesso nella coscienza di una vita universale - cioè far si che nasca in noi una nuova realtà, così che il mondo sia con noi una sola cosa, e che perciò sceglie di permanere, sceglie l’ora, il qui, convertendoli in sempre e dovunque: sceglie la qualunque situazione che si trova a vivere, e esaurisce in essa l’infinita sua esigenza: far finito l’infinito, far vicine le cose lontane, rientra, sul terreno speculativo, nel grande alveo della teoresi gentiliana, della sua dottrina dell’atto puro, e rivela una profonda e sostanziale convergenza con essa, al di là di un differente uso terminologico e d’enunciazioni gentiliane non sempre rigorosamente univoche. Nei saggi successivi, fino ad arrivare agli ultimi dati alle stampe, C. conferma e sviluppa ulteriormente queste posizioni, sempre sullo sfondo del dialogo con Michelstaedter e con Gentile, ancora una volta nel tentativo di conciliarne le esigenze di fondo. Così in un saggio, significativamente incentrato su L’eredità di Gentile, si propone il compito di individuare e descrivere ciò che deve al filosofo di Castelvetrano. E nel farlo afferma senza mezzi termini. Se mi domando che cosa debba al pensiero filosofico di Gentile, quale mi sembri essere il nucleo più vitale della sua dottrina, che egli lascia come preziosa eredità a quelli che son rimasti dopo di lui, e che sentono l’impegno di non disperderlo, così come i figli buoni sentono il dovere di non dilapidare, ma anzi accrescere, il patrimonio che il padre per amor loro onestamente aveva guadagnato e saggiamente risparmiato, non trovo, a voler tutto restringere in una parola, risposta più esatta di questa: la dottrina dell’atto puro. Su questo terreno speculativo, la chiave di volta è l’io; ed è un io senza residui intellettualistici che, per poter assolvere opportunamente il suo compito e realizzarsi senza impietrarsi, non deve avere alcuna realtà presupposta, ma deve reintegrare la realtà dell’oggetto, senza farne un presupposto del soggetto, nè in ogni modo qualcosa fuori di questo. Si tratta qui di un io il cui carattere peculiare è di avere una infinita apertura e attualità - che si sottrae alle leggi precostituite di una logica formale, di una natura presupposta, di un mondo di idee già codificato e platonicamente costruito sin dall’eternità, che si alimenta tutto e sempre sull’infinita, indefettibile, unica attualità dell’atto e consiste nell’essere l’io pensante nelle sue infinite individuazioni storiche” o la consapevolezza che l’atto ha di sè come forma immanente dello stesso suo concreto e individuato agire, assoluta responsabilità di chi si assume attualmente la responsabilità della propria vita nel cui infinito anelito è implicata la vita dell’universo. Sicché non può esservi altro che un’eternità che sia il senso immanente della temporalità un infinito che si realizzi nel finito redimendone la finitudine; e questo è il guadagno speculativo più cospicuo dell’attualismo gentiliano, ossia la più esauriente risposta alla ricerca del pensiero moderno, e tale da aprire la possibilità dei più felici sviluppi. Tuttavia, secondo C., il filosofo siciliano non è riuscito a dare alla propria riflessione una formulazione in tutto e per tutto univoca; e anzi ha mantenuto aperte due possibilità interpretative, che hanno dato vita ad altrettante enunciazioni del suo pensiero, col rischio di invalidarne le ragioni più genuine e geniali. In particolare, Gentile non avrebbe assolto pienamente al proprio compito di riformare la dialettica hegeliana: avrebbe sì investito in maniera efficace e acuta Hegel dell’accusa d’intellettualismo, per esser eglrimasto legato ad una dialettica del pensato, ma poi non avrebbe tratto tutte le conseguenze di questa sua battaglia e sarebbe ricaduto egli stesso in una dialettica a sua volta intellettualistica, cioè in “una teoria del reale che non è essa stessa il movimento per il quale il reale è; è il concetto dell’autoconcetto, per dirla con Gentile¸ e cioè non l’autoconcetto stesso, che per essere tale non può essere concetto, ma autocoscienza superante il concetto. In altri termini, una volta intesa veramente la dialettica come dialettica del pensare, nella sua attualità, come vita dell’atto che è conceptus sui, questa attuosità non può essere colta da una teoria ad essa staccata e sopranuotante che trascenda e definisca il tutto, ricomponendo in sintesi la tesi e l’antitesi e ponendosi come terzo rispetto ai due momenti. Cosi facendo, per C., si ricade soltanto, e ancora una volta, in una forma di platonismo o di dualismo; invece, la vita interiore dell’atto o, meglio, della soggettività dell’io trascendentale “non può esser conosciuta che per la consapevolezza che il soggetto ha di sé senza oggettivarsi, consapevolezza immanente al processo, in cui un momento in tanto è se stesso, in quanto è conscio del suo rapporto all’altro, così che il soggetto come vivente relazione non è terzo oltre i due momenti, ma è tra i due momenti stessi, che in tanto sono due in quanto ciascuno di essi è per se stesso il vivente rapporto di sé all’altro. La dialettica dell’Atto non può essere che una monodiade. Il passo che Gentile deve compiere per condurre a rigorosa coerenza il suo discorso filosofico consiste nel far propria l’esigenza di una dialettica attuale, fra momenti attualmente vissuti nella loro reale soggettività la dialettica triadica degl’opposti era un dannoso impaccio; occorre intendere l’atto come il vivente attuale processo unitario in cui gli oppos ti si trasfigura non in distinti, in quanto l’io, realizzando la proprio apertura infinita, supera le determinazioni intellettive e attua quella coincidenza di individuale e di universale, così profondamente vista e così suggestivamente proclamata tante volte da Gentile, la quale mal si concilia con la solitudine del logo come sintesi. Essa richiede invece un interiore dialogo fra logo e sentimento, che ben si può scorgere nel più profondo dell’esigenza gentiliana. Solo così, ossia liberando la dialettica dai residui intellettualistici che ancora ne gravano la comprensione e il pieno sviluppo, è possibile riaprire il discorso e operare un rinnovamento dall’interno dell’attualismo, per farne fruttificare il lascito più genuino e importante. E questo è appunto l’intenzione fondamentale che pervade anche gl’altri, successivi, saggi di C. - tutti volti alla miglior comprensione e all’approfondimento delle stesse istanze speculative – che aspira a connotarsiquesta sua più significativa e innovativa scoperta; ed egli resta in definitiva ancora impigliato nelle stesse difficoltà di Hegel. Per rendersi conto di queste conclusioni, secondo C. occorre porsi all’interno della filosofia di Gentile e prendere in esame il problema del processo dialettico dell’autoconcetto, che è, appunto, il problema dell’intuizione, ossia dello spirito che vive nell’intuizione; e poi è necessario cercare di rispondere all’interrogativo sul modo in cui l’io distingue se stesso dal suo opposto, e nascano insieme soggetto e oggetto, nasce cioè la coscienzacome restitutrice del loro peculiare pregio ai motivi più propri dell’attualità dell’atto, per così dire mortificati da certe inadeguatezze, difficoltà di interpretazione, incomprensioni. In un altro, denso e complesso, saggio su L’autocoscienza nella filosofia di Gentile, le posizioni fin qui prese in esame ricompaiono, imperniate sul bisogno di fornire ulteriori precisazioni e sviluppi alle stesse istanze teoretiche. Esse, infatti, ruotano sempre attorno al problema dell’atto e ai vari aspetti ad esso strettamente correlati, e si concentrano soprattutto sulla dottrina dell’autocoscienza e sulle sue articolazioni, perché essa, in quanto “intimità soggettiva dell’atto del pensare, in cui consiste l’essenza e l’esistenza concreta dell’io, diviene il centro che sostiene la realtà di tutto l’universo. Per C., tuttavia, nonostante che attorno a questo problema graviti tutto il pensiero gentiliano, negli scritti del filosofo siciliano, tranne qualche sporadico cenno, non compare una esposizione adeguata del modo in cui l’io trascendentale ha coscienza di se stesso. Nella teoria generale dello spirito come atto puro, nel Sommario di pedagogia e in qualche altra opera, ad esempio, si dice quà e là, e in maniera stringata, che l’io, l’atto, in quanto realtà presa nella sua infinità, come tutto, non è oggettivabile e che la vita dello spirito si conosce per via di intuizione, ma non vi è mai una esposizione e una trattazione esplicita di questo aspetto. In Gentile, poi, si dice anche che non v’è conoscenza che non sia logica, mediazione; e si riconosce che ogni grado della consapevolezza (sensazione, percezione, rappresentazione, intuizione, sentimento, e così via) è cosciente perché si tratta di distinzioni relative di certi atti psichici con certi altri, e in quanto tali, sul terreno del logo astratto, esse sono sempre espressione di un pensiero logico. Tuttavia, affinché l’atto spirituale sia veramente uno, questa distinzione per gradi tipica della psicologia empirica e di una concezione analitica dell’anima umana, nell’attualismo viene abbandonata. In forza di queste considerazioni, Gentile, secondo C., per evitare di ricadere in una visione cristallizata dell’atto e così di considerarlo come mero fatto, oggetto tra oggetti, individua e ammette nell’intuizione una forma di logo che non è quella astratta del logo oggettivo, epperò la traduce in termini diversi da quello di intuizione, ossia con auto-concetto, facendo valere la distinzione tra pensiero pensante e pensiero pensato. Tuttavia, pur se questa via è in profonda dissonanza con i modelli della comune concezione psicologica precedente, sfugge al Gentile la piena portata. Per C., la distinzione tra i due termini del discorso emerge in chiaro soltanto nel momento in cui c’è una forma dell’io che conosce se stesso distinta da quella con cui l’io conosce l’oggetto, perché nel lessico gergale idealistico, stricto sensu parlando, l’io non ha alcun contenuto; la realtà si risolve tutta nell’io, in quanto forma e contenuto si identificano. Questo è un aspetto che orienta tutto il quadro di pensiero di Gentile - e su cui egli è costantemente ritornato, sottolineando l’esigenza unitaria e monistica della sua filosofia – la cui chiarificazione comporta la necessità di precisare come concepire l’autocoscienza e quell’autotrasparenza per la quale mentre vive la sua conoscenza delle cose, sa di essere in atto di conoscerle” .Si tratta qui di una iniziale intuizione di sé, che si svela ancora una volta come un atto logico, perché senza la mediazione propria del pensiero pensato, concettuale e oggettivante, non ci sarebbe neppure l’intuizione del soggetto. Questo atto iniziale però ha un carattere intuitivo, la cui peculiarità diventa ben distinguibile se si prende in esame il processo della conoscenza sin dal suo primo momento e se si tien conto, secondo C., di come a partire da esso si articola l’unione/distinzione di soggetto e oggetto. Ci si accorge allora che si tratta di “un atto di analisi che dà per risultato due termini intuiti, cioè conosciuti, come reali, concreti, come due sintesi. Ed è questo carattere sintetico la spiegazione del fatto che anche l’oggetto, pur essendo opposto al soggetto, è come lo specchio in cui il soggetto si riflette, il contenuto della sua vita, il mondo che costituisce la sua vita: la stessa cosa è il suo vivere e il mondo che vive. E’ un conoscere logicamente anteriore al giudizio predicativo pel quale si può dire propriamente che nasce il concetto. Negli ulteriori svolgimenti discorsivi, poi, sul terreno che in termini attualistici viene coperto dall’area semantica del pensiero pensato, in cui s’analizza il contenuto sintetico datoci attraverso l’intuizione e si costruisce un fitto tessuto di relazioni concettuali, cioè la kantiana sintesi a priori del giudizio, non si fa altro che accogliere pienamente e non perdere di vista la verità “di quella sintesi a priori che c’è già nell’oggetto sintetico analizzato”, per esplicitarla in maniera analitica. Una cosiffatta mediazione concettuale, infine, da punto di vista del filosofo di Castelvetrano non può non riconoscere la propria astrattezza, cioè la coscienza di essere una esplicitazione che rimane caput mortuum, se si distacca dalla sintesi di cui vuol rendere conto, da quella sintesi che gli dà un contenuto vivo e sempre nuovo, e che è l’intuizione costitutiva dell’attualità dell’io e che forse meglio si potrebbe dire sensus sui”. Quel che così si viene a colpire è la logica del pensiero pensato che per quanto utile e per certi aspetti finanche necessaria, come momento essenziale dello sviluppo dialettico, s’abbandonata a se stessa verrebbe ad annullarsi e a ridursi ad un puro e semplice vaniloquio, ma che invece se si alimenta alla fonte d’ogni mediazione, che è la consapevolezza di sè dell’io, crea per ciò stesso la propria ricchezza di sviluppi e trova nell’intuizione, cioè nella concreta unità dell’atto che è la sede dell’autocoscienza e certezza della verità, la sua vera e proficua radice. Questa certezza C. la chiama anche fede, un termine contro cui si sono addensate non poche critiche, ma che a suo dire potrebbe tener conto adeguatamente dell’apertura alla religiosità della vita spirituale mostrata da Gentile in tutto l’arco della sua produzione filosofica. L’atteggiamento del filosofo siciliano nei confronti della religione, tuttavia, in proposito avrebbe potuto essere più evidente e di maggior respiro, se egli avesse stabilito con chiarezza inequivocabile come individuabile specificazione dell’autoconcetto ciò che esso veramente è: intuizione o sentimento. Nel tracciato del grandioso disegno speculativo di Gentile, invece, è proprio questo il punto più debole e bisognoso di una riconsiderazione critica. Per C., infatti, la sua costruzione logica, pur se foggiata in maniera geniale e improntata a una visione metafisica di grande rigore filosofico e fortemente innovatrice, presenta “il torto di tutte le metafisiche, di oltrepassare con la costruzione intellettuale, col loro logo pensato, l’unica autentica fonte della verità, il logo pensante, in quanto trasparenza della nostra vita a se stessa nell’attualità dell’atto. Questo non significa affatto sminuirne l’importanza e le grandi possibilità che essa ci dischiude; anzi, il valore sostanziale delle sue tesi comporta il più ampio riconoscimento e consiste nel fatto che con esse noi mettiamo a profitto ciò che egli solo ci ha insegnato, riprendendo l’aureo filone dell’analisi dei grandi filosofi sulla vita spirituale, e arricchendolo nella sua maschia originalità. Certo è che la filosofia di Gentile mi attirò fin dal mio primo contatto con essa; e più tardi, nel primo dopoguerra, quando ero quasi giunto al mezzo del cammin di nostra vita, mi fu di grande conforto per riconquistare fiducia, il che mi permise di riprendere il mio cammino attivamente. E di questo non cesserò mai di sentire gratitudine. È una gratitudine non minore di quella che debbo a lui in persona, per avermi sempre incoraggiato e aiutato affettuosamente in ogni circostanza della mia vita”. Questa conclusione riassuntiva implica il riconoscimento dell’importanza fondamentale della teoresi gentiliana e, nello stesso tempo, comporta anche l’impegno a farne fruttificare il più genuino e fecondo lascito. C., proprio per questo, sottopone la teoria dell’atto ad approfondimento e revisione interna, in un ampio, continuo e serrato dialogo, con una disamina volta a stabilirne una più rigorosa coerenza che valga a guidare e inquadrare la propria riflessione speculativa. In particolare, la prospettiva a cui giunge C., nel corso del suo lungo cammino intellettuale, presa nel suo complesso, comporta in definitiva un triplice guadagno: un riuscito tentativo di promozione dell’opera dell’amico goriziano, per accreditarle una sua peculiarità e dignità filosofica, col metterla a confronto con la speculazione gentiliana; C. nello stesso tempo raggiunge anche una sua personale elaborazione teoretica dell’attualismo; gli spetta così il merito, con questo suo atteggiamento rivalutativo di entrambi i filosofi citati, non solo di aver speso con efficacia le sue migliori fatiche in difesa dell’amico, ma anche un posto d’onore, con una sua originalità e competenza, nell’ambito della letteratura che gravita su Gentile e l’attualismo, tanto da poter essere considerato come espressione di un indirizzo del pensiero filosofico contemporaneo in cui egli appare indubbiamente tra quelli che più sono progrediti. Senonché, a parte i riconoscimenti fin qui menzionati che gli sono stati variamente tributati, le acute indagini e la argomentazioni del C., volte a svolgere una vigorosa opera di individuazione e di messa in chiaro di un comune ambito teoretico tra Gentile e Michelstaedter, non sempre trovarono unanime consenso; in alcuni casi esse suscitarono non poche perplessità. E’ questa, ad esempio, la convinzione di Spirito che, nel concludere la propria risposta all’amico C., non esita ad affermare. A me sembra C., profondamente legato alle esigenze dell’attualismo e a quelle michelstaedteriane, non abbia potuto conciliarle fino in fondo, sia rimasto in una posizione intermedia tra la concezione dell’assoluto dialettico e quella dell’assoluto adialettico”. Su questo punto, comunque, la riflessione critica che gravita sugl’autori fin qui presi in considerazione (alquanto lacunosa, a dire il vero, soprattutto negli ultimi anni e per quanto concerne l’esigenza e il compito di saggiare storicamente le posizioni di C.!!) a tutt’oggi non è concorde e perciò il problema della conciliazione tra la speculazione gentiliana e quella di Michelstaedter ci sembra tuttora aperto a ulteriori sviluppi e approfondimenti che sono ben lontani dal venire realizzati, come un compito non ancora del tutto assolto. Ben consapevoli di queste difficoltà, in queste paginei abbiamo inteso soltanto delimitare e precisare l’ambito di indagine, che è da valutare come un’ulteriore approsimazione al problema, e offrire degli spunti utili a sostegno della prosecuzione del discorso. Nome compiuto: Gaetano Chiavacci. Keywords: poetico, critica della ragione poetica, illusion, allusion, ludo, la natura dell’uomo, carteggio con Gentile. Refs.: Luigi Speranza, “Grice e Chiavacci” – The Swimming-Pool Library.

 

Luigi Speranza -- Grice e Chiocchetti: la ragione conversazionale e l’implicatura conversazionale prammatica – scuola di Moena – filosofia trentina -- filosofia italiana – Luigi Speranza, pel Gruppo di Gioco di H. P. Grice, The Swimming-Pool Library (Moena). Filosofo trentino. Filosofo italiano. Moena, Trento, Trentino-Alto Aidge. Grice: “I like Chiocchetti – a surname most Englishmen are unable to pronounce, but cf. Chumley! – For one, he exapanded, alla Croce on Vico as proposing ‘espressione’ as prior to ‘communicazione,’ as I do – but he went further – he studied the Latin-language author, and saint, Aquinas, and his ‘modi di significare’ – Lastly, he expanded on ‘pragmatism’ as the term of abuse it MUST be! Why are non-philosophers OBSESSED to keep miscalling me a ‘pragmaticist’ who is into ‘pragmatics’ – It’s totally anti-Oxonian – Oxford being the epitome of aestheticism – to do so! Chiocchetti also played with the abused term, ‘scolastic’: he thought there are two scolastics: the palaeo-scolastici, or scolastici simpiciter, and the ‘neo-scolastici,’ like his self! He wrote a little tract on Gentile, who ungently threw it onto the wastepaper basket!” -- Veste l'abito francescano. Conclude gli studi secondari a Rovereto. Durante il corso di teologia si appassionò agli studi biblici, anche se non gli venne concessa la possibilità di approfondirli presso l'Istituto biblico francescano di Gerusalemme e la Facoltà teologica di Vienna. Ordinato sacerdote. Studiò filosofia a Roma presso il Collegio internazionale di San Antonio. Tornò quindi a Rovereto per insegnare filosofia presso il liceo interno all'Ordine dei Minori e iniziò un'assidua collaborazione, su invito di Gemelli, alla Rivista di filosofia neoscolastica fin dalla sua fondazione. Progettò uno studio sistematico sulla filosofia di Henri Bergson, interrompendolo definitivamente per approfondire ulteriormente la sua preparazione filosofica a Lovanio, centro degli studi neoscolastici. Subito dopo si recò in Germania, a Fulda, per ascoltare Konstantin Gutberlet, e successivamente a Vienna, dove frequentò come uditore le lezioni di psicologia di Wundt. Tornato all'insegnamento a Rovereto, assunse la direzione della Rivista tridentina. Note C. su siusa.archivi.beniculturali. Faustini,, C., SERBATI e la cultura trentina: un filosofo ladino tra Trentino ed Europa, Trento, Pancheri. Faustini,, C.: un filosofo francescano di fronte alle sfide del Novecento: antologia, scritti di filosofia e cultura, Trento, Pancheri, C. un filosofo francescano tra il Trentino e l'Europa: atti del seminario di studio promosso dal Museo storico in Trento, svoltosi a Trento. "Archivio Trentino", Pietroforte, Storia di un'amicizia filosofica tra neoscolastica, idealismo e modernismo: il carteggio Nardi-C., Firenze, Sismel Edizioni del Galluzzo, Centi, Un filosofo francescano C. Trento, Gruppo culturale Civis, Coen, C. in Dizionario biografico degli italiani, Roma, Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana, (Dizionario biografico degli italiani) G. Consolati,, C. filosofo trentino rettore generale francescano e professore di storia della filosofia moderna alla Università cattolica del S. Cuore, Trento, Saturnia, C. in Dizionario biografico degli italiani, Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana. C., su siusa.archivi.beniculturali, Sistema Informativo Unificato per le Soprintendenze Archivistiche. Opere di C..Pubblicazioni di C., su Persée, Ministère de l'Enseignement supérieur, de la Recherche et de l'Innovation. LE GRANDI CORRENTI DEL PENSIERO COLLEZIONE DIRETTA DA PICCOLI C. Milano IL 5a PRAGMATISMO agi E 7 EDIZIONE ATHENA MILANOVia Vigentina' 7-9 s santo, MRETTRI s», è ita, canina eno er insit) miri iztarta e ea Nihil obstat quominus imprimatur 19 Mediolani, Bernareggi. Nihil obstat quominus imprimatur Mediolani,Mons. Can. Cavezzali. ALL'AMICO P. ARCANGELO MAZZOTTI CHE NELLA VITA VISSUTA ANCHE PIÙ TENUE SA CERCARE E COGLIERE LA FILOSOFIA sg ca Ripubblico, a richiesta d'amicì, in volume questi «saggi» sul Pragmatismo, già pubblicati, parecchi anniì sono nella Rivista di filosofia Neoscolastica, per chè il Pragmatismo contiene aspetti di verità che non A vanno dimenticati. Quali siano quest» aspetti verrà rilevulo nella esposizione che ne faccio seguendo i Uue principali rappresentanti di esso il James e lo Schiller. f In questa esposizione ho introdotto solo mulazioni accidentali, più che altro verbali, che mettano quella corrente nei tempi suoi, già mollo lontani spiritualmente dai nostri.a E. C. LLINEE FONDAMENTALI DEL PRAGMATISMO. Sommarto. II Pragmatismo. Pragmatismo e Umanismo. Pragmatismo e conoscenza. Nell' Inghilterra e nell'America, come è noto, la filosofia ha avulo sempre un carattere prevalentemente pratico, cioè, ha studiato con particolare predilezione quei problemi filosofici che si riferiscono alla teologia, alla morale, al diritto e alle scienze pratiche, in generale; e, anche quando si è sollevata alle più alte speculazioni, non ha mai perduto il contatto intimo con la vita pratica «ed è stata più sollecita della ricerca del vero in vista dell'organizzazione della vita reale, che non dell'astrazione collivata per sè stessa e per la sodisfazione dello Spirito. Per ciò che riguarda l'Inghilterra basta pensare alla filosofia di Hobbes e di Bacone, all filosofi cmpirica e crilica di Locke, alla filosofi naturale di Newton, alle dottrine teologiche dei De Cfr. «Revue Néo-Scolastique», dove son tiLortate dall'opera: La Philosophie en Amérique del VAN B CELAERE' (New-York) le parole citate. La «Revue Néo-Sc Stiquen ne di un amplo riassunto col titolo: Le mouveme hilosophiqgue en Amérique. Vedi anche i riassunti cli relazioni sullo stato della filosofia contemporanea in InghilMica in America: « Rivista di Filosofia Neo-Scolastica wu N. IL SEE. Linee fondamentali sti, alla fase clica del movimento empirico del secolo XVIII, all'Associazionismo e all'Utilitarismo. Nell'America i primi a interessarsi di speculazioni filosofiche furono i colonizzatori della nuova Inghilterra, degli inglesi emigrati, i quali naturalmente portarono al di lù dell'Oceano la caratteristica della filosofia della madrepatria: l'atteggiamento pratico, che assunse allora, per speciali circostanze storiche, un carattere religioso. È vero che, nell’Inghilterra, «una corrente più profonda non ha mai cessalo di rimontare in senso opposto (alla corrente empirica). Essa si manifesta con Herbert di Cherbury, con i Platonici di Cambridge, nella scuola scozzese. del ‘senso comune, e apparisce nella sua forma più sorprendente in Berkeley, fondatore dell'’idealismo inglese; è rinforzata più tardi da Kant, Lichte, Hegel e Lolze; ma anche questa controcorrente non ha mai perdulo il'carattere pratico, sperimentale, e tende ad appoggiarsi più volentieri sulla volontà e sul sentimento e a trascurare le categorie puramenle logiche dell’Idealismo tedesco » . Lo stesso sì deve dire della filosufia in America. Quando la rivoluzione americana pose fine al peTiodo coloniale e nel libero paese cominciarono a manilestarsi varie e nuove correnli filosofiche ppiella del senso comune, il Trascendentalismo di Kunt e de’ suvi discepoli, specie di Hegel; l'Idealismo di Berkeley ecc., la filosofia conservò sempre la tendenza ad avvicinare la speculazione alla vita, a non perdere il contatto con la realtà, a far risallare il carvaltere pratico dei problemi filosofici. « Negli scritti, p. es., dei seguaci dell'Idealismo Kanliano non è la critica che tiene il primo posto, ma la psicologia cosidella scientifica in opposizione alla psicologia metufisica» . Cfr. in «Rivista di Filosofia Neo-Scolastica » (1 i Ssunto della relazione del MACHENZIE: La EIA nea in Inghilterra, donde sono prese le parole citate. Revue Néo-Scolastique », I. c. rat ET tit, 0 ELLI a_n GI Il Pragmatismo ('S Allualmente i due indirizzi filosofici predominanti nel mondo inglese-americano sono o erano qualche anno fa il Neo-hegelianismo e il Neo-volontarismo. Quale dei due trionferà? Se la storia ci può ammaestrare, se il carattere cinico dei due paesi può servire di fondamento a una previsione, se, sopratutto, i sc si guì dei lempi sono veridici c intendo la reazione "i Vivissima contro l'indirizzo Neo-hegeliano e la ten- DI denza della filosofia contemporanea a dare il valore Li principale della valutazione delle vedule speculative i al sentimento e alla volontà possiamo applicare anche all'Inghilterra quello che il Turner scrive dell'America: « È verosimile che il corso fuluro del pen| siero filosofico non subisca tanto l'influsso dei Neo. hi legeliani quanto quello dei Neo-volontaristi ». Ebbene, poichè il Neo-volontarismo americano non è che il Pragmalismo, non sarà senza interesse lo studiarlo, lauto più che esso non è più limitato a quelle regioni, ma ha suscitato anni addietro vivo a interesse in lutto il campo filosofico, dove, accanto e ; ul critici severi, trovò dei caldi ‘ammiratori. 1 suoi nu espositori cd apostoli più autorevoli ne annunziava-. n° no, con lono da epinicio, il trionfo sicuro su tutte le filosolie avversarie. Già lo Schiller aveva annunziato il maturarsi di grandi eventi nel mondo intellettuale à danno delle antiche forme di pensiero e a tulto vantaggio di una forma nuova. È, come a sintomi | di un tempo propizio a nuove intraprese filosofiche secondo la nuova forma, egli guardava con compiacenza al successo che ha avuto l'opera del Balfour: «Le basi della fede»; alla serie di opere popolari. del James: «Lu volontà di credere, Immortalità _ mana, Le varie forme della cuscienza religiosa» | alle letture di James \vard « Naturalismo e agno È | Slicismo», e, sopratutto, all'esser uscito da Oxforà, «una volla centro di Idealismo, un manifesto così dace com'è «L’'idealismo personale» dello stesso | Schiller e di altri membri dell’Università, e ai lavori Linee fondamentali della scuola di Chicago (alla testa della quale slava è il Prof. Dewey), pubblicali nelle « Decennial Publica ‘ tions» della Università . i; Quivi afferma pure che il Pragmatismo «non passa più inosservato: esso ha raggiunto la fase del «batti ma ascolta!» e quando i falsi concetti, È dovuti a prella mancanza di famigliarità con la dot- |A trina, saranno dissipati, entrerà in una fase di ulile D applicazione ». D'allora fino a pochi anni fa, il Pragmatismo s'è * affermato con sempre crescente energia, suscitando vive polemiche, incontrando simpatie e disprezzo, seguaci c avversari, così che polè scrivere il James: «Oggi la parola Pragmatismo empie le pagine delle © riviste filosofiche. E ancora: «Parecchi indirizzi di pensiero che mancavano di un denominatore comune lo trovano nella parola Pragmatismo » . Esso ha avuto in tutte le nazioni rappresentanti di grande valore, fra quali, i principali sono: in America il James e il Dewey; in Inghilterra Jo Schiller; in Germania il Simmel e il Jerusalem , in Ilalia gli seriltori del Leonardo, specialmente il Papini; in Francia, ScHiLcen, IJumanisim, VIII-IX, London, Macmillan 1903. Ri; (9) Der Pragmatismus. Ein neuer Name fr alte Denkmetho«en, trad, in tedesco dal Prof. \VILHELM JERUSALEM, Leipzig. Verlag. von Klinkhardt. Di questa traduzione tedesca mi servo nella esposizione del Pragmatismo. Sì è voluto vedere un Pragmatista anche nell'Eucken. In s tà il suo «ttiwismo non ha niente a che vedere col Pragmatsmo, L'Attivismo poggia sopra determinate presupposizioni metafisiche, mentre il Pragmatismo è puramente empirico; a eno il Pragmatismo inglese e americano, «Il ripudiare com fa l'Eucken, Ja concezione intellettualistica della vita, non è una caratteristica del Mo- | | talismo e di Misticism ca À « n Pragmatismo ma di ogni specie di (OA 2 vrib CE: Il Pragmatismo . Blondel, Roy, Bergson e molti fra i modernisli più avanzati. Come si vede, aveva un po' ragione lo Stein quando scriveva: «Abbiamo di nuovo una « parola d'ordine» filosofica, che è diventola grido di guerra di un nuovo indirizzo di pensiero, di un movimento filosofico che passa potentemente dall’ America sul vecchio mondo e comincia a incerospare la superficie - delle nostre acque stagnanti ». Facciamoci a considerare davvicino una tale filosofia, allenondoci specialmente ai suoi due rappresentanti più illustri: il James e lo Schiller. gs 2 Il nome pragmatismo viene dal greco pragma che significa azione, operazione, viene dalla stessa radice che ha dato origine alle parole prassi, pratico; perciò, più italianamente sì chiamercebhe praticalismo. Jl primo a introdurlo nella filosofia è PEIRCE [citato da H. P. Grice] nel senso di un metodo che consiste nel giudicare del valore di una affermazione dalle sue conseguenze nella pratica, ossia di un metodo che era già stato applicato dall’empirismo inglese alla valutazione delle conoscerize umane. Ecco in breve Ja sua dottrina. È un falto psicologico che il dubbio, l'incertezza producono in noi uno stato di malessere, di irritazione; uno stalo spiacevole insomma, Per uscirne e noì vogliamo uscirne è necessaria una convinzione, una credenza in cuì l’attività del pensicro possa riposare: la credenza attutisce le sofferenze del dubbio. Produrre la credenza è la sola funzione del pensiero: il pensiero in altività non persegue allro fine che il riposo del pensiero e lo distinguono profondamente dall'inglese-americano. «Archiv. fur system Philos.» Egli espose il suo sistema fino dal 1878, ma non fu che | dopo essersi servito lungo tempo della parola CART EVA nella conversazione, che la stampò nel 1902 in un articolo . | dizionario del Baldwin. Così MARCEL HénerT, Le Pragmatism Bi. Alcan, Paris. Lan "a IL pragmatismo francese ha peculiarità tutte proprie che. 2A f 10 Linee fondamentali quindi tutto ciò che non contribuisce alla formazione della credenza non fa parte del pensiero propriamente detto. La credenza, poi, ha per fine di produrre un'abiludine alliva, che diventa regola per fazione. Se le credenze mettono fine allo slesso dubbio, creando la stessa abiludine e la stessa regola d'azione, non diversificano fra loro. Per sviluppare, quindi, il senso d'un pensiero non c'è da far altro che determinare quali abitudini essa produce, poichè il senso d’una cosa consisle semplicemente nelle abiludini che essa implica. Il caraltere di un'abiludine dipende dal modo con cui essa ci fa agire in ogui possibile circostanza... e il fine dell'azione è di condurre a un risultato sensibile. Noi prendiamo, così, il sensibile e il pralico come base di qualunque differenza di pensiero, per quanto sottile possa essere. Non v'è nuance di sigmificalo così sottile da non polev produrre una differenza nella pratica . In allre parole: Il pensiero crea la “convinzione, la convinzione è regola dell'operare e in tanto vale in quanto ci fa operare; fine dell’opel'are è il risullato sensibile, pratico: questo, dunque, deve servirmi di crilerio per giudicare del valore del pensiero, per conoscere con chiarezza il significato dei concetti. Come render chiare le nostre idec? Inlerpreliumole dal punto di vista pratico, domandianio ad esse quale efficienza pralica contengono, quali Sensazioni possiamo aspellarci dall'oggetto che ci bappresentano, e quali reazioni dobbiamo preparare. La rappresentazione di questa efficienza pratica, mediaia 0 immediata, costituisce per noi l'intera rap. presenlazione dell'oggello e in ciò sla tutto il significalo positivo della rappresentazione. « L'idea di una cosa è l’idea dei suoi effelli sensibili », dice PEIRCE [citato da H. P. GRICE]. E contradittorio il dire che si conosce con Così nell'articolo «ITow to make our ideas clear pub pippoz pt Egnular Science SOA Y >, 1878-XII, e tradotto «Rev HosophiQuew 1879-VII: «( x È ados sansa DI phig TO-VII Comment vendre nos « Revue philosophique». | IRIS Il Prugmatismo precisione l'effetto di una forza, ma che non si comprende ciò che è la forza in sè slessa; conoscendo gli effetti della forza si conoscono tutti i fatti implicili nella affermazione della esistenza della forza e uon v'è più nulla da conoscere. Come render chiare le nostre idee? «Pensando », risponde il Des Carles, conducendole alla evidenza della proposizione: « Cogilo ergo sum ». Agendo, ri sponde PEIRCE [citato da H. P. Grice]; rendendo esplicita la potenzialità ‘* d'azione che è in esse, nell'oggetto rappresentato: è ciò che agisce, è distinto ciò che produce effetti distinti nella vila pralica: dunque al: «Cogito ergo. sum » sì cosliluisca V« Ago ergo sun ». Tulta la funzione della filosofia è di scoprire quale differenza definitiva forà a ine 0 a te in definiti istanti della vila se questa è quella formuia del mondo fosse la vera. 4 Tale è il principio del Pragmatismo. Rimasto inosservato per venVansi fu mpreso dal James ed appli calo alla religione , prima, alla conoscenza 10:C Ca nerale poi. D'ullova in por tanto il nome quanto i principio hanno falto forluna, così che i due leader: pragmalisti ce no possono dure una esposizione co vaggiosa e abbastanza sistemalica in due opere ap parse nel niondo anglo-sassone e diffuse rapidamente fra i cultori di filosofia. “a Per comprendere l'importanza del principio enun: 3 ciato, ci avverte il James (8), bisogna abiluarsi ad applicarlo vi casi particolari, come fece con perfetta | chiarezza, senza nominare il Pragmatismo, l' Osl- wald nelle sue lezioni sulla filosofia della. nalu -. TTI) 92. Ne Tm una conferenza tenuta nel 1898 davanti alla società. fil “sofica di Howison nella università di California, Al JAMES il n | me non Dpince, ma ormai «è troppo tardi per cambiarlo »; egli dice nella prefazione al « Prugmatismus», Zweite Vorlesung, Linee fondamentali conforme a ciò che egli stesso scrisse al James: « Tutte le realtà influiscono sul nostro operare c ? questo influsso è quello che per noi esse significano. - Nelle mie lezioni iv sono solito domandarmi: in qual differente rapporto starebbe ‘il mondo se fosse vera questa v quella alternaliva? Se non trovo niente per cui sarebbe differente, l’alternaliva non ha sensi so » . Che è quanto dire: le opinioni rivaleggianti, «nel caso. hanno identico significato pratico e non esiste che un solo significato: il pratico . Ossia: qual'è il valore di un’idea? Risolvetela in fatti; il valore di questi ‘rappresenta il valore dell'idea. E poichè i falli in tanto sono in quanto sono da noi csperimentali, il valore di un'idea mi è dato se la risolvo in terraini di esperienza. Applichiamo, p. es., sil principio del Pragmatismo all'idea di sostanza. Una sostanza noi la conosciamo per i suoi attributi (accidenti) ai quali si riduce tulto ciò che di essa si può esperimentare: che sotto gli accidenti ci sia o di essi, è pralicamente indifferente, lanto che, se Dio, lasciando l'ordine degli accidenti, distruggesse la sostanza, noi non lu potremmo neanche sapere. Se del legno mi resta la combastibililà e la struttura Vascolare che può imporlarmi del quid in sè inaccessibile ad ogni forma di esperienza? d Dunque Ja sostanza come un quid in sè distinto dagli accidenti non ha valore alcuno: per me la so| Slanza non è che il complesso de' suoi accidenti. L'unica applicazione pragmatistica dell'idea di soStanza si ha nell'Eucarislia, dove, per il caltolico non sono gli accidenti che valgono, ma la soslanza del corpo e del sanguc di G. C. Così la crilica del Berkeley della sostanza materiale è affatto pragmalîslica, e pragmalistica è la critica del Locke e del l'Hume della sostanza Spirituale, e, per parte del Bea, o n () P. 29:50. Anche l'OstwaLo è contato f | dlallo SCHILLEK e dal JAMES; a ragione, secondo SIT RESTRA 3 oro, secondo il Croce. Cfr. « Critica» A. VI, {. IÎT ; Ibfa. A non ci sia un quid come soggetto, sostegno, substrato. ià It Se ll Pragmatismo 13 Locke, è l'autocoscienza, cioè, il fatto che noi, in un dato istante della vita, ci ricordiamo di quello che eravamo in altri istanti e sentiamo questi istanti come parli della stessa serie personale di avvenimenti vissuti. Se, nella ipolesi dei sostanzialisti, Dio ci togliesse l’'autocoscienza, a che ci gioverebbe la soslanza dell'anima? Ed ecco perchè l'Hume e, dopo di lui, la maggior parte dei psicologi empirici, negò l’anima addimttura . Altro esempio. Il teista afferma che il mondo l'ha cercato Dio; il materialista lo dà come il risultato di forze fisiche, cieche. Ebbene, le due teorie sono identiche, se il mondo si. considera come un tutto terminato, completo. Poichè «che valore ha Dio per il mondo, per noi, se Egli non lo può mutare e far procedere di un passo? Sé il mondo fa lutto quello che Dio fa?» Ma se il mondo non è al termine della sua evoluzione, allora la questione: «Materialismo e Teismo» acquista una importanza vitale. La ‘scienza della natura pre“dica che la fine di ogni cosa e di ogni sistema di cose cosmiche è lragica morte! Tutto sarà come non fosse slato mai: luomo e il mondo, la virlù e gli ideali, i dolori e gli amori: ceco l’ultima parola del materialismo! Ma se Dio esisle, se è Dio che dice al mondo l’ullima parola, allora potrà perire il mondo materiale, ma gli ideali saranno conservati e lrionferanno altrove. Il Materialismo nega l'ordine morale e recide le speranze che su quello si fondano; lo Spiritualismo afferma un eterno ordine morale del mondo e lascia libero spazio alle speranze Dritte Vorlesung, p. 52 seg. Non per nulla il JAMES ha dedicato il suo libro alla memoria dello Stuart Mill, confes sando la sua dipendenza da lul; «Alla memoria di Mill, dal quale ho imparato la prima volta la pragmatica apertura dello spirito e che, nella mia fantasia, figuro. così. volentieri come il nostro duce, se vivesse al presente Non per nulla il sottotitolo aggiunto al Pragmatismo suon . uun nome nuovo per alcune vecchie maniere di pensare», sua: sono, nient'altro, che Je maniere del vecchio Empirismo inglese, Linee fondamentali dell'uomo . Lo slesso principio si deve applicare alla questione della finalità nella nalura e della libera volontà. Dio, finalità, volontà libera, pragmatislicamente hanno un senso; intelleltualisticamente nessuno . ) x Empirismo, dunque, e Pragmatismo applicano lo stesso principio, giungendo, naturalmente, alle stesse conseguenze. Con una differenza però, tiene a dirci il James. I vecchi empiristi non fecero che un uso frammentario del principio pragmatislico: ne erano un semplice preludio. Il Pragmatismo rappresenta l'empirismo in una forma più radicale e meno aperla alle obbiezioni. Esso volta le spalle risoluto, una volla per sempre, a una mollitudine di abitudini antiqualo, care ai filosofi di professione: alle astrazioni e alle sottigliezze, alle soluzioni puramenle verbali dei problemi, alle argomentazioni «a priobi» ai principî fissi, ai sistemi chiusi, all’assoluto e all'originario, alla vecchia melafisica intellettualisfica, Insomma, la quale, quando ha dato al princi. pio dell'universo un nome misterioso: Dio, materia, ragione, assoluto, energia, crede di possedere il sismficalo ullimo dell'essere e di aver raggiunto il fermine delle sue ricerche metafisiche 13). L'atteogiamento di opposizione del Pragmatismo all’intelIeltualismo, alla filosofia dell’assoluto, all'a priori è dci più decisi . Il Pragmatismo si volge alla realtà, ai fatti, all'agire, alla forza, è signore della disposizione empirica, ama l’aria libera e le molteplici formazioni della natura, sì oppone al dogma, alle artificiosità, alla pretesa di aver raggiunto la verità definitiva (9). Dritle Vorlesung, p. 59 sgg. p. 76. «Eine andere als dicse praktische. Bedeu tung haben die Worte: Gott, Will Z, MO ATADen ensfrelheit, Zweck, ùber Zweite Vorlesung, D. 31-33. E Spesso violento contro i Neo-hegellani. Più che nel James tale violenza apparisce nello Schiller, il quale si trova di fronte ad un hegeliano Vi gni ig non meno aggressivo, quale è {l IUid. p. 32. ne 1° MN i 14 PACI ZZZ Il Pragmatismo 15 Il Pragmatismo è radicalmente empirico e anti intellettualista perchè vuol essere una dottrina per la vita prima che della vita, un metodo ordinato alla sodisfazione dei bisogni umani quotidiani. « Esso non ha dogmi, non ha dottrine, non ha che il suo melodo. Ci fa stornare da ciò che è primo, dai principî, dulle calegorie, da presupposle necessità, e ci fa volgere lo sguardo alle cose ullime, ai frutti, alle conseguenze, ai fatti . Perciò non accella nulla, non ripudia nulla a priori. a “sso chiede a tulte le teorie, a tutti i sistemi, a sa lulli i concelli: qual'è il vostro valore pratico? siete. utili e come e quanto siete ulili alla vila pratica, all'adattamento dell’uomo alla natura e della natura all'uomo? L'uomo ha due grandi bisogni: di fatti e di principî, di scienza e di religione. Ebbene, quale filosofia si offre all'uomo per soddisfare a questi suoi bisogni? O l'Empirismo che degrada l'uomo col suo Materialismo e nega la religione, o il Razionalismo religioso bensi, ma lontano da ogni contatto col mon- : do, colle nostre gioie e coi noslri dolori e per il quale le cose reali sono un niente: è questo il dilemma atluale nella filosofia . ma Il Pragmatismo invece può soddisfare ambedue quei bisogni: può conservarsi religioso come i si9 slemi razionalistici e può mettersi in intima unione coi falli (3;. Il Pragmatismo, come dice Papini, si trova nel mezzo delle teorie come un corridoio in un albergo. In una slanza v'è, forse, un uomo che la-. vora intento ad uno scritlo ateislico; nella stanza ulligua un allro chiede a Dio con la preghiera fede «e forza; in una {erza un chimico ricerca le proprietà dei corpi; nella quarla sì sta abbozzando un sistema Vily] . «Er hat keine Dogmen und keine Leh ausser . seiner Methode. Die pragmatische Methode bedeutet. Keineswegs bestimmte Ergebnisse, sondern nur eine orlentie- rende Stellungnahme ». >» JAMES consacra alla illustrazione di questo dilemma tutta la prima lettura: «Das gegenwàrtige Dilemma in der Philosophie. Erste Vorlesung, DD. . o x è Linee fondamentali di metafisica idealistica, nella quinta un Tizio dimostra la impossibilità di ogni metafisica. E il corridoio appartiene a tutti. Tutti vi debbono passare se abSE bisognano di una via praticabile per entrare e per hi uscire ., Così il Pragmalismo è anzilulto un metodo: il suo fine è di por terminc alle beghe filosofiche presenì lando un criterio Pratico per giudicare del valore di NY”. lutte Je dotlrine. Il mondo è una uni B va plicità? Vi domina il fato 0 vi è una volontà libera? È materiale o spirituale? I giudizi dati in Proposito valgono tanto che niente e le discussioni sono interminabili. Ebbene, in questi casi il metodo ; Ppragmatistico consiste nel lenlalivo di interpretare a ognuno di questi giudizi dalle sue conseguenze prai tiche. Quale differenza pratica risulterebbe per qualcheduno se fosse vero l'uno o l'altro di quei giudizi? Se nessuna, i due giudizì opposti si equivalgono r.raicamente e ogni discussione è oziosa : dove 1.n c'è differenza di Significato pratico non vi può essere differenza di significato teoretico. Con questo metodo, sempre secondo il James, si sare gli allriti, attenuare le contese ie intelligenze, riuscire alla concordia e alla pace, Esso © dunque un mataviglioso eirenicon perchè «non «Vale la pena di opporre l'una all'altra nel campo «della speculazione due teorie che abbiano le medesi f me fo eguenze pratiche per tutti e in. tutti i fem- LE Pi» . .Contrariamente alla vecchia metafisica il Inelodo Pragmalistico non permette ecc. come lermine ultimo della ‘l'icerca, ma le fa lavorare nella corrente dell'esperienza: le teorie non sono soluzioni, ma programma per nuovo lavoro; non risposte definitive, ma strumenti d'azione, ma indice che cj addita i mezzi per. Ì ) di considerare le parole : È Dio, materia, energia, ty Gazelle Vorlesung, p. 34, Questi concetti sono SvIluppati specialme t Il Lettura seconda: « ]J'gs will der Praggn, tall, J ll Pragmatismo?), er Pragpmatismus? (Cosa vuole “Ri ORANDO, La Mlosoha | «Rivista Rosminiana SERBATI (si veda)» A Apologetica Moderna] dell'azione e vr » N., not? PO UTNE e ne I Il Pragmatismo 1? k i) | 1 quali le realtà esistenti possono esser mulate e adattate all'uomo . Il Pragmatismo toglie così alle i leorie la loru rigidezza, le rende malleabili, le fa la j vovare . Esso si accorda col Nominalismo nello È i attenersi al parlicolore, con i’Utilitarismo nell’ac- es | cenluare gli oggetti pratici, col Positivismo nel di-, i sprezzo delle questioni inutili, delle soluzioni ver- “@ i bali, delle astrazioni metafisiche, di tutto ciò insomma che non serve all'uomo nella vita reale. Perchè luomo è il centro dell'universo, afferma l'Uma nismo conlro il Noaluralismo che considera l’uomo | è. come parte della natura e contro l'Idealismo che lo son subordina ad un Assoluto. Alla concezione cosmocentrica (Uanlica) e alla teocentrica (la medioevale) ani deve sosliluirsi l'aniropocentrica. «L'uomo è la misura di tulle Je cose!» proclama lo Schiller, il neo- È prolagorista, con Prolagora l’umanista . L'Umanismo consiste semplicemente nel rendersi conto che sono degli esseri umani coloro ai quali è proposto. il problema filosofico, degli esseri umani che si sforzio di comprendere un mondo di esperienza umana | coi mezzi che fornisce lo spirilo umano. Secondo l'Umanisimo sono «il sentimento e la vo lonlà che custiluiscono l'interesse centrale dell’essere che usa i sensi e la ragione come suoi strumenti nel mondo esterno. Theorien werden... zu Werkzeugen », p: 33. Ibid, Macht sie geschmeidig und lisst sie arbeiten n. Fra V'Umanismo e il Pragmatismo, quale è esposto dal James, c'è differenza poco più che di nome. Secondo lo Schil«_ ler l'Umanisino è più largo, il suo metodo sì applica a tutto: i d@ll'etica, all'estetica, alla metafisica, alla teologia, mentre il Pragmatismo non si applica che alla teoria della conoscenza. In realtà Je applicazioni che fa lo Schiller del suo metodo, È le sa o le accetta anche il James, Lo confessa il James stesso, ] P. Al. n° AE , Protagora l'umanista, è il titolo del Saggiod Gli: Studies in Mumanism. Egli stesso chiam il suo sistema neo-Protagoreanismo, > o ip”td - Lince fondamentali Perciò l'Umanismo implica il Volontarismo, ossia la filosofia più autropocentrica che si possa dare. L’«ago ergo sum», del Pierce può essere sostituito «dal «volo ergo sum». L'Umanismo è anch'esso un melodo: ciò che lo caratterizza è il suo alleggiamento benevolo di fronte a tutte le concezioni, purche non si voglia erigerle a un che di « assoluto ”, ma sì prendano come pure interpretazioni umane 5, dell'esperienza umana. Non si dimentichi avverte Schiller «che l’uomo è la misura di tutte le cose, cioè di iullo il mondo dell'esperienza... non si dimentichi che l'’uomu è il fattore delle scienze che servono aì fini umani» . Tutto dall'uomo, tutto all'uomo, tutto per l’uomo: ecco l'’Umanismo. Il Pragmatismo accetta questa dottrina umanistica, e «io dice il James la tratto sotto il nome di Pragmmalismo » . L’Uinanismo è, per così dire, il soflio, l'anima che pervade le affermazioni pragma | lisliche: non ha valore che ciò che ha un significato per l'uomo. La logica finora ha tentalo di essere una pscudo-scienzu di un, processo non esistente e im| possibile chiamaio pensiero puro. In nome di essa ci fu comandalo di espungere dal nostro pensiero Ogni traccia di sentimento, d'interesse, di desiderio © di emozione, come le Diù perniciose surgenti di ertore. Così la logica fu ridolta ad una pura rappre| Sentazione sislemalica falsata dal nostro pensare al luale, perchè non si è voluto osservare che quegli inMussi (sentimento, emozione) sono egualmente fonle di verità e pervadono tutto il nostro processo co| gilulivo . Poichè «il Primo passo nella acquisiHumanisme, (Prefazione) p. xx. Lettura ScHirLen, Humanism, p. X. E allo Sc € dobbiamo principalmente 10 SEITE ELE 0 logico e gnoseo zione di nuove conoscenze è l'intervento di un postulato emozionale. Non si può passare dal noto all'ignoto, o, certo, la natura data di un conosciutu non può formare il a fondamento logico per la inferenza di caratteristiche 0 opposte nel non conosciuto, se non c'entra il deside- |. Ù rio. Come posso, p. es., inferire dal male che c’è nel ò mondo la necessità dell’esistenza di un mondo mi: gliore, sc il ragionare come afferma la logica tradizionale è il prodotto di un pensiero puro non affetto da volizione? «Sollanto se una trasfigurazione sconosciuta dell'altuale è desiderata, può esser pensata e, in parecchi casì, ‘rovata. Tutte le concatenazioni di un pensiero puro non influenzato dall'affetto non potrebbero mai raggiungere e ancor mero giustificare quella conclusione: per raggiungerla il nostro pensiero deve ricevere l'impulso ced esser guidato dai suggeri menti della volizione e del desiderio » . La ragione «pura» e una pretla finzione c una impossibilità si psicologica; lu strultuva reale della ragione attuale E è essenzialmente pragmatistica ed è penetrata fino n] nelle midolla (permeated (lhrough and through) da ulti di fede, da desiderì di conoscere e da volontà di credere, di non credere, di far credere. E altrove: Dini” La intellezione pura non è un fatto che abbia luogo | in natura; essa è una finzione logica. Im realtà il * a nostro conoscere è condotto e guidato, ad ogni passo, dai nostri interessi e dalle nostre preferenze, dai | Il Praghiatismo / i | nostri desiderî, dai nostri bisogni e dai nostri fini. x Questi formano il potere movente della nostra vita intellettuale. « Vi souo ragioni del cuore delle quali la testa non 3: sa nulla , postulati di una fede che sorpassano la È «To attain it, cur thougth needs to be impelled vi ‘na guided by the promptings of volition and desiro ». POS) L'aforismo, citato dallo Schiller, è di  PASCAL,(Pensées), LA 4 20 Linee fondamentali intelligenza pura e possiedono una razionalità più alta che un gretto inlellettualismo non è riuscito a comprendere. L'irrazionale si trova ad ogni passo, in ogni processo della vita conoscitiva ». La fede «sla a base di ogni «ragione» e la pervade, anzi la razionalità stessa è il supremo postulato della fede. Senza fede non c'è ragione; la fede è un ingrediente nel progresso della conoscenza; realizza sè stessa nella conoscenza che ne abbisogna e ia aiula alle conquiste fulure. Così sparisce l’antitesi tra fede e ragione perchè la razionalità pura non esiste . Il carattere leleologico della vita mentale influenza e pervade le nostre ullivilà cognoscilive più remole. Questo, secondo lu Schiller, è il pensiero centrale del Pragmatismo: ne dà la vera definizione . Il pensiero Non è un prosesso aslrallo, ma si svolge in una - psicologia concrela, è una funzione vitale è perciò finalistica. L'uomo non pensa per pensare e il Pragmalismo è: «una prolesta sistematica contro l'ignovanza della finalità nella‘conoscenza » . La volontà, lintenzionalilà è da per tutto: il Volontarismo si constata nella psicologia, nella logica e nella metafisica, È questo uno dei lralli caratteristici del Punto di visia leleologico. Il Pragmatismo si formula da per lutto in funzione della finalili. La ragione è un'arma nella lolla per l'esistenza cun mezzo per l'adattamento » . Ne segue che l’uso pratico che ha presiedulo al suo (della ragione) Questi concetti lo Schiller li ha svolti speci: te i JI S ° seialmenie in un articolo: NFailh, reason and religion pubblicato SI The Ilibbert Journal. Vi si dice, tra l'altro, che è base essenziale in scienza e in religione partire da supposizioni che TS OLolale provate o che non possono provarsi. Così, se ; Viviaino per fede può anche esser veri r Ralemo pen pata L e esser vero che cono Mumanism, D. 8. Cfr. anche Stud. in Ium, Stud. in Hum Essay, I et * Èssay, I $ II È ques a ses sette definizioni che lo Schiller ci dà del PRE Se nite e collegate l’una con l'altra nei S S b ;3 «I cannot but conceive the Or AR] In the struggle for existence and tation è. pag. 7, Humanism, reason as being... a weapon a means of achieving adap à, cea Il Pragmatismo i svolgimento, deve essersi impresso profondamente nella sua strullura, se pure non l’ha formata da istinti prerazionali. Una ragione che non ha valore n pratico ai fini della vita è una mostruosità, una aber razione morbosa, una mancanza di adattamento che la selezione naturale presto o tardi deve far spari re {1). Quindi, da questo punto di vista il Pragma lismo polrebbe definirsi: « Una applicazione coscien le alla epistemologia (0 logica) di una psicologia te < leologica, che, in ultima analisi, implica una metafisica voloniaristica » . pis TANA Nice di questa psicologia felcologica applicata alla conoscenza i problemi della logica devono apparire sotto un aspelto nuovo e si deve dare una imporlanza decisiva ai concetti di proposito e di fine. Ta conoscenza presuppone essenzialmente uno sforzo diretto a conoscere, che, come ogni sforzo, è te-: leologico, ispirato da un bene che si vuol consegnire. SI Non cè conoscenza senza valutazione; la conoscenza è una forma di malore, 0, in allre parole, un fattore di bene . Lo aveva cià dello il Lotze, nola lo Schiller. Il | Lofze, come è noto, insegnava che «la scienza, come TU la logica, che ne è lo strumento, e come la metafisica che ne è il coronamento, ha il suo fine e la sua giuslificazione nell'elica, e irova il suo fondamento | slabile e sicuro in quel primo dato originario e di | Ù conoscenza immediata che è la nostra vita interiore, i col suo ricco contenuto di sensazioni, rappresenta zioni, sentimenti e tendenze e col suo largo corredo di forme, calegorie e leggi, da cui non possiamo pr scindere in qualsivoglia nostra concezione e valut zione» . Mumanism, p. 8. È la settima definizione del Pragmatismo. Le altre Je AFONSTRIDO parlando della verità e della realtà nel Pragmatismo. - ae p Humanism, p. 10. Cfr. anche sl quarto «Essay» di questo volume: Lotze's Monism, D. 62 SE&. i = L, AMBROSI, Per una monografia italiana sopra Herm otze «La Cultura Filosofica», A. IMI, N. HI, , ai dui # iii ar E° vee Linee fondamentali Non è qui il luogo di dimostrare che, se il Lotze ha dei punti di cuntalto con l'Umanismo, egli perè non è un umanista alla Schiller. La ragione nelle sue esplicazioni molteplici, è una strumento ordinato ai fini della vita. È questa la concezione strumentalistica della conoscenza esposta dal Dewey e dallo Schiller e accettata dal James. Essa è un portato del metodo evolutivo e della concezione biologica della conoscenza. Darwin con la teoria della «lotta per l’esistenza » e della « selezio“ne naturale» aveva insegnato «che nulla può susSistere o svolgersi che non abbia un determinato Significato per l’intera concatenazione della vita ». Scrittori posteriori (Spencer, Romanes, ecc.) sostennero che lu vita è un continuo accomodamento alla natura circostante, fisica, sociale, morale. E ora la teoria della evoluzione è chiamata da molti a spiegare anche il sorgere e il progressivo. svilupparsi ella vita cognoscitiva e così i principt evolutivi di cambiamento, di relalività e di movimento sono ipplicali a spiegare l'origine e ‘lo sviluppo del pensiero in generale, il suo carallere, il suo valore, allo 2 Stesso modo che erano già slali assunti a lumeggia- i __Te c spiegare l'origine, Îo sviluppo, il significato, il Valore della stutlura, degli organi, di fulte le dif__ Ierenziazioni biologiche. Come in bio non ha valore nè senso che per la sua ulili dine all’adatlamento dell'individuo condizioni fisiche circostanti, ha, cioè un valore e un senso puramente Pratico, così in psicologia quaai 5 ao L'opera principale del Dewey è: Studies 1 Theory bey John Dewey, with the Cooperation of embe Fellows of the Departement of Philosophy. Decennial Pubbli1 one of the University of Chigago Second Series vol. XI e» Peli ha esposto le sue teorie anche in: The esperimentai Pe: # in: eguig otel Mina (N. S.) , Vol. XV Pp. 293-307; din; nd the Criterion uti Of Tdeas (N Sì 6) "Vol NV she SII for tne Trutt of Ideas (N. S. Lol), Cir. Baowr, 7hioughi and rh; i * AP TS, ggpletaco, p. VILe VII. 11 Salto; Vol. 1: Functional GI dottrina comuni col Pragmatism DIA ha parecchi puntf Il Pragmatismo lunque differenziazione : sensazione, coscienza, pensiero ecc., trova tutta la sua raison d’étre e la sua giuslificazione nell’uso, nelle conseguenze, nella efficacia pratica. La questione di valore non si può scindere dalla queslione di origine e di sviluppo; la considerazione statica deve dar luogo alla considevazione dinamica e quindi, per ciò che riguarda il pensiero, la logica formale alla logica funzionale. La concezione biologica della conoscenza ha fatto un passo innanzi: non ha detto semplicemente : applichiamo alla psicologia il metodo evolutivo, (il che, per sè, non inchiude la riduzione della psicologia alla biologia) ma ha detto che « tutti i prodotti del pensiero teorelico hanno un carattere utilitario » (biologico) «cioè servono come strumenti al conseguimento di fini essenzialmente biologici, perchè mirano a dare soddisluzione alle esigenze dell’organismo cioè ai bisogni della vita» . Questa subordinazione della vita teoretica alla vita pratica è capilale per il Pragmatismo: nessuna maraviglia quindi se i suoi leaders l'hanno accettata e fatta oggetto di studi speciali . DEWEY – Grice, The John Dewey Memorial Lecture, New York --, oltre alla funzione generale della conoscenza, ha soltoposto ad analisi il suo aspetto tipico: il giudizio; mentre lo Schiller s'è occupato partico. larmente degli assiomi primi della conoscenza. S'è veduto in che cosa consiste la concezione strumentalistica 0 umanistica della conoscenza ; in base Baldwin,  c. passim. È sostenuta specialmente dall’Avenarius, dal Mach, dal Jerusalem, dall'Ostwald, dal Petzoldt e dal Simmel. Cfr. le monografie di A. ALIOTTA sull’Avenarius, sul Mach, e sull Ostwald in «Cultura Filosofica» a. II, n. % a. DI, n. . . Lo Psicologismo logico dì A. LEVI: Cuit. Fil. a. III, n. 1, 9, 4, specialmente . Vedi anche dell’Aliotta: /l pragmatismo anglo-americano, « Cultura Filosofica » A. LEVI, Lo Psicologismo logico, La « Cult. Fil.» a. IMI, pà et Intendiamoci: hanno accettato la dottrina della subor‘dinazione della vita teoretica ai fini pratici, in generale, no ai fini biologici esclusivamente, È 24 Lince fondamentali ad essa il giudizio (dal Dewey) è interpretato in termini di funzione; esso è una armonizzazione di varie parti della esperienza; è uno sforzo « per determi. nare gli elementi che realmente procedono di conserva e per respingere quelli che solo si collegano apparentemente »: così esso si forma, per differenziazione, sotto l'impulso del bisogno di armonia e di unità nelle esperienze . To Schiller afferma e dimostra, a modo suo, che gli assiomi fondamenlali della conoscenza o primi princip! (di identità, di contradizione, del terzo escluso, di causa) sono dei semplici postulati. Un postulato è «una supposizione, che senza dubbio l’esperienza ha suggerilo ad una mente che ricercava, ma che non è, nè può essere lenuta come provata, poichè spesso di poi la si assume solo perchè la desideriaumo, contro tulta l'apparenza dci fatti» . I postulali sono domande che noi facciamo alla esperienza; processo di esperimento ordinato a porre il mondo in armonia coi nostri desiderì; sono perciò un processo di sviluppo non dissimile dalle altre attività e funzioni umane, derivando dalle esigenze dell’uomo, dai suoi bisogni, dai suoi desiderì, dal suo volere: sono quindi un prodolto della attività umana voliliva e affelliva. Noi desideriamo che una cosa sia quello che è, che 4 sia sempre a, d sempre Db, ecc. perchè diversamente, come polremo conoscere la sua condotta futura rispetto a noi? e, per conseg&uenza noi desideriamo che nulla venga a distruggere quella idenlità: così nascono il principio di identità e di contradizione, che sono due aspelli (poSilivo e negalivo) dello stesso principio, Noi esigiaMo delie distinzioni precise, delle disgiunzioni complete, perchè con esse possiamo dominare (assimi- II, passim, Vedi anche N. c. dove si trovano le parole da’ Personal Idealism « Arioms La Cultura Filosofica » me citate, Macmiizs o! as Postulales n London, ScHILLER in 3 «The Hibbert Journal» }, e, Il Pragmatismo lando ed eliminando) il lusso ininterrotto della esperienza: vogliamo che una cosa sia o non sia: ecco il principio del terzo escluso. Noi desideriamo di pro- si durre degli avvenimenti utili alla vila e di impedire i nocivi; per agire abbiamo bisogno di un mondo connesso, ordinato, postuliamo, cioè, una causa € una ragione sufficiente. In realtà nulla è, tulto diventa; l'identità perfella non esiste. La enntradizione è pensata frequentemente contro la grescrizione della legge; l'esperienza non sodisfa le nostre esi- ae” genze, perchè in essa non v'è una ragione suMceiente, e ve la poniamo noi. A chi opponesse a questa concezione volontarislica delle leggi del pensiero, i loro caratteri di universalità e di necessità, lo Schiller risponde che: «Ia universalità di un postulato deriva dalla sua stessa natura, inquantochè, quando ci serviamo di una proposizione di cui abbiamo bisogno, intendiamo di farne uso ogni volta che ci piacerà; la necessità di un postulato designa semplicemente il bisogno che noi ne abbiamo, ossia... deriva dalle esìsenze di una volizione intelligente e finalislica; la incapacità di pensare il contrario di una proposizione si riduce... ad un nostro rifiuto di compiere un certo atto del pensiero ». Il James accetta e fa sue le dottrine dello Schiller e del Dewey ce proclama: «Dalla logica scientifica è stala cacciata la necessità divina, e al suo. posto fu messo l’arbitrio umano ». E altrove: pla mostri melodi fondamentali di pensare sono invenzioni dci nostri antichissimi antenati e si sono. potuti conservare attraverso {tutte le esperienze successive. pe Il James considera gli « Studies in Logical Theory » com | fondamentali per il Pragmatismo. Cfr. Der Pragmatism Vorwort, XI, AI ve, 26 Linee fondamentali Essi formano ciò che si chiama il senso comune che in filosofia significa l’uso di certe forme dell’inlelletto e di determinate categorie del pensiero. Noi pensiamo per calegoric: esse ci sono necessarie per mettere unità e ordine nella piena confusa, nella Varietà sensibile delle esperienze, per combinare con meno dispendio di forze possibili le nuove con le vecchie esperienze, per fare i nostri piani, per conneltere il iontano dell'esperienza col vicino, per adatlare, in una.parola, la esperienza ai nostri bisogni dopo averla dominata. E la dominiamo razionaliz- \ zandola. i «Se fra le impressioni dei sensi e i concetti posè». cai È, t ATI tas siamo trovare rapporti univoci abbiamo già razionalizzato le impressioni sensibili. I senso comune > mette questa razionalità nelle esperienze (vollzieht diese Ralionalisirung) con vna serie di concetti, dei î sà quali i più importanti sono i seguenti ; 4 = Cosa (in sè) Identità e Diversità Specie Spi- x, rili Corpi Un lempo Uno spazio Soggello b e ullributo Influsso causale Immagini fanta- > stiche Realtà . Queste categorie lrovale forse in momenti felici ai nostri antenati si sono conservale e sono divenule la base del nostro pensiero per la loro sufficienza a servire ai fini della vita pratica. Ma sarebbe possibile che calegorie diverse dalle enumerate po_lessero servirci, come quelle che usiamo ora, alla elaborazione della nostra esperienza. Del resto il Senso comune non è che una fase della evoluzione dello spirito umano, c, nonostante che la filosofia _bemipatelica abbia tentato di fissare per sempre le Sue categorie, concatenandole ordinandole in si _ stema, Mon si può dire, tuttavia, che la concezione MICCCALVII È a più i DI lipi o fasi di pensiero: il naturalistico 6 il car a scienza della natura e la filos riti hanno. rotto i limiti del pensiero ATao CECI Finfte Vorlesung. Con la scienza della natura cessa il Realismo ingenuo. Le qualità secondarie perdono la loro realtà: non restano che le primarie. La filosofia critica distrugge lutto: le categorie del senso comune non significano più nienle di reale. Esse non suno che astuti provvedimenti del pensiero umano; sono l'unico nostro mezzo per isfuggire alla inquietudine in cui ci getta l'incessante corrente delle sensazioni . Noi abbiamo così tre tipi caratteristici e diversi di pensare il mondo: Ugnuno ha i suoi meriti (il naturalistico, almeno, può vantarsi di aver servito ai fini pratici quanto il senso comune; si pensi al Galilei, ad Ampere, al Faraday! ìl critico invece, pur troppo, nun ha dato che soddisfazioni teoretiche, 0 quasi); nessuno di essi è assolutamente più giusto e più vero degli altri . e; La loro verità dipende dalla loro utilità nei casi particolari. Questo il Pragmatismo nel suo metodo e nelle sue presupposizioni gnoseologiche fondamentali: melodo et presupposizioni che ne costituiscono la vera essenza. Il James dice che un aspetto essenziale del Pragmalismo è anche la sua leoria genetica della verità . Lo Schiller, dal canto suo, scrive che: «parallela alla teoria della verità è quella della realtà », e perciò la trallazione della prima non può andar disgiunta dalla esposizione critica della seconda . A me pare che tanto l'una che l'altra, più che dottrine essenziali del Pragmalismo, siano corollari, 0 applicazioni del metodo alle due forme oggettivosoggettiva c oggettiva dell’essere. E Di queste due applicazioni dobbiamo ora occuparci lrattando della teoria della verità e della realtà nel pragmatismo. Par Der Pragmatismus, p. ki: Das wdre das Wesen des Pragmalismus: erstens eine Methode und zweilens cine. gene tische Wahrhettstheorie », Stud, tn Hum., p. 284, "E lla ate RA A da LTL Che cosa ci sa dire la filosofia intorno alla condotta? La pone in allo o in basso, la esalta ponendlola sopra un piedestallo all'adorazione del mondo 0 | la deprime perchè venga calpestata dalle persone i Superiori? In allre parole: qual'è, secondo la filosofia. lo relazione della lcoria colla pratica della vita, della cognizione coll’azione, della ragione teoretica colla pralica? » . Così comincia lo Schiller il suo primo saggio del volume: Umanismo, La base È elica dellu metafisica ». E continua: «La dottrina di È, questo rapporlo coslituisee uno dei capitoli più inbi tricali della storia del pensiero. Da questo capitolo della storia risulla chiaramente un fatto: che le prelese delle teorie antagonistiche (leoreticiste e praligra * cisle) sono così larghe e così insistenti da rendere impossibile ogni compromesso fra loro; bisogna scepai gliere-fra i due estremi: o la condolta è lutta la vita. i O è nulla; 0 è la sostanza del tutto, o è la visione dì un sogno: aul Caesar aut nullus. Noi sappiamo a giù quale dei due estremi abbia scelto il Pragmatisil smo. Invece di supporre che il pensiero sia altra cosa o dall'azione, esso tralta il pensiero come una forma di, È condotta, come una parle integrale della vita attiva. umanism, Invece di considerare i resultati pratici come poco o affatto importanti, fa dei valore pratico un determinvute della verilà teoretica. Im una parola: la condotta, in luugo di svanire nella nullità di una illusione, è ristabilita nel potere di controllo di ogni dominio della vila. Dal punto di vista pragmatislico della psicologia leleologica, inlcsa come s'è vedulo, tanto i problemi logici quanio i metafisici si presentano in una luce | nuova, poichè vien dala una importanza decisiva i | concetti di proposito e di line. SH Il Pragmalismo è una protesta sistematica contro l'abitudine di iguorare, neile nosire lcorie sul pensiero e sulla realtà, la finalità del pensare attuale © i rapporti delle nustre realtà attuali ai fini della vila; è r'aflermazione delta basc chica della iogica e della id metafisica. « La valutazione (cologica è una sfera speciale della ricerca clica, € quindi il Pragmatismo, To con la sua accentuazione della teleologia in ogni (campo del pensiero, assegna al metodo lipico «della elica una validità metalisica, alfermando la su preva autorità della concezione etica di bene sopra | da concezione logica di vero € la metafisica di reale. II bene, il valore pratico © un determinante essenziale così della verità come della realtà. La condotta è la sostanza del tulto. La nostra apprensione del reale, la nostra comprensione delia verità si effet luano sempre in esseri che tendono al consegui mento di qualche bene: sono penetrate, informate “dalla tendenza a un fine pratico, dalle esigenze della condotta. pt g 2. Chi studia seriamente i processi conoscitivi della intelligenza umana viene subilo a trovarsi d fronte al problema dell'errore. Tulte le proposizioni La teoria della realtà e della verità logiche hanno l'audace pretesa, senza riserva e senza d riguardi alle pretese delle altre, di esser vere. Eppure gran parle di esse non sono che delle menzogne : non sono realmente vere e la scienza deve respingere la loro pretensione. Per far questo è necessaria una scella di ciò che è realmente vero dalle verità apparenti: una condanna del falso ed una ricognizione del vero; il logico, in altre parole, deve valutare le ioro prelensioni di verità . Con qual crìlevio? Come dislinguere fra proposizioni che pretendono di esser veré c non sono, e le pretese buone che pussono essere convalidale? Qual'è la nota, il carattere distintivo della verità? Così si pone il problema crileriologico; e una teoria della conoscenza che è impolenle a scioglicrio è già condannata (@). © Quid est veritas? Per verità noi intendiamo una proposizione alla quale è stato in qualche modo alluccalo (attached) ialtributo «vero» e che, conse__Suentemento, è riguardala sub specie veri. « La veTila è la lolalità delle cose alla quale e stato appli«cato o è applicabile questo modo di lraltamento sia | ©hesi eslenda o meno alla totalità della nostra espe_ Rienza» . È una qualità di certe rappresentazioni «© precisamente: l'accordo di certe rappresentazioni con l’oggello {4). È questa la definizione comune che | accellano, come qualcosa di evidente, intellettualisti * pragmalisti. Il dissidio fra le due parti comincia Quando si tratta di sapere che cosa propriamente si Bnifichi «waccordu» e « Oggetto »; ovvero la «realtà » con la Tuale devono convenire le nostre idee |, Secondo la concezione Opolare | n BRA { ot ROIO Popolare l'accordo consiste > In una copia dell'oggetto. Alcuni idealisti affer ne ue le nostre idee sono vere quando corrispondono. a or \<iò che Dio vuole che no pensiamo intorno al loro alla /eoria della &gello, Altri, streltamente fedeli ScHmzLER: Stu Id., Jvta. Essay Y. @ JAMES, Der Pra i o gmatismus, p, i 0 JAMES, , VI, Vor], dies in MHumantsm, D. . Essay Il Pragmutismo_ 31 i ì tre idee in copia («copytheory»), dicono che le nostre in nilo sono vere in quanto corrispondono ai pensieri elerni dell'assoluto. Vediamo quanto valgano queste concezioni. ; Intanto la verità assoluta, scrive lo Schiller, non esiste. La storia del pensiero umano è caratlterizzata dalla inslabilità delle opinioni, dalla mutabilità delle credenze, dalle vicissitudini della scienza, Insomma. dalla lransitorietà di ciò che è o passa per verità, Ogni verità umana, com! è attualmente e com'è stata storicamente, sembra fallibile e transitoria... le verità del passato sono riconosciute come errori al presente; quelle del presente sono in via di essere riconosciule erronee in un domani più o meno lontano. Quindi la verità umana non può affacciare pretese di assolutezza. Per isfuggire allo scetticismo che sorge nelle anime di fronte alla ininterrotta. rivalutazione e transvalutazione delle verità, che forma la storia della conoscenza, si è ricorso ad una verità assoluta trascendente indipendente dalle vicissitudini della verità umana; la quale verità assoluta si concepisce come un modello da imitarsi, come una misura per la valutazione delle verità nostre, come una rocca inespugnabile in cui non può penetrare cangiamento alcuno . i Si slabilisce, cioè, una distinzione fra verità al luale o umuna e verità assoluta, ideale, che è posta al di fuori e al di sopra del flusso della realtà. Le nostre verità sarebbero un riflesso dell’Assolulo, ri . flesso imperfetto, ma valido, misleriosumente transustanziato per la immanenza in esso dell'Assolulo e per la partecipazione della sua stessa sostanza. i Mau l'espediente è fulile e dannoso. | l'utile perchè l'assoluta, eterna verità, rigida e immutabile, non può discendere dagli eccelsi cieli della logica a trasformare le nostri ‘i Ì La, e verità e a togliere la transitorietà alle nostre concezioni; la verità umana, ScuiLLER. Stud. in Hum,, Essay La teoria della realtà e della verità dal canto suo, non può SORIrare alle prerogative soRraumane dell’Assoluto (i). Se la verità assoluta non può identificarsi, in qualche modo con la umana, e se la cognizione umana non può diventare assolula, non può congiungersi con l'Assoluto, l'Assoluto per nvi non esiste e non può quindi redimere dal ilusso perpeluo le nostre verita. I che lale unione luon esista, anzi che sia impossibile, si deduce dal contrasto di caralleri fra la copia (verità umana) Cc tjuello che dovrebbe essere il suo originale (verità lrascendente). La verità umana è fluida, non rigida; temporale e lemporanea, mon elerna e perenne; arbitraria, non necessaria; scella, non inevilabile ; nata, come Afro dite, di passione e di slancio da un Inare schiumoso di desideri, non puramente intellettuale e spassionata; incomplela, non perfetla ; fallibile, non inertante ; assorbita nella tendenza di ottenere ciò che ion c uncora compiulo; non beala nella. sua comiiulezza. Questi caratteri della verità umana risultano dalle condizioni stesse onde ha origine ogni vetilà. Essa è discorsiva perchè non puo abbracciare lutta la realtà; © fallibile perchè è ‘essenzialmente parziale € puo quindi Sempre venir corretla e completala da una cosuizione più vasta. Invece la verità assolula si estende al lutto e dipende dalla cognizione del lutto. Li sua ussolulezza si fonda sulla sua onMucomprensività . Se non V'è conoscenza conmpielamente adeguata all'intero sistema della reallà on vi può essere verita assoluta . Orbene, la no stra mente è capace di {ale conoscenza? No. Appunio perchè parziale, la verità umana poggia su dati parziali, è generala dalle parzialità dell'altenstone selelliva ed'e diretla a fini parziali. Un abisso Separa le due specie di verità: fra loro non vi può essere ne Corrispondenza nè interazione . È quindi verità attuale sia in « accordo con la b RP assurdo che Ju he SCHILLER, 07, cl, 7. E (I Ide TER OD. ci, p, 207, via {9) Id., 4bid. E SCHILLER, 1a., p. 2, i Le Lia - di asta ideale, eterna, Irascendente » come pretendono gli assolutisti. be La concezione della verità assolula è anche perni ciosa. Poichè: o l'uomo percepisce la differenza fra ia verità assoluta e la relativa o non la percepisce. Nel primo caso egli disprezzerà le verità umane, 1m. perfette, mutabili, le tratterà come apparenze, € lo | Scelticismo sarà inevitabile. CIÒ è tanto vero che, anche attualmente, la linea di divisione. tra questa specie di assolutisti e gli scettici è molto indecisa: insegni Bradley. Nel secondo caso l'uomo prenderà come assolute anche le nostre verità. E poichè l’assoluto non soffre aumento nè alterazione, egli non _ si sforzerà di migliorarla coi suoi sforzi, rigetterà come falso tutto il nuovo, non vi-sarà progresso alcuno nella conoscenza... ; ecco l’assurdo e con l'assurdo Ja rovina della teoria della conoscenza. Nel nostro conoscere c'è aumento, c'è alterazione: e una teoria della conoscenza che non li può spiegare, anzi li esclude, non ha certo diritto alla nostra véenerazione, e non ci salverà dallo scellicismo, reso anci ui tabil ; SE ’ «anche du Anevitabile dalla impossibilità e dal rifiuto di ‘0 FUNe I nostro reale progresso cognosellivo: ud est verilas? È forse un «accor realtà ; La Accordo » Questa ipotesi reatitiae csfetto, del fallo. sterno? A LI ‘a dice ancora lo Schiller ci conduce ad affer pe encore lo ssChil era 5 CIOS alermare degli incredibili paradossi, con la cha: 1 SE Rc e die n 3 n fis aipendente) è conosciuto. da e RI » che «eg hipothesi » 16/x trascende SD i E oanseo ALU soggeltivalin ACR BS È e] | Pragmatismo - 3 x = SONA È [e È |< PRE e %% È Da teoria della verità e della realtà c) Che noi conosciamo anche questo e cioè che la «corrispondenza » tra il fallo, quale è in sè stesso fuorì della noslra-conoscenza, e il fatto, quale appare nella nostra conostenza, è in qualche modo perfelta e completa {1), il ehe è assurdo, perchè noi non possiamo conoscere indipendentemente da un lato il pen_ siero, dall'aîtro Voggello esterno. Nè si può dire che la verilà consista nella « cocrenza sistematica ». Nell’universo non v'è delermina“zione assolula e perciò la verità c la realtà possono «essere costruite im diverse maniere, cioè in diversi Sistemi, con diverse «cocrenze » sistematiche: bisocana lener conto delle possibilità pluralistiche . RR . il problema si ripresenta: «quale dei sistemi è vero e quale è falso? » Im che consisle la verità del «sistema coerente? » Dal punlo di visla del razionalismo, cioè «a priori », on è possibile dare una risposta reale alla questione; non si può indicare nessun metodo praticabile di ululazione delle verità (e dei sistemi di verità) se non concedendo alle applicazioni pratiche, alle con| seguenze, di saggiare la validità delle rappresentazioni (c dei sislemi di rappresentazioni); se non rica| Noscendo uno stadio intermedio, nel facimento della s0 pad, fra Ja semplice pretesa (claim) di esser vero e tn ideale completo di verità assoluta . Il Pragma smo è appunto il tentativo dì tracciare il modo del > , Essay Di qui 11 nome di pluralismo dato a dottrina _pragmatistica della verità e della A ita «ex professo « nella quarta lezione (del vol. cit.): Etnlett uni Vielheit « Unita e Pluralità. © pluralismo è la gucazione Metafisica della realtà come di una molteplicità di ct Separati, indipendenti. Si divide in matcrialistico (AtoTRIaIDO), in spiritualistico (Monadologia) è in duatistico (Dua» smo). La concezione pluralistica è stata poi dal JAMES ulteente svolta nel volume: .1 pluralistic universe, London, Longman Green, tradotto in f [cato co. Nolo PRI oS Francese da Le BRUN e pubmar ion I titolo: Philosophie de l'erpérience, Paris, Flam SCHILLER, Stud. in Hum. facimento aztuale della verità, le maniere attuali di distinzione tra vero e falso per giungere alle sue generalizzazioni circa il metodo di determinare la natura della verità : mette in luce, in altre parole, lo sladio intermedio del divenire della verità, il modo della convalidazione delle pretensioni di verità. Orbene, come s'è veduto, non si può spiegare il movimento del pensiero verso qualche cosa senza fare appello a motivi psicologici: desiderio, sentimento, interesse, attenzione ecc. ; non è possibile descrivere cosa alcuna in puri termini logici e senza costante ricorso alla psicologia , ec quindi «i termini ullimi della definizione della verità sono anzitutto psicologici»; ogni verità attuale è, in primo luogo «un processo psichico, c, come tale, condizionato dalla varietà degli influssi psicologici sentimentali e volitivi» . i E così anche i sistemi di verità. L'esistenza di un numero di giudizì cocrenti connessi in sistema non basta per avere da noi la ricognizione della verità. li «sistema» per esser vero, deve anche aver valore ai nostri occhi; la tendenza al «sistema» è parte della tendenza più vasta all'«armonia attuale », 0 per lo meno ideale, della nostra esperienza. Il sistema non è semplicemente un tutto di consistenza logico-formale, ma anche il prodotto di influssi ema<ionali. in vista di soddisfazioni emozionali. Perciò nessun sistema è giudicato intellettualmente vero se non è migliore in rapporto alle nostre esigenze di un altro, se non abbraccia e non soddisfa qualcosa di più che gli aspetti intellettuali astratti delle esperienza. Pragmatism essays to trace out the actual «making of truth», the aciual ways In which discri_minations between the true and the false are effected, and derives from these its generalisations about the method of determining the nature of truth? Id., Humanism, Essay p. di. NI Id., ibid. Cir.: Riv di Filos. Neo-Scol. A. II, N. 2, Specialmente p. 152 Sgg. ScuiLLer, J/umanism. Essay II, D. . ‘36 La teoria della realtà e della verità Vi sono dei sistemi che, nonostante la loro coeren za, non hanno valore di verità, perchè non TiMUON Î no e non risolvono un senso di disaccordo finale nel l’esistenza; tali sono i sistemi pessimistici ; e n sono delle verità, valutate come tali, per la loro effi cienza di armonia sebbene non siano connesse in si-| slema . Non si dimentichi mai ci avverte conti nuamente lo Schiller che la nostra conoscenza èi maleriata di inleresse, di desideri e di sentimento; che la verità e il sistema della verità è il prodotto dei mostri sforzi lelcologici . Da ciò risulla che il prohlema della verità è essenzialmente psicologico, € deve essere formulato così: « Qual’è la natura psichica della ricognizione della verità? A qual parte della nostra esperienza è applicata questa ricognizione?» N Pragmatismo risponde : «La verità è una ferma di valore; la natura psichica della sua ricognizione è la valutazione » . « La valutazione della nostra esperienza è un processo naturale ininterrotto in una coscienza normale. Sponlaneamente, necessariamente noi giudichiamo le cose « buone» e «cat. live », «belle » e « prulte », «vere» e «false». È l’osistenza di quesl’abito che fa sorgere le scienze normutive rivolle a dirigere e sistemalizzare le diverse valutazioni (per esempio «l'estelica » per le valutazioni del «bello» e del « brutto»; Peolica » per le valutazioni del «buono» e del « cattivo »). Anche la 1d., tDid. «AI pessimismo in filosofia » lo Schiller consacra il IX Essay del sno /umanism. Anche il pessimismo, come ogni sistenin, è un determinato atteggiamento di fronte alla grande classe di tiudizi che sono conosciuti come giudizi di valore a, « La Vila è adeguata all'ottenimento del fine supremo dell'azione* Se St. essa ha valore, è degna d'esser vissuta; se no, il suo valore è nullo e non merita d’esser vissuta. Nel priRpanraso abbiamo l'ottimismo, nel secondo il pesstalsmo LA . Mumanism, D., Specialmente là dove tratta del ri a e Re ti el rapporto fra logica Humanism, Essay Truth is a form of a Value ».. Would be no «tru ren o na er at Without valuation there Ri the at all» tv (4 4umunism, Essay > 7 Il Pragmatismo . 37 logica è una scienza normativa che ha per fine di regolare e di ridurre a sistema le nostre valutazioni di vero e di falso. Come in ogni altra classe di valulazioni anche nella valutazione della verità l'inleresse umano è vitale, il che vuol dire: che una verità ha conseguenze (ciò che non ha conseguenze è senza significato), ha una portata sopra qualche interesse umano, e che le conseguenze debbono valere, debbono essere conseguenze per qualcheduno, in vista di un fine determinato, cioè, devono essere «buone» e «pratiche ». berciò, a tulle Ie asserzioni che prelendono di esser vere noi dobbiamo intimare: « Mostrateci che siet> buone di una bontà pralica, e vi riconosceremo pet tali. Voi non avete una ragione intrinseca di verità; noi dobbiamo altenerci alle vostre conseguenze: dal frutto conosceremo l’ albero n. Una asserzione che soddisfa un interesse umano pratico, che corrisponde al fini pratici dell'uomo è «vera»: è vero ciò che è praticamente buono; è falso ciò che è praticamente cattivo . 1 predicati «vero» c «falso» non sono in fondo che indicazioni di valore logico, comparabili come valori, coì valori «elici» ed «estetici». Similmente anche W. James: «ll Pragmatismo, invece di considerare la verità intellettualisticamenle, cioè, come un rapporto puramente statico fra rappresentazione e oggetto, si pone, di fronte ad ogni pretesa di verita, Ie solile domande. Dato che una rappresentazione 0 un giudizio affaccino la pretensione di verita, noi chiediamo: Quale diffevenza concreta produce nella vita concreta di un uomo quel tal giudizio, quella tale asserzione? Come potrà essere vissuta? In che sì moditicherebbe il complesso dell'esperienza se quel tal giudizio fosse falso (0. 3 Id., bid. La parentesi è mia |’ (®) Sarebbe meglio dire: «valutazione-verità », perchè que| Sta fla verita) non è che il processo della valutazione. Ingl, | «truth-valuation ». Stud. in Hum, p. 5-8: 38 La teoria della realtà e della verità vero)? Qual'è il valore della verità se noi la cambia: mo în moncla di esperienza? » ue Per il Pragmatismo porre la questione è scioglier la: «Sono vere quelle rappresentazioni che possiamo far nostre, cioè che possiamo far valere, lrasforma re in forza e «verificare», sono false quelle che non sono suscettibili di lule trasformazione in valore pra tico » . La verità di una rappresentazione non è una proprietà immobile che le è inerente: la sua ve rità è un accadimento: una rappresentazione non è vera, ma divien vera; è un divenire, è il progresso della sua auloverificazione (der Vorgang ihrer Selb È stbewahreilung); 1 valore della verità non è altro che il processo del suo farsi valere . E si fa vaÈ: lere, e si verifica con le sue conseguenze pratiche, con la sua utilità: anzi il farsi valere e il verificarsi non sono in fondo che queste conseguenze . Dalla definizione della verità come vulore logico segue che lutte le verità debbono essere verificate. Una rappresentazione che non vuole o non può sol: tomettersi alla verificazione è già condannala. Essa | può avere lull'al più una verità potenziale, senza si«| _°‘’‘00‘gnificalo, inintelligibile o congetturale, e dipendente “fl da condizioni non uvverate. Per diventare realmente da 3 Der Pragmatismus, VI Vor, p. 125. < è» « Walre Vorsteltungen sind sotche, die wir uns aneigqneny die wir gellend machen, in Kraft setzen und verifizierem hònpe; nen, [alsche Vurslellungen sind solche bei denen dies alles ("g nicht moglich ist», 1A., IUld., p. 125-126. È il Jaines stesso che n sottolinea. : E lo SCHILIER: «Che cosa erano le verità prima p di venir scoperte?» La questione è oziosa, Se «vero» significa «valutato da noi» è naturale che ogni verita diventa vera quando è scoperta... Noi possiamo concepire tre stadi, mel LA processo della verità: verità da venir fatta, verità diveniente, i verità fatta. Il processo è unico e identico per tutte le verità a. Stud. in Huni. JAMES. fui. SCHILLER, Stud, in Hum. p. 5. Non sono que: Sei in fondo, che formazioni e syolgimenti del principio del EIKCE. \ È la prima definizione del Pragmatismo, secondo lo. Schiller: «'The doctrine that lrw{hs are logical values» (Stud in Hum.) p. 5. Me: ati t 44 vera deve venir dichiarata e provata, e non si dichiara nè si prova che nell'applicazione, nell'uso che 30. ne fa: la verità di un'asserzione dipende dalle sue applicazioni . Le verità astralte, come tali, non sono verità. Perfino le verità aritmetiche derivano il loro esser vere dall'applicazione all'esperienza. Osservale per esempio ll’ enunciazione astratta: 22=4. Esso è incompleta. Noi dobbiamo, prima di aderirvi, conoscere a che cosa si applicano 2 e 4, poichè l’enunciazione non sarebbe ugualmente vera applicata a due leoni e due agnelli; a due piaceri e due dispiaceri, a due + due goccie d'acqua, ecc. Così si dica delle verità tutte in generale . Vi sono delle verità fuori d'uso, e vi sono delle verilà che chiedono d'essere incarnate nella vita concreta. Finchè non operano nel mondo della esperienza immediala sono ambigue ; solo la potenza e le conseguenze del loro operare le tolgono all’ambiguilà mostrandole, con la verificazione esperimenta- M le, vere o false. Le verità sono regole per l'azione; ma una regola che rimane nei campi dell’astratto non significa nulla, non regola nulla: il significato d'una legge sla nelle sue applicazioni ec ogni st gnificato dipende dal proposito , perchè qualunque applicazione della verità all'esperienza è in istretta connessione con qualche fine il quale determina ta natura dell'intero esperimento. Per ragione della dipendenza della logica dalla psicologia, ogni signifi E la seconda definizione del Pragmatismo Stud. in Hum. p. 9. ; Ria ioè: sono in potenza alla verità € alla falsità. 0) mind di questo AT delle idee astratte lo SCHILLER nana consacrato un saggio intero: il V (Stud. in Hum): The ambiguity of Truth. Secondo SinGWicK_ seguito in questo dallo | ScuiLcer le parole sot.olincate contengono l'essenza del med todo |pragmatistico, e ne sono la terza definizione (Stud. in Hum,). Questa defin. del Pragmatismo risulta dalle due PD denti. ib pi A La teoria della verità e della realtà cato è selettivo e teleologico: il giudizio logico è «valutazione. Resta da rispondere alla seconda questione: « A qual parte della nostra esperienza è. attaccata la ricognizione della verità? » i Re: _Ciot: a che cosu riconosciamo o neghiamo noi 1l valore di verità? Qualìi sono i principi direttivi nella valulazione della nostra esperienza? È «vero» ciò che è praticamente buono, sta bene; ma che cosa chiamiamo noi «praticamente buono? La risposta a quesla questione dice lo Schiller ci mette nel cuore siesso del Pragmatismo, ci spiega in che senso il Pragmatismo professi di avere un criterio di verità. E la risposta non è diflìcile. Il nostro pensiero tende all’armonia e alla quicte del pensiero, a ridurre a sistema, con un lavoro di selezione guidala dall’interesse, il complesso della esperienza, a coordinare, in visla d’un fine, tutti gli elementi della vilu: quindi è vero, (cioè buono, il che è, per lo Schiller lo stesso) «ciò che armonizza con le leggi proprie del pensiero e con tulta la nostra esperienza anteriore » e ci serve di base e di centro vitale per ulteriori esperienze. È vero ciò che ci fa progredire. Il possesso della verità non è fine a sè stesso, ma mezzo per la soddisfazione di qualche necessità della vita . La verità non è altro che la via, per la quale noi siamo condotti da un frammento dell'esperienza ad allri frammenti che mette conto di far nostri . La verità è una guida all’azione. Mettiamo ch'io mi trovi sperduto in una selva în pericolo di morir di fame. Scopro qualche cosa che assomiglia ad una strada, immagino in fondo ad Cssa una casa; mì melto in viaggio e mi salvo. La Stud, in Hum, Essay IZumunism. Essay Il Pragmatismo | I rappresentazione della casa è vera perchè è verifi\i cala dalla sua ulilità; mi salva facendomi prendere | la strada che vi conduce . Questo semplice e per| severante carattere di « guida» che possiede e mo| stra una rappresentazione è il vero prototipo del processo della verità. È vera quando, finche-e in quante conduce n: e si intende vera di verità reale; potenzialmente è vera la rappresentazione alla a condur-ve, falsa la inutlu. ’lulto ciò sta bene. Ma un complesso di valutazioni soggettive, individuali, che sono il prodotto di inte- da ressi psicologici e mirano ad una soddisfazione s0ggettiva, non può formare che un complesso di verità soggellive, individuali: la mia esperienza è soltanto n la miu esperienza; le mie valutazioni sono soltanto valulazioni mie: come si esce dal soggettivo? non x | siamo in pieno «solipsismo? » No risponde lo eo Schiller. Nessun protagorcamisla (umanista), facendo na dell'individuale il suo punto di partenza, intende fili fermarvisi. Egli sa che 1 giudizi individuali non sono che una piccola percentuale di quelli riconusciuti come vulidi. Sa che l'uomo è un animale sociale e che la verità è in gran parle un prodotto sociale. La verità non ‘si salva finche rimane pura valutazione individuale: Ra. bisogno di una ricognizione sociale, deve trasformarsi in proprietà comune, E diventa sociale appunto per lu sua utilità ed efficienza. Come nell’individuo. Anche lo ScuiLLer parla spesso della «con: duciveness a «proprietà di condurre», come di un criterio di Verità, Le «conseguenze pratiche» non sarebbero in fondo, che questo « Hinfùhren» che permette poi uni specie di «previ-. sione » di cio che è utile, Cf, a questo proposito: «La previstone nella teorin dellu conoscenza » (rinnovamento A. I, Fa‘scicolo) CALDERUNI. Vi.Si dice tra l'altro: « Per conseguenze pratiche» vanno intese le esperienze particolari ‘che la dottrina o l'affermazione in questione permette di pre«vedere» p. 191. «Esperienze che costituiscono il criterio non | solo della verità e della falsità ecc. -& Del «solipsismo» lo SCMILLER si occupa nel Essay (Stud. in Hum.) Absolutism and Solipsism. Per | questione se «l'empirismo radicale» sia «solipsistico» ctr ournal of Philosophy La leoria della verità e della realtà Îl criterio dell'uso, della ulilità regola Ie valutazioni soggellive, consolida e subordina i vari interessi ai fini principali delia vila, così lo stesso criterio (dellVuso) fa una selezione lra le valutazioni individuali e cosfruisce, con maleriale delle valutazioni scelle, la verità oggelliva che ottiene la ricognizione sociale. Ciò che non è socialmente ulile, elliciente, operativo, presto o lairdi viene eliminato. L'utilità sociale è così l'ultimo delerminante della verità . Protagora ha detlo: «L'uomo è la misura delle cose ». 1 commenlatori sì domandano: uomo si deve intendere in senso individualislico 0 generico? Tutte e due le interpretazioni sono esatte dice lo Schiller. L'umani smo di Proiagora era abbastanza vasto per estendersi all'uomo individuale e agli uomini , Egli riconosce dolie distinzioni di valore fra le diverse percezioni individuali : fra i giudizi di valore individuali si stabilisce una selezione dei migliori, che sopravvivono agli altri e si consolidano in grandi sistemi di verilà oggellive accettabili da tutti . Ed ora SI capisce anche come la verità è fatta (how truth is made), «come viene prodotla dalle nostre operazioni sui dali dell'esperienza umana. La conoscenza. cr'esce in estensione e in fidalezza (trustwartiness) per la fecondità e la buona riuscita del suo funzionamento, per l'assimilazione e incorporazione di nuovo materiale da parte dei complessi organici preesistenti di cognizioni. I sistemi (come organismi viventi) sono Im un conlinuo processo di « auloverificazione » di Humanism. Essay His Humanism Was Wide enough to em and men», Stud, in Hum., Ess. JI DI 34. RIS a Nel Teeteto di Platone sì fa dire a Protagora che, se le percezioni di uno non possono essere più vere di cuelle MATA AliTo possono, però est NOLOrI, Sopra il giudizio di mo ignorante o rdinario sta È saggio. Cfr.: Stud. in Hum. p° 35, sgg. melo ASI LUoO Humanism: Fra due teorie rivili noi accettiamo come vera la migliore, quella che possiede «greater conduciVeness». Con questo criterio (sclusivamente sì C astronomia copernicana, così semplice troppo complessi. Il Pragmatismo 49 prova della propria validità dalle conseguenze e dal potere di assimilare, predire, controllare fatti nuovi . Ma, a simiglianza di quanto avviene nel processo biologico, così anche qui assimilare significa transformare. Le verità preesistenti, alla luce delle nuove, per la compenelrazione delle nuove, assumono un aspetto dillerente e cambiano in realtà, inIrinsecamente poichè diventano più operalive ed efficienli in causa della loro maggior coerenza ed organizzazione; ci conducono meglio ai nostri fini, acquislano maggior capaciià di armonizzare le esperienze future in reiazione a noi, al nostro interesse e ai nostri desideri . In realtà siamo noi che facciamo la verità. Dipende da noi l’accettare o il respingere falli nuovi, muove esperienze: il fattore della sele ‘zione, è il nostro interesse, è la loro utilità rispetto a noi. È questo processo di fare la verità è continuo, progressivo e cumulativo. La soddisfazione di un intento conoscitivo conduce alla formulazione di un altro; una verità nuova diventa presupposizione di ulteriori imdagini . I così all’indefinito: la conqui sla della verita assoluta, cioè della verità adeguata ad ognì fine umano non è che un ideale, com'è pura: mente ideale la verità stabile, immutabile, eterna . Ogni verilà può esser mulala da una nuova esperienza. La Verità non esiste: esistono le verità. La Verità con leltera maiuscola è un mito. In realtà esi stono nel mondo umano soltanto le verità, altrettante quanti sono gli: uomini, cioè le rappresentazioni e le affermazioni praliche di cose che non sono, ma di vengono, e divengono per il polere che l'io esercita su di esse, lanto più eflicace, quanto più, con l’azione esso passa dall'incosciente al consapevole ed al ri liesso . Stud. in Iuni., «The Making of Truth», VII Ess. 194-195. Id,, ibid. 23, «A new truth, when established, naturally becomes ti e presupposition of SUECASE, SSDIora Ono (Id. ibid.) E, 4)Id,, Ess. VIII, par. 8, Pp. | ILEN a GIULIO VITALI, Note pragmatistiche. (Rassegna Nazio ita le.). de 4h La leorìa della verità e della realtà Qual'è dunque il senso accettabile della nola definizione della verilà: «accordo con l'oggelto, con lu realtà? » «La parola accordo dice James comprende ogni processo mediante il quale da una tappresenlazione alluale siamo condotti ad un avvehimento fuluro corrispondente ai nostri interessi v bisogni, cioè utile alla nostra progressiva evoluzioue» (#). IL nostro dovere, poi, di cercare e di riconoscere la verilà non è che una parte del dovere geherale di cercare e di riconoscere ciò che torna conto. Il tornaconto, contenuto nelle idec, è l’unica ragione che ci obbliga di allenerci ad esse» 3). k lo Schiller: «La risposla alla questione » Che cos'è la verità? è la seguente: se si ha di mira il fallo psichico della verilà-valutazione, là verilà può definirsi: «la funzione finale (ullimate) della nostra allività infellelliva; se si ha riguardo agli oggetti valutati come Veri essa è: quella manipolazione di essi che lì rende Utili primariamente ad ogni fine umano, ultimamenle allu perfetta armonia della nostra vita intera che cosliluisce Ja nostra uspirazione finale. La dottrina della realtà è affine a quella della verità anzi S’identifica, ìn un certo senso, con essa. ll principio umanistico di Prolagora è universale: umano genera e informa lutto ciò che è; anzi...j ma uscolliamo i due leaders del Pragmatismo. Il Pragmalismo segua un passo in avanli nell'a niutusi della nostra esperienza è, quindi, un prog) sso ln quella cognizione di noi stessi dalla quale dipende. li-cognizione del mondo. ‘ale passo in avanti non è Ineno imporlanie di Quello che, nella storia della filosofia, ha fatto compiere alla questione cpistemolologica la priorità sulla questione ontologica . Vorles Das Lolnende, das unsere wahren Ideen enthalten, ist ner DES Grund, der uns verpflichtet uns an sie zu halten» SCHILLER, Humanism : at loin | + cat Il Pragmatismo Che cos'è la realtà? Così, cioè in lermini ontologici, era posta ia questione fino a Kant, Ebbene, fino a tanto che non si melle in chiaro come la realtà possa venire in noi, è impossibile qualsiasi risposta alla questione; non esisfe, per noi, nessun reale se non in quanto è conosebile; una realtà inaccessibiie alla nostra cognizione è inutile e quindi si distrugge. Perciò la vera formazione del problema metafisico è questa: Che cosu posso io conoscere comc reale? . La dollrina della reallà è condizionala dalla dottrina della conoscenza; la ontologia suppone come fondamento la epistemologia: ecco quella che Kant chiamava: «la rivoluzione copernicana in filosofia ». Orbene, una rivoluzione copernicana compie ora il Pragmalismo rispello alla formula epistemologica. lisso dice: ta nostra conoscenza non è una operazione meccanica di intelletto puro. spassionato: i nostri interessi ci impongono le condizioni del rivelarsi a noi delle reallà. Questa, infalli, ci rivela soltanto quegli aspelli che sono termine di un nostro desiderio attuale, di una tendenza a conoscere: tutti gli altri sono per noi inconoscibili e quindi irreali. BERGSON +- il rappresentante, in Francia, della Philosophie nouvelle scrive: «La vita esige che noi apprendiamo le cose nel rapporto che hanno coi nostri bisogni. Vivere consiste nell'agire. Vivere significa accettare degli oggetti soltanto l'impressione wfile », Ze Itire, Paris, Altan 1908, « Noi cerchiamo fino a qual punto l'oggetto da conoscere è questo o queto, in qual genere noto rientra, e quale specie di azione 0 di attitudine dovrebbe suggerirei (Introduction a ta Métapliysigue). Cfr. anche La cultura dell'anima, RerGSON: Lu filosofia dell'intuizione, trad. del PAPINI. Il Bergson è pragmatista? Risponda lui stesso: « Bisogna distinguere due maniere profondamente differenti di conoscere una cosa... la prima si ferma al relativo, l'altra ragglunge l'assoluto...; quella è l’analisi, la cognizione per simboli, per concetti, condannata ad aggirarsi unicamente intorno all'og: getto...; questa è la intuizione, ossia quella specie di simpatia intellettuale per cui ci si trasporta nell'interno d'un oggetto | per coincidere con ciò che ha di unico e per conseguenzi d'inesprimibile; con l'assoluto »... «La prima nasce dalle esigenze della vila pratica e non è filosofica, ma empirica: lil seconda nasce dall’affrancamento dagli schemi pratici, dal concetti-ctichette ed è quella per cui è possibile la vera meta 46 La teoria della verità e della realtà Non cè reale per noi, cioè non è conoscibile, se non ciò che è oggetto di una nostra tendenza, di un nostro desiderio e volere; e non si desidera, non sl vuole che il bene. Dal che si inferisce: nè la questio. «me di fatto (ontologica), nè la questione di conoscen3a (cpislemologica) sono possibili a considerarsi in(ipendentemente e senza coinvolgere come loro base la questione di valore (psicologico-etica) . Le nostre | valutazioni pervadono la nostra esperienza tulla «quanta e si applicano ad ogni falto, ad ogni cognizione. Perciò la verità della formulazione epistemalogica del problema della realtà è incompleta finchè «non realizza, tutto quello che è implicito nella cognizione nostra: cioè il desiderio, la tendenza, l’inteSEEGS 3 La completa il Pragmatismo così: Che cos'è la realtà per uno che aspira a conoscerla? «Reale» significa: reale per qual proposito? per qual fine? per qual uso? . È la «volontà di conoscere » che pons la questione e quindi non potrà venir risolta che in termini della volontà di conoscere . Ecco la spie| gazione. della diversità di dottrine che intorno al «reale» ci hanno dato le scienze e le filosofie. La dix rezione della sforzo determinata dalla «volontà di conoscere» entra come fattore necessario e isradica IN Di ar v fisica, cioè la cognizione dell'assoluto » (Ibid.} passim). E ancora: «Il faut s'habituer à penser l’'Étre directement, sans faire un détour.. Il faut tAcher ici de voir pour voir er non plus de vor pour agire. (L'Evolutlon creatrice). Bergson riedifica sulla intuizione il tempio dell'Assoluto che prima aveva fatto crollare dimostrando l'inanità dell'analist, della cognizione per idee astratte. Poco importa che non ci sia riuscito. (Cfr.; La filosofia di Enrico Bergson di Gius. PREZZOLINI, Rocca S. Casciano, Cappelli 1908; ATTOTTA, L'intuizionismo contro la filosofia, La Cult. Filos., A. TIT, N. TIT ecc.) La distinzione delle due differenti maniere di conoscere; intuitiva (metempirica) e analitica (empirica) spiega l'apparente inconciliabilità dei passi citati e d'altri ancora, Z/umanism. Id., Ibil. the answer comes in terms of the will to know which puts the question il. Il Pragmatismo urti . bile (ineradicable) in ogni rivelazione della realtà a nol. i La risposta alle nostre questioni dipende dal loro carattere, ma questo dipende in tutto da noi. Siamo noi che le poniamo così e così; l'iniziativa è del tutto nostra. Dipende da noi il consultare l'oracolo della nalura o l'astenercene; dipende da noi il formulare le nostre domande alla natura. Se la domanda è falla bene la nalura risponderà; se è fatta male non risponderà, e noi dobbiamo ritentare la prova. ci Che cos'è dunque la realtà? Procediamo -con or dine. Vediamo prima di lutto quali caratteristiche at « lribuiscano alla realtà le scienze. Scienlificamente, cioè, in quanto entra ed è trattata nelle scienze, la realtà presenta i seguenti caratteri: non è rigida, ma plastica e capace di sviluppo. non è reale assolutamente e incondizionatamenle, ma relaliva alla nostra esperienza e dipendente dallo stato della nostra cognizione) La concezione che noi abbiamo della realtà cambia e perciò: riduce spesso all'irreale ciò che è slato accettalo lungo fempo come reale. e) Una «realtà iniziale» (come una «verità iniziale») è reclamala da ogni cosa sperimentabile: è necessario, CENCI un principio selellivo che ci serva come di criterio a distinguere fra «realtà iniziale » e realtà reale. M vecchio oracolo ammonisce: ogni cosa ha due maMichi: bada di prendere quello giusto ». Emerson, American È Scholar. Rinn. A. (T. Fase. IT, Magia PEZZÈ PASCOLATO. « La natu ta, quindi non risponde sempre, a nostro piacere :... « Natura Mon nisi parendo vincitur», ha seritto Bacone ». Si noti bene Questa confessione dei pragmatisti: vedremo poi se è in corri. spondenza con altre loro asserzioni. SCHILLER. Stud. in Hum. Essay. Vedremo tto Ja differenza fra realtà «iniziale» (primaria) e realtà reale: VELA La teoria della verità e della realtà Contro la dottrina scientifica il Razionalismo afferma: «La reallà è immutabile, è finita e completa . da tutta VPeternità . Essa è una perehè ha un fine uno, forma un sistema, narra un'unica storia . La nostra esperienza della realtà è mulevole come la nostra cognizione della verità, non perchè verità e realtà divengano, mutino, ma perchè la esperienza dell'una e la cognizione dell'altra sono processi psichici: siamo noi che mutiamo 0). Verilà e Realtà sono indipendenti da noi: noi le scopriamo, conoscendo, non le fucciamo. La realtà è-stalica, rigida, uon migliorabile; è e sarà quello che è stata; non diviene 4). Il Pragmatismo si pone dal punlo di vista delle scienze. Per csso la reallà assoluta è futile e dannosu come la verilà assoluta per le medesime ragioni. Lu concezione della realtà assoluta non entra nelia nostra cognizione attuale della realtà ; non e conoscibile, il che è quanto dire: non esiste. Non esiste la realtà: csistono le realtà; cioè le nostre esperienze, che crescono e decrescono. Fingiamo che le realtà ora conosciute e accetlate siano un milione : tsse non esauriscono tulle ie possibilità dell'univerSO: VI possono esistere accanto ad esse allri dieci milioni, capaci di essere scoperti e riconosciuti-come lalî se noi applichiamo certi esperimenti che sono in mostro potere: molle realtà in potenza, cioè irreali, al presente, possono venir realizzale dai nostri sforzi E viceversa: molle delle realtà conosciute possono benissimo, prima 0 poi, essere dichiarate irleali e rigellale . Non v'è nulla di assolutamente posto. La realtà come la verità, diviene senza posa. La natura James SCHILLER. Stud. in Juri, VITI D, Stud. in Mum. È lui che sottolinea. iii Sali Il Pragmatismo delle cose non è delerminata ma determinabile come quella dei nostri simili. Prima del nostro esperimento su di essa è indeterminata non solo per la nostra ignoranza (soggettivamente), ma da ogni punto di vista, cioè anche realmente (oggellivamente); si determina sotto i nostri esperimenti come il carattere umano. La nozione del «fatto in sè », come quella della «cosa in sè, è un anacronismo filosofico. Noi chiediamo allo Schiller: su che cosa facciamo i nostri esperimenti se la reallà non c'è e se è di pendente da noi? Schiller risponde: Noi ammelliamo bene, a guisa di postulato, una base iniziale di fallo, come condizione dei nostri esperimenti , ma quesla prima base è affatto indelerminala e plaslica: può divenlare tullo quello che nvi vogliamo che essa divenli {8). Fra le infinile possibilità noi possiamo scegliere e realizzare la migliore . Noi chiediamo ancora: «qual'è la natura delia realtà iniziale prima, della base di fatto dei nostri esperimenti? » E come può ammetterla il Pragmatismo se essa sfugge alla nostra esperienza, se non è conoscibile?» Schiller risponde: «La difficoltà di concepire nel Pragmalismo l’accellazione del falto come base non dev essere traltala come obbiezione ai metodo prag=* matico, ma come un mezzo per mettere in rilievo lulto il suo significato. Dalla pertrallazione di essa potrebbe ricever luce la distinzione importante tra realtà che è «fatta» soltanto per noi, soggettivamente, cioè «scoperta », e ciò che noi supponiamo che venga «fatto » real Humanism, p. 12 in nota Stud. in Mum. vp. 428-XIX. x EMERSON scrive: «Com'era plastico e fluido nella mano di Dio, così Il mondo è in mano nostra». Queste parole sem: brano un commento alle parole dello Schiller: « Noi possiamo quanto può Dio nello schema intellettualistico di Leibniz». «E il nostro dovere e il nostro privilegio di cooperare nella formazione del inondo », ibid. Stud. in Hum. mente, oggettivamente, in sè. Che noi facciamo tale dislinzione è chiaro, ma perchè la facciamo? Se tanto ìl soggettivo come l’oggellivo « facimento della rcalla» {making of reality) sono il prodotto dello slesso processo cognoscitivo, sotto l'impulso degli sforzi soggellivi, come può sorgere o mantenersi, da ullimo, quella distinzione? Ebbene: anzi tutto è chia «ro che l'accellazione del metodo pragmatico nè ci ; costringe ad ignorare quella distinzione, nè ad affer i mare «the making of reality » in senso oggettivo. Sia È può benissimo concepire quel facimento come pura| mente soggettivo, solo in rapporto alla nostra coquizione della realtà e punto in relazione alla sua esistenza abituale. Il Pragmatismo non fa della melafisica, ma della epistemologia: si può essere pragmualisli in epistemologia e realisti in metafisica. Sia che si ammetta, sia che si neghi che la realtà è fatta da noi anche oggettivamente resta sempre vero che sono necessari i nostri sforzi per iscoprire la ‘vcealtà, che i nostri desideri, i nostri interessi deb è bono anticipare le nostre «scoperte» e farci la via id esse e che, perciò, la nostra concezione del mondo .clipende sempre dalla nostra selezione soggettiva di Giò che cì inleressa di scoprire nella tolaliltà dell’esi stenza . },Noicì proponiamo i nostri fini, noi scegliamo i noSti mezzi; noi foggiamo «cause» ed «effetti» nel Jlusso omogenco degli eventi . Per noi la realtà iniziale è pura potenzialità, come la. verità iniziale è «Je» {materia prima) di tullo | ciò che è deslinalo a diventar reale . È un concetto # Ride: un: punlo, di appoggio, e di partenza delia ; U.C0E e; è la possibilità indeterminata di tutto cio che sarà, di lutto ciò che noi facciamo, co nuscendo: ogni realtà attualmente riconosciuta si., È Il Pragmatismo deve concepire come evoluta dal processo e nel pro: cesso conoscitivo nel quale ora la osserviamo e come destinata ad avere una storia . Per la teoria praginalica della conoscenza i principî iniziali sono lelteralmente dei semplici termini @ quo, scelti variamente, arbilrariamente, casualmente, nella speransa e nel tentativo di avanzare verso qualche cosa di meglio . lullo ciò che è, è reale. Bisogna distinguere fra vealtà «primaria» (primary reality) e reallà reale (real realtty). La realtà primaria è semplice domanda di divenir reale: è la realtà non veryicata © compele anche alle «apparenze ». Non c'è distinzione nè criterio di distinzione a priori fra apparenza e realtà. La distinzione sorge soltanto quando la mente, mossa dall'interesse, dal desiderio di operare su di essa passa a controllarla . La reallà «primaria » che risponde alle noslre domande interessate diventa realla «reale»; quella che non risponde ad esse si manifesta come apparenza. La realtà reale non è che la realtà primaria passata a traverso il fuoco del criticismo esperimentale e promossa a un grado superiore. I poiche gli interessi crescono. e variano continuamente e i propositi sono continuamente difterenziati, anche la realtà « reale » cresce in complesstla, viene dillerenziala in serie, le serie si ordinano in sistemi, i sistemi vengono coordinati e- subordinati fva loro . E così all'inciciimto. Il processo della nostra co-, suizione della realtà (= della nostra creazione delle reullà) si estende dal caos assoluto fino alla saddisfuzione assoluta. Watever [sic] is, is «real» ls what we begin with,.«real» reality which has survived the fire of criticism and been promoted to superior rank. Le conseguenze provano la realtà come provano e fanno la verità, SCART ROTA À ge La teoria della verità e della realtà La realtà è plastica. Forse la lasticilà del reale dipende anche da una vena di indeterminazione, di libertà che corre per l'universo: questo giustifica il nostro trattamento delle idee come di forze reali e Passerzione cho il nostro fare la verilà è necessarlamenle il /ure ia realtà . Conoscendo facciamo la verità e la realtà. Neila elaborazione connoscitiva. della nostra esperienza «reallà» e «verità» crescono pari pussu . Realtà significa « realtà per noi» precisamente come verità è «verità per nol». Noi assumiamo come «reale» e accettiamo come « fatto » ciò che giudichiamo come « Vero » . E il vero è il bene, l'ulile; l'elica, dunque, è la base della melafisica e della logica. È il James: Keallà è ciò di cui le nostre verità debbono dar ragione, debbono controllare. Da queslo punto di visla la corrente delle nostre sensazioni costituisce la prima parte della realtà. Esse ci sono imposte, ci vengono non si sa donde. Non abbiamo nessun controllo sulla loro natura, sul loro ordine e sulla loro quantità. Esse non sono nè vere nè false, ma semplicemente sono. Sollanto ciù che noi diciamo di esse, i nomi che diamo loro, le teorie intorno alla loro natura, al loro essere, ai loro rapporti possono essere veri o falsi. Il secondo elemento della realtà è costituito dai rapporli tra le sensazioni e le immagini loro nella 4 Siamo in piena metafisica e come! Non solo la livertà è nel reale ina anche la cognizione. « L'usare e l'essere usato implicano «conoscere a cd cssere conosciuto («to use and to be used includes to know and to be know. La nozione della materia morta non trova più favore nella scienza moderna Bul is not this sheer hylozolsm?2 Non importa: l'umanismo è largo: non indietreggia davanti alle parole « ilozoisino » 0 « panpsichismo » posto cne siano utili alla interpretazione del basso (inferiore) in termini del superiore, « Sebbene non sia che un metodo, tuttavia esso inclina a questa 0 et quella metafisica secondo che meglio corrisponde a’ suoi canoni fondamentali, Stud, in Hun, JAMES vr arde è RS | eee VI Il Pragmatismo nostra coscienza. Di essi alcuni sono variabili e accidentali; p. es. quelli di spazio e di tempo, altri sono sempre uguali a sè slessi ed essenziali perchè si fondano sulla intima natura degli oggetti corrispondenti. Gli uni c gli altri di questi rapporli vengono percepili immedialamente: sono «falli ». Tultavia la spe cie di falli più importanti per la teoria della conoscenza è l'ullima, perchè comprende le relazioni e- sas terne, le quali vengono apprese ogniqualvolta gli Da i oggelli sensibili sono messi in rapporto fra loro e | debbono essere sempre riconosciute dal pensiero logico-matematico: Il ferzo elemento della realtà consta delle verità È antecedenti che debbono esser prese in considerazio- es ne in ogni nuova ricerca: questo elemento ci oppone | molto minore resistenza degli altri due: finisce quasi ty sempre col cederci il passo. i Ora, sebbene questi elementi della realtà siano un po’ fissi, tuttavia, operando in essi godiamo di una cerla libertà. Le sensazioni, p. es., sono, è vero; il loro essere non dipende da noi; però dipende da noi, dal nostro interesse di rivolgere l’attenzione a queste più tosto che a quelle; dipende da noi di tener + a conto di alcune e di tralasciare le altre; dipende da noi di dare, nei nostri giudizi, una importanza decisiva alle prime 0 alle seconde . LS Noi leggiamo le stesse cose diversamente secondo il punto di vista da cui le guardiamo. La battaglia di Waterloo è considerata come riltoria da un ingle‘se, come sconfitta da un francese. Così l’ottimista. legge nell'universo la parola « vittoria», il pessimi. Id., îbid, Come? tra le verità antecedenti vi sono ancl le relazioni elerne fondate sull'intima struttura dell'oggett mi cedono il passe anche queste? Ma il loro valore non è i discutibile? non formano esse la struttura del nostro pensiero? ‘Non deve riconoscerle sempre il pensiero logico-matematico? À parte questa incoerenza, è certo che il James non sl pre «senta con le audacie quasi spavalde dello Schiller: a vol sembra di trovarsi, leggendolo, davauti a un realista e intel | lettualista autentico. Cfr. « Revue Néo-Scholastiguev, , «Bulletin d’Epistemologie. = James, pers i: La teoria della verità e della realtà È, sta la parola «sconfitta». «La esistenza della real- © tà appartiene (ad essa) ma il contenuto suo dipende dalla nostra scelta, e la scelta dipende da | noi» . La realtà è muta. Le sensazioni dei rap (SAh porli loro non ci dicono niente intorno alla propria natura: siamo noì che parliamo per loro. Noi rice 2 viamo il blocco di marmo, ma siamo noi che vi scol piamo la statua. Giò vale anche per le parli « eterne » della reallà. Noi scompigliamo le nostre percezioni Mei rapporli inlrinseci e le ordiniamo a nostro pia . cere; le classifichiamo in serie, le raggruppiamo in classi, consideriamo ora l'una ora l’altra come fondamentale, finehè le nostre credenze formino quei sistemi di verilà che conosciamo solto il nome di logica, di geometria, di aritmetica. Im ognuno di quesli ‘sistemi la forma e l'ordine è evidentemente opera (umana . È difficile parlare di una realtà indipen «| ‘dente dal nostro pensiero. Essa si riduce al concetto di ciò che è già nel campo dell’esperienza, ma non è | @ncora denominato, oppure all'assolutamente mulo, o a, un limite puramente immaginario della nostra coscienza . Ad ogni modo è inaccessibile, inaffer | rabile: quando crediamo d’'averla còlla noi ci troviamo lra Je mani un semplice surrogato, una crea . lura del pensiero umano anteriore che ce l'ha rega lala per il noslro uso e consumo . La corrente delle sensazioni c'è, chi lo nega? Ma ciò che noi di ciamo di quel flusso è creazione nostra dal principio sino alla fine. Noi condensiamo la corrente plastica | în cose, a nostro capriccio: noi creiamo i soggetti e 1 predicali*dei nostri giudizi veri e falsi: tutto cià «che è, è frutto della nostra elaborazione. «Il mondo «| non è come vogliono i razionalisti l'edizione in (1 1a. dbig. « Die Existenz der Wirklichkeit gehòrt ihr, aber hr Inhalt hingt von der Auswal ‘ RO vahl, und die Auswahl hangt Ia., ivia. Il Pragmutismo folio infinita, l'edizione di lusso elernamente complota che le coscienze individuali non riescono a decifrare nella sua interezza e rifanno in lante piccole edizioni finite, piene di errori di stampa, più o meno deformate e mutilate; ma è un’edizione non ancora perfetta, che viene completandosi a poco a poco specialmenle per l’attività degli esserì pensanti » . E questi la stampano nelle loro edizioni; la plasmano nei loro schemi connoscitivi, in mille modi diversi, secondo i loro diversi fini. E quei modi son lutti veri, hanno tutti lo slesso valore di verità se rispondono al fine per il quale furono elaborati. L'anatomico con sidera l'individuo come un organismo: la sua realtà sono i suoi organi ; l'istologo vede in esso un comples- È so di cellule, il chimico un insieme di molecole . Il n numero 27 si può considerare come la terza potenza di 3, come il prodotto di 3 e 9; come la somma di 26 + 1, come 100 73, ecc. ecc. Noi siamo creatori nel 0, conoscere come nell’operare. Il mondo aspetta la sua forma _finale dalle nostre mani, Così il Pragmatismo apre nuovi orizzonti alla forza divino-creatrice delPuomo ; così il pensatore è rivestito di dignità LI nuova piena di responsabilità. 6 i Noi «solleviamo ad altezze nuove la realtà pree- » sistente » se sappiamo credere, agire, lottare: la fede ci fa salvi, ci porla alla conquista dell'universo, ul niglioramento progressive della realtà La no: stra sorle è nelle nostre mani! Lungi da noi il fatalismo, il quielismo, l’indifferentismo: la vita è un ar: cobaleno: vi troviamo tutti i colori, a nostro grado: la noslra azione ve li crea. a VP Cfr.: La cultura filosofica, , > dove ho tolta la traduzione delle parole qui citate. . Ù La frase è di PAPINI, der Fiihrer der italienischen Pragmatisten » come lo chiama il JAMES. NP». int Le parole sono prese dall'EuckeN ima non si ha alcuna e) citazione di opera; EUCKEN parla di una « Erhohung des vorge i fundenen Dascins. ine. , James, . SCHILLER: «like a rainbow Life glitters ti în all the colours». /fum,, \?, uindi, o uomini, imparale a conoscere voi stesvi consapevoli delle vostre vocazioni; inallargate le vostre finalità: sollevatevi i | dominazione in dominazione; sappiate volere e sappiate creder?, cioè uermare con tutto il vostro essere che le cuse stanno realmente come voi le poele, © le cose vi ubbidiranno, e la fede \} farà salvi, ioè vi permetterà di conseguire i. fini della vostra esistenza. Sappiate che dopo lutto la verità non esiste in sè; ma parlate, pensale, agile come se real ente fosse tal quale voi la vedete, voi non servi, na padroni suoi © suoi fallori» . Questa è lu dottrina della realtà sostenuta dal agmalismo. LA RELIGIONE ‘NEL PRAGMATISMO Sommario: x l. Le preoccupazioni etiche e religiose. L'esistenza di Dio. Il concetto di Dio. \ 4. Religione e religioni. Esporre con una certa ampiezza le dottrine pragmaliste, senza fare un posto speciale al modo con cui in esse sono presenlali e risolti i problemi religiosi, sarebbe una mancanza grave. Chi ha studiato o lello con amore, le opere al meno le principali dello Schiller e del James, sa “che, allraverso ad esse, si sentono passare, come n fremito, più o meno distintamente, due preoccu| pazioni; luna, più generale, che tulto pervade, tulto “colora, tulto fondamenla: la preoccupazione etica: l’altra, più speciale, che nasce dalla prima come condizione necessaria o postulato del coronamento dei valori e delle esigenze eliche: la preoccupazione religiosa (I). È vero che questa (la religiosa) nello Schiller non è così intensa e così manifesta come nel James; lo Per questo io credo che, se si può e si deve parlare di nn pragmatismo religioso (e così pure di uno epistemologico, metafisico ed estetico) come di un complesso di applicazioni del principio del Peirce alla religione (alla metafisica cecc.), non si può invece parlare di un pragmatismo etico, come di lina specie 0 soltospeci® del pragmatismo: Tutto il pragmaismo è etico: l'etica è alla base della epistemologia, della mea Lab della SESLIgione °, della IOICUCE Di quest'ultima non È ames e Jo Schiller non se ne son Ù A articolare, Il non ne sono occupati La Religione nel Pragmatismo Schiller il véro filosofo del pragmatismo, sebbene meno popolare del James ha lavorato sopratlulta a stabilire e consolidare la base stessa dell’edificio: il carattere, cioè feleologico-morale di ogni nostra attività e di ogni prodotto dell’altività umana: tuttavia sono numerosi i saggi nei quali egli si occupa ex-professo, più o meno largamente della religione, V, e da per tulto si sente che per lui la religione vale. - Del resto: non ci dice lui stesso, espressamente, che il pragmatismo «non è soltanto un movimento che riguarda un insieme di dottrine tecniche intorno al 7 problema della conoscenza, ma anche un tentativo di determinare i rapporti tra «fede, ragione e reli . gione?» . Quanto ai James è nolo per la sua stessa confessione che la prima applicazione da lui falla del principio del Peirce fu un'applicazione ai problemi KS. religiosi . Ed è noto del pari che, dal giorno del ; suo primo discorso pragmatista all'Università di Ca È lifornia (1898) fino all'opera: « A _Pluratistic Univer| Sen, attraverso la «Volontà di credere», « Le varie forme dell'esperienza religiosa» e «Pragmatism », lulte le volte che gli si presentò l'occasione, ha posto \ e risollo, a modo suo, i più fondamentali tra i pro- i blemi della religione. Il James fu un? anima carat- leristicamente religiosa. Dice di lui il Boutroux: Egli ebbe da suo padre una tenerezza intima per il inisticismo del grande pensalore svedese Swedlenborg, il principio del quale era la relazione tra’ gli esseri terrestri e le potenze spirituali. Questa «dottrina Swedenborshiana. circola traverso tutta la opera del James» . Egli lrovava «la forza e lu pace del cuore e dello spirito nella fedeltà alla crcdenza che fuori del mondo del nostro «pensiero co: Sciente ve ne sono altri, ai quali noi allingiamo le energie capaci di arricchire e di trasformare la no- Studies in Humanism, Essay XVI, p. Pragmatismus. BOUTROUX, IV. James (Rev. d 5, Db, isa Metaph. et de Morale, SEE.culi Il Pragmatismo stra vila» . «Chi sa scriveva egli, conchiudendo un’opera classica sulla religione se la fedeltà di ogni uomo alle sue umili credenze personali non possa aiutare Dio stesso a lavorare più efficacemen{e ai deslini dell'universo? » . Aggruppo l'esposizione intorno a questi tre punti: Esistenza di Dio; Concelto di Dio; Religione e Religioni. Cominciamo con James, La storia della filosofia è in gran parte la storia del conflitto dei temperamenti umani, Ogni filosofia è l’espressione, il riflesso del carattere intimo dell'uomo, la traduzione in idee del lemperamento; ogni intuizione dell'universo (We/lanschauung) è nè più nè meno che un complesso di reazioni del carattere umano assunte, o a propria insapula, o deliberatamente, in faccia alla realtà . Questo spiega il sorgere dci sistemi e il batlagliare continuo dei filosofi. Noi possiamo distinguere due principali tipi spirituali d'uomini aventi caralterisliche affalto diverse: l'uomo dalla (empra tenera (lender-minded) e l'uomo dalla tempra dura (tough-minded), cioè il tipo simpatico c il cinico . Mettele questi due tipi profondamente diversi in faccia all'universo e chiedele loro una dottrina: avrele da una parle il malerialismo sensualista, con lutto il suo contenuto di scetticismo e di pessimismo, come traduzione del temperamento rude e cinico; dall’altra lo spiritualismo con contenuto ottimistico, quale espressione deì tipo dalla tempra tenera. L'antagonismo di queste due dottrine, il contrasto dei due lemperamenti malcrialistico e spiritualisti co assumono tulto il loro speciale rilievo di opposizione davanti al problema dell’esistenza di Dio. Il L'Expérience religleuse, . /ui, . : Li Mi JAMES, Der Pragmatismus, I Vorl. p. 3-6; 4 Pluralistio. ; Universe, p. 20 Der Pragmatismus, p 7: A Plural. Univ. La Religione nel Pragmatismo complessa delle cose che vediamo, che esperimentia. mo e che abbiamo convenuto di chiamare « mondo » sono il prodotto della materia o di Dio esistente fuori e sopra la maleria? «La materia produce tulte le cose 0 e'è anche un Dio?» . Ecco il problema. Il quale non sarà risolto mai e la storia è là a dimostrarlo in base alle vuote, astratte e. sottilissime discussioni sull'essenza intima della materia € sui suoi caratteri osservabili o su pretese visioni htelleltualistiche de! Dio che è in questione . Ogni speculazione è impotente di fronte al materialismo ateo a dare una solida base razionale alla religione: i due grandi (entativi sistematici di dimostrazione dell’esistenza di Dio il teismo scolasti ‘co e l'idealismo trascendentale hamno fallito al loro scnpo. Tulli conoscono gli argomenti classici della filosolia Scolastica. Ebbene, Hume, col cacciare per sempre la causalilà dal mondo fisico, ha reso impossibile ogni inferenza dal creato a una causa prima; del resto l'idea di causa è troppo oscura per servire di fondamento a tutta una teologia. Dopo Hume, Kant ha dimostralo che, Dio, l'immortalità e la liberlà, non avendo alcun contenulo sensibile, sono parole vuole di-senso dal punto di vista della conoscenza (corica, e ha fatla giustizia una volta per sempre della vecchia leologia, che ora non regna che nel volto e non è difesa che da qualche ritardatario. Il darwinismo ha dato il colpo di grazia alla prova per mezzo delle sue cause finali. L'ordine e il disordine che noi troviamo nel mondo non sono che invenzioni umane: chiamianio ordine ciò che corrisponde a un nostro ideale, disordine ciò che se ne I metodo praginalista in: Saggi pragmatisti, p. 15 (traduzione PAPINI). Occorre far notare che questa visione degli ontologi non è da confondersi con la ?n!uizione del sentimento, intuizione sorda e vivente, della «philosophie nouvelle»? Vedi: PIAT, Insuffisance des Philosuphies de l'Intuition, p. 129, Sg. Il Pragmatismo 61 allontana . Finalmente il pragmalismo, cacciando dal mondo la necessità logica, ha tollo ogni sperana di una soluzione per coucetti del problema in questione, di modo che le prove dell’esistenza di Dio non sono valide che per coloro che già credono in Dio i e debbono trovare degli argomenti per difendere tale 3 3 i A “precredenza . ; L'idealismo trascendentale non è più felice nel suo SG tentativo di dare una base solida alla fede: vedremo quali assurdilà sono implicite nel concetto di una coscienza concrela infinita che sarebbe l'anima de! x - inondo: vedremo a che si riduce l'Assoluto. e «E allora? Quale altra via rimane aperta per risol vere il problema? Già nell'opera : La volontà di credere, il James assegnava ai molivi emozionali un valore definitivo, nel casu che l'intelletto non polesE se offrire delle ragioni sulficienti per l'adesione a i doltrine di caraltere religioso. La via è aperta: metliamoci in essa. La questione: « Dio esiste? »per il pragmatismo si risolve in questa, più determinata e più chiara: «Quali conseguenze pratiche importa (| per la reallà, per noi, l'esistenza di Dio?» Se prali= camente, cioè dal punto di vista del criterio della uti.lita pratica, la negazione dei malerialisti vale quanlo l’allermazione dei leisti, le due teorie sono equivalenti in lutto poichè delle teorie non esiste che il di lato e il valore pratico (9). 7 | Ebbene, la questione se il mondo sia creazione di Dio o prodotto delle forze materiali può essere conpe sideralo da un doppio punto di visla: relrospettivo + e prospettivu. lFingiamo che il mondo sia completo. ti ed evoluto in tutte le sue partì (punto di vista retro| spettivo). Esso non sarebbe che una somma di ri sultali buoni e caltivi, dalla quale è escluso. qualun Jaars, L'Expérience religicuse, D. 418 (in nota), p ce 369-331. ia a JAMES, L'Erpérience reliyicuse: « Pour celui qui déjà croit en Dieu ces arguments sont solides... La On {ltoure... des arguments pour défendre ces croyances le doit les trouver ». : di Ò NI Vol., p. 59; L'Experience JAMES, Der Prugmatismus, religlouse. INA La Religione nel Pragmatismo que aumento e qualunque alterazione. Da un mondo lale noi non avremmo nulla da sperare e nulla da temere, perchè il potere creativo, qualunque fosse slato, si sarebbe esaurito tutto in quello che è, che è irrevocabilmente, in tulle le sue particolarità: uno dono che ci è stato dato e che non può essere ripre- ì so. Orbene, in lale ipotesi, «quale sarebbe il valore «di Dio, sc ci fosse con la sua opera compiuta e ìl suo mondo già trascorso? » . Egli non varrebbe niente più del suo mondo; da lui, come dal suo mondo, non avremmo nulla da sperare e nulla da lemere, poichè egli, secondo tale ipolesi, nulla potrebbe togliere 6 aggiungere a ciò che è. A un Dio simile noi saremmo riconoscenti per quello che ha fallo, non per altro. lì ora prendiamo l'ipotesi contraria, che, cioè, le parlicelle di materia, seguendo le loro «leggi» polessero fare lullo quello che, nell’ipotesi precedente Da fatto Dio: saremmo noi loro meno riconoscenti che a Dio? «In che soffriremmo noi mancanza se lasciassimo cader: l’ipotesi di Dio e facessimo responsubile la sola maleria? Come, essendo l'esperienza definitivamente cd irrevocabilmente ciò che è sfata, “polvebbe la presenza di Dio in essa renderla più vivente e più ricca al nostro sguardo?» « Chiamiamo materia la causa del mondo e non leviamo neppure una parle di quelle che lo compongono; nè, sc chiamiamo Dio la causa, esse aumentano ». Dunque «materia e Dio significano precisamente la stessa | cosa, cioè il potere, nè più né meno, capace di fare | questo mondo celerogeneo, imperfello e tuttavia ter| Minato », e perciò «la dispula tra il materialismo e il leismo diventa, in questo caso, oziosa e insignifiante». Se la presenza di Dio «non porta un giro v lin risultato differente all'insieme del mondo, non Ù può certumente accrescerne la dignità; nè gli (al: RE TIE JAMES, 12 metodo pragmatista, in Saggi È : MES, li SI, gi pragmatisti, x D. 15-17. Noto una volta per sempre che le Datore Calo da 3 Saggi pragmatisti, e messe tra virgolette sono della traduzione | del PaPINI e del LruNarbo, Jl PAPINI ha tradotto IL Metodo | pragmatista dall'inglese, James, 0 Metodo Prag matista; Dì mus) ip, 06 g Dp. ; Der Pragmatis: mondo) verrebbe nessuna indegnità se Dio non hi fosse e se gli atomi rimanessero 1 soli attori ch È scena» . È saggio colui che volta le spalle a siffat‘la inulile discussione . 3 ‘Meltiamoci ora a considerare il mondo da un punto di visla prospellivo; poniamoci « questa volla nel inondo reale in cui viviamo, mondo che ha un fuluro, che è tullavia incompleto. In questo mondo non finilo l’allernativa di «ma lerialismo o teismo è intensamente pratica». Essa si può formulare così: «In qual modo il programma della nostra vila è allo a variare, secondo che si considerano i fatti dell'esperienza come configurazioni di atomi senza finalità (materialismo), oppure come dovuli alla provvidenza di Dio?» (teismo). È vero che in questo mondo non finito la materia fa prati camente lutto ciò che può far Dio, che essa equivale u Dio, che Dio è superfluo e cessa ogni legiltima richiesta della sua esisienza? E vero che «la materia, di cui paria Spencer, per la quale si compie il proi cesso dell'evoluzione cosmica, è veramente un prin| cipio di perfezione infinita quanto Dio? ».  Vediamo. Secondo il materialismo e la sua « teoria dell'evoluzione meccanica, le leggi della distribuzione della materia e del moto» sono rivolte incessante_Inente al disfacimento del mondo, «a dissolvere tutte le cose che hanno falto evolvere ». Così il Balfour cl rappresenta l’ullimo previdibile stato dell'universo quale ce l'ha dalo la scienza evoluzionista: «Le eNergie del nostro sistema si consumeranno ; la gloria del: TR cselrata, e la terra, inerle e desolata, a disturbato 1a oltre la razza che per un momento E SS GLILI a sua soliludine. L'uomo cadrà nel EF va suoi pensieri periranno. La inquieta a.. le «azioni immortali » moriranno, e l'ai More, più forte che la morte, sarà come se non foss mai slalo. Nè vi ‘'à Il i i sli se 1 sarà nulla che sia meglio o peggio i fu) d04, DD. La Religione nel Pragmatismo per lulto ciò che il lavoro, il genio, la devozione e la sofferenza dell'uomo avranno fentalo di effettuare durante età innumerabili » . Dunque la sorte ulti ma di ogni cosa e di ogni sistema di cose cosmicamente evolute è tragedia. Nulla rimarrà di ciò che è slalo: non un'eco, non una memoria: la rovina sarà universale. È si noti: « questa rovina e tragedia finale sono nell'essenza del materialismo scienlifico. Le forze più basse, e non le più alte, sono le forze eterne o quelle che sopravvivono ultime nel solo ciclo di evoluzione che noi possiamo definilivamente vedere. Ma se Dio esiste, i risultati pratici dell'evoluzione dlel mondo saranno ben altri. « Un mondo che conlenga un Dio che dica l’ullima parola, può bensi arderè o ghiacciare, ma però noi pensiumo che Egli pensa sempre ar vecchi ideali e ne assicura che alriveremo a goderne; perciò il naufragio e la dissoluzione non sono mai assolulimente finali. Ml bisogno di un ordine morale eterno è uno dei più profondi bisogni del noslro cuore. Qui giacciono i significati reali del materialismo e leismo...; matlcrialismo signitica Ja negazione del. l'ordine morale eterno e l'esclusione delle speranze ultime; il teismo significa l’afiermazione di un elerno ordine morale e dà libero corso alla speranza. Un'altra conseguenza pralica di grande importan: za deriva dalla affermazione feislica: il sentimento d'intimità col mondo. I mulerialismo con la sua visione impersonale dell'universo ci pone di fronte a una realtà muta, in: differente, brutale che distrugge via via ltutlo ciò che crea, senza curarsi del bene e del male, e dei bisogni umani. I bisogni umani! Ma che cosa è ma l'uomo per il quale si dovrebbe avere dei riguardi: L'individualità di ciascuno di noi è come una BalFOUR, The Fondalions of Belie{ (Le basi della fede) p. 30, citato dal JAMES in; Meludo praymatista, pp. 21-22, in. Der Pragmalsmus, JAMES, IL Met. Pragm., p. 22; Der Pragmat,, D. 66. Zuî Il Pragmatismo = rrasca, 7 are in burra sopra: unt ma senza trequi epolto;che Loano È AESLLUSRANO FOT sj venti e le onde c iizoirenomoni Uasc due i i non siamo che degli €} gli eventi . Come otza (dol flusso irresistibile deG Letta così falla? È Si simpatia e amore per o a senoi mettiamo 6, invece, nelle cose 0 MIO a esse ci appariscono n Dio una som idenzar allora. lime al nostro cuo| ù calde, viù vicine a e voni saremo più estra"o pensiero : e al Nostro La non lo saranno a noi. Ri Mg ici co ce eciesse: ‘agmalistico sì polrebbe dire Da un punto di vista DER fra il maferialismo e il le la differenza che passa fra de senlire i no: CE "nali el concepire e sentire ; O spiritualismo) nel concepire : I ROGIE BLOGO SÌ differenza sociale. £ i rapporti col mondo è una eee iamo malerialisti, noi dobbiamo DR È SIGrgnn {ra socio, il mondo, difidenti e USE E guardia che non ci GU slringorit Spiritualisli noi possiamo fidare li, S SECOLI Nexbitualisti SIAE n ere fidenti sulla nostra " tai Ise peosstere ident so utile, che on ai Rostri bisogni emozionali, che ci fa ‘Procedere coraggiosi nelle nostre esperienze sulla Tealtà nella speranza che ln realtà risponda alle do mande che le rivolgiamo, è una Sani UerisUca della | Verità, noi dobbiamo concludere che il (eismo è vero © il materialismo è falso. Vi sonoaltre ragioni che autorizzano a tirare conclusione in favore dell’esistenza di Dio. Se Dio, Egli produce differenze prati porti call'universo; se c'è un Dio, renze « nella sorte finale del mondo : lo. Ma possiamo dire d questa c'è un che nei nostri lap questo s'è vedu i produca differ . Ina durante tutto il ere che l’esistenza di Mella sorte finale do» Ammetl ì, L'Expérience religieuse, D. >, Il Metodo pr agmut.,; 4 Pluratistie Univer Il Met. Ppragm. Egli produce diffe È più: se c'è un Dio noi possia-. no aspellarci che egl enze non solo, | corso del monDio non possa a 66 La Religione nel Pragmalismo cangiar nulla nella nostra esperienza non è affermare ‘l’inverosimile? «il vero significato di « Dio » sla appunto in quelle differenze che debbono essere ammesse nella nostra esperienza, ove il concello sia ve“ro. Ebbene queste esperienze esistono cd hanno un ‘intlusso polente sul sentimento e sulla condolta. La Z esperienza fisica, o percezione degli oggetti esterni, e la esperienza psicologica pura c semplice limitata alla tà percezione deil'io, non colgono la realtà tolale e pie‘q namente reale, e non sono le uniche forme di espericoza: ve n'è una terza: l’esperienza religiosa che (ci dà una massa di esperienze concrele affalto originali. «Se voi chiedete cosa sono queste esperienze vi dirò che sono conversazioni coll’invisibile, voci e visioni, risposte fl preghiere, mutamenti di cuore, Ta liberazioni da paura, influssi di speranza, assicura zioni di appoggio, ogni qual volta certe persone si mettono in una cerla attitudine interna, con certi modi appropriati. Il potere viene, va e si perde, e può esser trovalo soltanto in una certa direzione determinata, proprio come se fosse una cosa concreta e maleriale» xl}, Vedremo più sotlo perchè praticamente parlando è cosa di poco momento che il Dio della teologia sistemalica esista o non esista; «ma se il Dio di queste particolari esperienze è falso, è una cosa lerribile per quelli la cui vita è poggiata su tali esperienze. Concludendo: «la controversia teislica assume un lreniendo significato se noi la saggiamo coi suoi re; sultati nella vita attuale » . Il naluralismo, il posiARI livismo e l’agnosticismu possono cominciare con culusiasmo il lavoro rude della vita, ma liniscono fatalmente nella tristezza e nello scoraggiamento inerte. Se invece, come afferma il teismo, la nostra vita ‘cosciente di lutti i giorni fa parte d'un universo morale, armonivso, elerno; se ognuna delle nostre sofl a O TAES: ALI relty., ). AMES, Mel. pragm. Sono appunto queste | ‘esperienze che formano Ìl tema e l RA) ci CRA la e la materia di: L'Experience /£ Metod. Pragni. a N ll Pragmatismo 67° ferenze ha la sua ragion d'essere e il suo valore; se il cielo sorride alla terra e se gli dei vengono a visitare gli uomini; se la fede e la speranza sono come l'atmosfera della nostra anima, allora la nostra vila scorre abbondante © colorita in mezzo a grandiose prospellive i Possiamo tirar subito una conseguenza importanle dal punto di vista pragmatlistico ; la speculazione èimpotente a condurci a Dio; noi affermiamo la grande probabilità della sua esistenza in base alle conseguenze pratiche, all'utilità reale, in contanti, che derivano dall'accettarlo come esistente. Naturalmente, e lo vedremo sotto, il pragmatismo non può darci più che una probabilità. Lo Schiller con lo stesso metodo giunge alle stesse conseguenze. Col James egli rigetta le prove tradizionali dell'esistenza di Div e fa una guerra spietata alla identificazione con Dio dell’Assoluto degli idealisli trascendentali. Per lui la comune insufficienza delle prove tradizionali sta nella loro astrattezza. Esse, infatti, sono applicabili alla concezione di un universo qualsiasi, non ul nostro mondo particolare. Per esempio: l'argomento cosmologico inferisce Dio dal fatto che vi è eausazione in astratto; l'argomento fisico-teleologico è costruito arguendo, in maniera affatto generale, dall'ordine un ordinatore . Ebbene questi argomen ‘li non provano nulla perchè vogliono provar troppo. Dal momento che si possono applicare ad'ogni solta di mondo, buono o cattivo che esso sia, ne segue che la divinila inferita con questa specie di argomentazioni è affatto indifferente al contenuto del mondo, al bene e al male che esso racchiude: è un Dio amorale, che si può inferire così bene da un universo ollimo come da uno pessimo. La inferenza di Dio dal mordo sarebbe ugualmente buona nel Cielo e nel l'inferno, Ecco perchè tutti i lonlativi di ascrivere a Dio attribuli morali sono condannati a ;certo insuc 30. JAMES, L'Experionce religieuse. Se il | cesso. Trascurando gli aspetli morali del nostro mondo come si può giungere a un principio morale gli esso? Ebbene, non è di codeste prove che noi abbiamo bisogno; non chiediamo una prova dell'esistenza di Dio che sia valida per ognì universo pensabile, mù per il nostro mondo aituale, che tenga conto del contenuto concreto, reale delle cose che noi: esperimenliamo; ci occorre un Dio il quale ci dia sicurezza, che nel nostro mondo vi è un polere capace e disposto a dirigerne il corso . È È Il dialogo: Gods and Priestes (Dei e Sacerdoti) è lullo una critica birichina degli argomenti razionali (teorici) dell’esistenza di Dio. Dice Filono: «Mi pare che Vesislenza degli Dei si possa inferire dall’esistenza dei sacerdoli, poichè, se gli dei non ci fossero, e che ci starebbero a fare i sacerdoli? » Un argomenlo puerile, a dir poco, come si vede. Eppure Anlinoro risponde: «Questo argomento è... migliore della più parte di quelli dei teologi » . Più oltre Antinoro dice: .« Finchè il Dio ignoto non è desideralo è incomoscibile » . Noi sappiamo che « inconoscibile », per l’umanismo, vuole dire «non-esistente ». Ma dunque il nostro desiderare, volere Iddio è creare, fare Iddio? Senza dubbio: «il desiderio fa reale l’irreale n. « Gli dei sono reali in quanto responsi ideuli ai reali bisogni umani, che ci funno realmente agire» . Dio 6 un postulato della fede ed è delia stessa nalura dei postulati della scienza , cioè una supposizione uli- SCHILLER, Humanism., Ess, 1V, « Lotze's Monism »; p. 82. = lo non posso indugiarmi a esporre largamente le teorie religlo5e dello SCHILLE", come ho fatto col JAMES: un articola non basta a ciò, Del resto non è neanche necessario, perchè lo SCHU.LER, quando pula di religione. si appoggia spesso al JAMES, €, sostanzialmente, lo riproditeo ScHiLLER, Studies in Humanism, Essay.The gods nre real as the ideal responses to real human needs, which really move us, Studies in Humanism, p. 136. Lo ScHILLER cita qui: La tolontà di credere del James, = "i si » etiam Lu e e ir__nnnn_nn_ RPEI EN oli Pragmulismo le, una domanda di qualche cosa che corrisponda alle esigenze dell'uotno e mella armonia in una speciale sfera di esperienze. L'uomo fa la verilà e la realtà, come s'è veduto: È è vero e reale ciò che opera e in quanto opera; la soslanza è allivilaà, e l'attività non esiste se non come attività per noî. La domanda di Dio non è la domanda di un essere lrascendente, ma di uno perfezioÈ nante la esperienza nostra . Perciò la questione: LI, Dio esiste? significa: Qual'è il valore per noi del conX cetto di Dio? | siecome le concezioni di Dio sono mol| le, qual'è il valore di esse, 0 dei varì tipi ai quali lulte sì possono ridurre? E qual'è il migliore fra i concetti di Dio? $ 9. Nella filosofia spiritualisla noi troviamo due specie di (eismo in senso largo: il leismo dualistico, o teismo propriamente detlo, e il leismo monistico o panteislico. Il primo è la elaborazione teologica della filosofia scolastica, il secondo è proprio dell’idealismo posl-kanliano, 0 idealismo assoluto, o idealismo simpliciter, che si voglia chiamare . Esponianoli brevemente ed esaminiamone il valore alla luce del pragmatismo. >» Il'ieisino scolastico insegna che Dia è la Causa Prima, la quale differisce tolo genere dalle sue creature. La sua essenza è di essere a sé. L'ascità è la fonle di ltulli gli altri allributi metafisici: necessità e assolutezza, immaterialità e semplicità, infinità e personalità metafisica, ecc.; e degli attribuli morali: sanlità e onvipolenza, onniscienza e giustizia, im mutabilità e amore, ecc. . Ebbene, applichiamo a ScuuLer, ivi. Considerazioni simili a quelle del James contro ia visione materialistica della vita nol troviamo li Humanism, Ess..: «The ethical significance. of immortality ». Vi dintostra che la vita non è degna d'esser "vissuta se non sono conservati i valori ideali. JAMES, A Pluralistic Universe pp. 23-24; Der Pragmalismus, VIII Vorl. p. 192. a JAMES, L'Expérience Reltgieuse, pp. 371-376; Saggi pragmat., IL metod. pragm. ar La Religione nel Pragmatismo RO T questi attributi di Dio il principio del Pierce ec vedreL mo che fra essi ve n'ha di più e di meno importanti. i Infatti, dal punto di visla pragmalistico che divenN gono gli altribuli metafisici di Dio, distinti dai suol attributi morali? Quali effetti possono produrre sulla nostra condotta? Che cosa importa per la vita del. l'uomo che Dio sia a sè, che Dio basti a sè stesso, che Dio non appartenga et nessun genere ecc. ecc.? «Come può mai l'« aseità » di Dio loccarmi inlimamente? Quale speciale cosa posso io mai fare per adattarmi alla sua « semplicità? n «O come devo de terminare lu mia condotta da qui innanzi se la sua «felicità» è assolutamente completa?» Anche quan‘do di quesli attributi ci si desse una dimostrazione logica rigorosa noi dovremmo confessare che essi non hanno senso, 4 poichè sono lontani dalla morale, lontani dai bisogni umani . Non è così degli attribuli morali. Essi risvegliano il limore e la speranza e sono il sostegno dell’anima. Se Dio è santo non può volere che il bene; se è onnipotente ne può assicurare il trionfo; con la sua onniscienza ci vede nelle tenebre; per la sua iustizia, Egli punisce le nostre colpe anche segrete. ègli è tulto amore, dunque perdona; è immutabile e quindi possiamo contare sul suo amore. i Iddio, nella creazione, si è proposto come fine la manifestazione della sua gloria; « questo dogma ha certamente una qualche elficace connessione pratica ©. colla vila, 0, meglio, Phu avula per l'enorme influen| za che ha esercitato sulla storia ecclesiastica e per ? ripercussione sulla storia degli Stati curopei» . Cerlo, quest'ullimo dogma, connesso con la concezione monarchica del mondo, di una divinità con la sua corle e le sue pompe non corrisponde più alla nostra mentalità, ma gli aliri attributi hanno un valore religioso anche attualmente. Sc la teologia scolastica JAMES, L'Excpérience religieuse, DD. 375 S86.: Il Metod. Pragm. JAMES, L'Expérience religicuse, p. 376; Il Metod. Pragm.. i LA 4 s = lì Pragmalismo 1 polesse stabilire in modo irrefutabile che Dio li pos- e) siede (gli attribuli morali}, darebbe una base solida si alla religione. Ma, come per l’esistenza di Dio, cusì 19 per gli allribali morali essa ba fallito nel tentalivo sl {lo Schiller ce ne ba detto il percl®). Si può provare d storicamente che essi non hanno mai convertito nes- È suno. Provatevi a dimostrare, scolasticamente, a uno | che dubita della bontà di Dio, che Dio è buono per- ì chè non vi è non-essere nella sua essenza! Quegli ni altribuli hanno valore non perchè e in quanto sono dedolti, dalla scolastica, a filo di logica da certi du (erminali concetti o calegorie, ma perchè e in quanto ur; eccilano in nvi la risposta di qualche sentimento at- A livo e fanno appello a qualche particolare condotta = da seguire» , non quindi in base a speculazioni, | Pi ma per la loro efficacia pratica. |, V'ha di più. La concezione leistica (scolastica) dipingeudo Dio e la sua creazione come distinti l'una dall'altra, anzi come affatto diversi, mette il soggello umano fuori di ogni contatto con la più profonda realtà dell'universo. Dio è separato dal mondo e dal- . l'uomo. Fra l’uomo e Dio vi è connessione o rappot= in - lo unilaterale, non reciproco. La sua azione può toccarci, si afferina, (conte possa toccarci è un misleto) ma Lui non può essere affetto dalla nostra reazione. Il rapporto fra noi e Dio non è sociale: i due terni. | ni sono separali da un abisso (8). Dio non è cuore del nostro cuore, ragione della nostra ragione, ma nostro maestro e giudice, ll nostro dovere inorale è di obbedire ineccanicamente a’ suoi comandi, di aderire pussivamente alle verità che non noi faccia > mo, ma che esistono per sè, « by (iod°s grace QI CE ‘ decrec» . Ebbene, lutto questo meccanismo LEO= N logico, che ha parlato così vivamente all’animo dei nostri antenati, con la sua limitata elà del mondo, | con la sua creazione dal nulla, con la sua moralità ta W) JAMES, L'Erper. relig., DD. JAMES, IL Met. pragm., PD. 26 . Ca ye 2 JAMFS, A Plural. Univ.,7. “i James, «Ad Plural. Univ. 72 La Religione nel Pragmalismo giuridica ed escatologica, col suo gusto per le ricompense e le punizioni, col suo considerare Dio cone un Jlegisialore esteriore, suona così vecchio al piu di noi come se si trattasse di una religione selvaggia di stranieri. Le ampie vedute aperte dall’evoluZionismo scientifico e lo marea monlanie degli ideali delia democrazia sociale hanno cambiato il tipo del la nostra menlalità, e il vecchio leismo monarchico è vielo e fuori di moda. IL posto del divino nel mondo dev'essere più organico G più intimo. Un creatore esteriore e lc sue islituzioni pussono essere professale ancora, verbalmente, nella Chiesa in formule che sopravvivono grazia aila loro inerzia, ma la vila è lontana da esse, non lano più adito nei nostri cuosti . Quel magnifico uomo nou naturale che è il ‘Dio del teismo non cì soddisfa più; è solto il livello delle idee morali correnti e perciò condannato dall’'alinosfera morale regnante, divenula per noì indi. spensabile. I frulli che un tal Dio ha dato ai nostri avi hanno perduto ogni valore per noi, le idee morali e sociati nostre ci costringono, sc abbiamo bisogno di Dio, a foggiarcelo in corrispondenza alle aspirazioni e agli ideali del lempo nostro . Ed ecco che l'anima contemporanea ha veduto la possibilità di una più intima Weltunschauung; la visione panteislica di un Dio immanenfe come sostarza inlima del mondo, e il mondo come parle di quesia profonda realtà. Questi concezione hu assunto due forme diverse: la monistica e la pluralislica . pp. 29-30. Lo stesso pensiero è espresso più largamente in: L'Eaperience reliyteuse, Qhap. IN: Critique de la Saintele, pp. 250-284 La frase è dell'Arzold. Cir: A Plural. Univ., JAMES, L'Ewper. relig. Si è detto che”il Dio tiel tolsmo è rigettato dal JAMES semplicemente perchè così porta la moda, Intendiamoci; se per ni0da si vuol significare «il complesso delle idee morali e delle forme sociali» di una data epoca, l'osservazione è giusta; se per moda s'intende quella brutta cosa che tutti conoscono, non credo che sia esatto il dire chè il James giudica di Dio in base ad essa. Cfr.. L'Erpér, relig., 1. c. JAMES, LI Plural. Uniw., pp. 30-31. Secondo il monismu la sostanza umana (e mondia- ©. le) si identifica bensì con Ja divina, ma non diventa veramente tale che nella forma della totalità. Lo spirito finito non ha realtà che neila comunione con lo pi spirito Assoluto; cioè ìl divino esiste autenticamente È solo quando è esperimentato nella sua assoluta l0 rà lalità. Pev il monista essere significa due cose: se si È predica delle cose finite significa: essere un oggetto Ì dell’Assoluto; se si predica dell’Assoluto stesso vuol i dive: essere il pensamento dell'insieme degli oggetti. LvAssolulo ci Îa pensandoci, precisamente come noi, nei sogno, facciamo gli oggetti sognandoli, o, in una storia, i personaggi immaginandoli. Mondo e assojulo sono la stessa cosa espressa con nomi diversi: pensiero e pensato (Gedanke und Gedachleg s – cf. Grice, SIGNIFICARE E SIGNIFICATO – SEGNARE E SEGNATO – Meinung – ge-meint). Quale grandiosa concezione nella sua terribile unità!» esela: ma il James . Quale intimità fra il mondo e 1 ASsolulo! > Ma, pur troppo, a un esame diligente questa 31 LI St x. milà ci apparisce illusoria e materiale; in realtà il divino è affatto estraneo al mondo come nel teismo monarchico . E in vero: per lassolulisla noi, POSI ad uno ad uno nella nostra finilezza empirica non abbiamo nessun rapporto con l'Assoluto; per far (parle di esso dobbiamo perdere l'essere nostro individnale con la sua limitatezza e coi suoi difetti. L'AsEa solulo è noì e lutte le allre apparenze, ma non è I nessuno di noi in quanto fali, poichè nel tutto TION x siamo « trasformati» diventiamo altra cosa. Dio quaFat: tenus infinilus est è altro da Dio, qualenus humanam wr mentem conslituit ha scritto lo Spinoza, il primo ; grande assolulisla . La vera conoscenza di Div = serive l'Hegel comincia quando conosciamo che le cose, quali ci si mostrano immediatamente, non han: ‘no verilà . L'Assoluto secondo il Taggarl non è processo, ma stato immobile: il movimento JAMES, Zbta. James, A Plural. Univ., Di. » DI art ri È aaa” ul = Pa. ASTRA La Religione nel Pragmatismo il cangiamento sono assorbiti nella sua immutabili È i come forme di mera apparenza . Che cosa più DA estranea a noi di un essere che non è nè intelligenza nè volontà, nè una persona, ne una collezione di persone, nè vero, nè bello, nè buono nel senso che noi diamo a queste parole? come scrive BRADLEY [citato da Grice, Prolegomena]. Che cosa facciamo di questo mostro metafisico incapace: di odiare e di amare, di soffrire e di desiderare? L’Assoluto non può essere personale nel senso ordinario della parola; dunque non può interessarsi delle persone: la sua relazione con ess? è tutt'al più una relazione di inclusione, puramente logica, quindi, non morale . Io non posso avere nè cuore nè pensiero per un essere che nulla ha comune con me; se Lui nella sua inerte auto-beatlitudine non s’inleressa di me come posso io interessarmi di Lui? = Non solo l'Assoluto non è un principio morale, ma non ha neppur valore scientifico. Per aver valore scientifico dovrebbe essere un aiuto alla comprensione intellettuale dell'Universo. Ebbene Esso non è la ragione suprema ed ullima di ogni cosa in par ; ticolare (e l'universo si compone di cose particolari) > appunto perchè è la ragione esplicativa di ogni cosa î in generale; e qual'è il valore di una spiegazione gemerale che non spiega nulla in particolare? . È, come si vede l'applicazione all’Assoluto dell’astrat lezza dei concetti con i quali sì prova, in teologia, 2 che Dio esiste e se ne deiermina l’essenza, secondo lo Schiller. s JAMES, Ivi; SClilLLER, Stud, i D p o i ud. in Hum. Essay XII, passim; JAMES, 0p. cit. pp. 47-48; SCHILLER, iul, p. 286 g. e: (Essr IV, . IDRA RRE JAMIS, ©p. cut., avi,; SCHILLER, Ess. JV. ScHILLER® Stud. in Hum,, D. | James, A _Plural Univ., p. id; SCHILLER, Stud. in Hum. bp,; « If th» One is neither of these {hings (beautiful and | good), I will not worship it. nor call it Good. If it is indifferent to 9ur Gocd, I am indifferent to its existence n. SCHI,LER, Stud, in IHum., p. 25). db Ît Pragmatismo Ti) Ma c'è di più. Uno dei problemi che ha maggiormente alfalicalo il pensiero umano è il problema del î male, il più fondamentale e il più pressante dei problemi religiosi. Esso ha un lalo teorico e uno pratico. Il teorico si formula: « Com'è possibile il male?» Il prutico: « Come liberarci dal male? » Il primo sor ge dall’impossibilità di conciliare la bontà di Dio. con la sua onnipolenza e con la sua infinità. Se Dio è il tutto, la perfezione assoluta, senza limitazione nè possibilità di limiiazione, donde il nale? Se Dio è onnipotente perchè non trionfa del male, di tulru il male? . li panteismo assolulista ci dice che la periezione di Dio è la sorgente delle cose; ebbene, guardate: il primo altu di questa perfezione è la spa ventevole imperfezione di tutto il finito sperimenta bile. Come mai la perfezione dell’assoluto, richiede 7 queste schifose forme di vita che troviamo nella realtà? Ecco il problema che nessun assolutista € . nessun infiniusta potrà maì risolvere. Negarlo nou è risolverlo. Lire, come fa l’assolutismo, che la impertezione del tuito non è che apparenza, una illusione degli esseri finiti, che il maligno non esiste 0 è assorbito con Dio nella sintesi superiore dell’Assoluto, ecc., ecc., non è risolvere, ma ingarbugliare il problema. Il male c è è noì vogliamo liberarcene. L ìl problema pratico si presenta: « Come scemulti | x la quantita del male che è nel mondo? ». Il lato pratico del problema, chie è il solo veramente importante, non ha sensu per l'assolulista: tutto ciò che è, è necessariamente come apparenza dell’Assoluto : ogni cosa l determinata nel suo essere e nel suo divenire; ia connessione fra le cose è assoluta, ogni evento è determinato da lulti gli eventi . Non esi lai” sad SCHILLER, po 287-258. nati James, 1 Pturat. Univ. , Una simile domanda è rivolta dal James al teismo creazionista del Leibniz (e si può | rivolgere ad ogui specie di creazionismo). Vedi: A «Plural. Univ.. « Perchè Dio crea liberamente questo mondo imperfetto, e non si contenta di contemplarlo nello schema ideale perfetto? James, 4 Plural. Univ. La Religione nel Pragmatismo ioni; i é che stono possibilità di nuove connessioni; non vi è c ; DE ‘possibilit: quela che s’identitica Son IP DESeRa silà. L’indelerminatezza del reale e la bo. FR na sono chimere. Ecco a che conduce. la Assoluto. Eibovo queste terribili accuse ACCIAIO deil’Assolulo noi ci aspettiamo di NEdSri dan nato alla irrealtà dal metodo PrOgmal sa MEO amet no RO . Dal punto di vista intel: ì es , E ris : CRA gua SelSsolnio Do i SA ISRUIL SDOlai elipotesi RO se l'Assoluto rende dei serDi all'uomo. Orbene, quantunque l'Assoluto sia e non possa essere il Dio della religione popolaure ordinaria e non si debba confondere col Dio del Cristianesimo c della Lcologia ortodossa ne vedremo più sotto il perchè tuttavia è stalo e può essere il Dio di una certa classe. d'uomini, che in Lui solo trovano la pace. Ciò che sembra logicanente assurdo c impossihi può essere dimostraio in q non le dice Schiller ualche modo con una fede eroica e palelica, Non v'è materiale così poco proInettente che non possa divenire il fondamento di una veligione. Non' vi sono conclusioni così bizzarre che non possano essere accellale con fervore religioso. Non vi sono desideri così assurdi Ia cui soddisfazione non possa essere riguardata come un atto di cullo . Perciò l’assolulo può esistere ed esiste come Dio se ha una reale iniluenza s ulla vita umana, se è qual“ehe cosa di vitale e di valutabile pragmalicamente. Ebbene, la storia delle religioni ne ha dimostrato l'utilità. Vi sono unime che hanno bisogno di una sicurezza assoluta che l'esito del mondo sarà buono, che l'universo non audrà in isfacelo sotto il COZZO Zut; Der Pragmatismus, Vorl., ASSI, SCHILLER, S/ud. in Ilum. Iîì Pragmatismo Ti degli clementi instabili e fortuiti; lale sicurezza non può aversi che ammettendo un'assoluta necessità e una interna coerenza del mondo, una determinazione a priori del futuro. Vi sono anime che provano un sentimento d’orgoglio al pensiero di essere una parle, una «manifestazione », un «veicolo» o una ripreduzione della Mente Assoluta . Vi sono quaggiù anime stanche, accasciate sotlo il peso del male, incapaci di trovare in sè stesse la forza di vincerlo; la loro vita si sfascia ed hanno bisogno di risolversi nell’Assolulo, come una goccia d'acqua nel mare. Noi tutti abbiamo dei momenti in cui aspiriamo al Nirvana, alla liberazione di noi stessi dalla esperienza finita. Questo stato è proprio degli Indiani, dei Buddisti e dì certi temperamenti mistici ai quali è conforto ed ebbrezza il sapere « che tutto è necessario ed essenziale, anche l’uomo col cuore e con l’anima ammalati: che tutto è uno in Dio e che in Dio lullo è buono. che in que-. slo mondo di apparenze, qualunque sia il nostro successo, siamo sempre dei miserabili. Vi è dunque un istinto dell’Assoluto. L’Assoluto può servire all'uomo, e perciò, nonostante le sue assurdilà, il pragmatismo lo rispetta ci dicono a una voce il James. e lo Schiller poichè gli istinti umani sono preziosi © sacri e tutto ‘ciò che opera è vero finchè opera. IL’Assoluto è salvo sotto le grandi ali della misericordia... del pragmatismo., Il quale pragmatismo inclina tuttavia ad un'altra concezione del mondo e quindi di Dio. L’'Assoluto mena necessariamente all’indifferenlismo e al quielismo; non è uno sprone al lavoro audace dei forti che non rifuggono dal male della vita ma lo affrontano pur nel dubbio di trionfarne, esso è per le anime un oppio spirituale; è il Dio dei deboli, degli stan- JAMES, Mer Praymatismus, VITI Vorl., passim; SCHILLER, Stwal. in Mum., JAMES. Numerosi esempi di questo singolare stato d'anicao ha offerto il James in: L'Expér. relig.,JAMES, Der l'ragmat.; SCHILLEK, op. c., p. YI. fo) La Religione nel Pragmatismo chi ; il pragmatismo non può accertarlo. Si è aCcusato il pra matismo di irrceligione; @ torto però. Non è a credere che la dottrina pragmalista, rigeltando VAssoluto e il Dio del teismo monarchico, neghi che il mondo contenga in forma di coscienza qualcosa di più grande e di meglio che la nostra coscienza. Forse che la nostra fede istintiva in esseri superiori, il nostro persistente rivolgersi verso una società divina non è che una illusione patetica di anime incorreggibilmente sociali e immaginative? . No, l'ipotesi di Dio è vera, perchè ha una eMceacia reale; per quanto possano essere gravi le difficoltà che le si oppongono, l'esperienza dimostra che essa opera. Il problema di Dio consiste in questo: come elaborare l'idea di Dio in muniera di farla entrare in accordo con le allre verità operative? , Ebbene, è logicamente possibile di credere in esseri sovrumani senza punto identificarli con l'Assoluto. Il con_celto dell’Assoluto sta in funzione del monismo idealistico ; il concetto pragmalista di Dio sla in funzione del pluralismo: è la forma pluralistica del panteismo religioso. Il pluralismo in quanto ha rapporto con la religione ammette col monismo la immanenza di Dio nel mondo, come vita e sostanza profonda delle “cose, sostanzialmente identica con la vita e con l'essere più vero dell'uomo , ma differisce inconciliabilmente dal monismo negli svolgimenti ulteriori della lesi unica. Per il pluralismo la vera realtà delle cose è la loro individualità. Il mondo è collezione, non unità. Ogni JAMES, iui. Jimes, Her Praugmal, Anche lo Sc È Ste 4 DI È 162, A o SCHILLER prois contto LASERSA CIFITTRLIEIONO fatta alle nuove dottrine f adley, Cfr: Stud. in Mum., D. . Per Îl res della citazione, vedi; A Plural, Unlv.. Per E Jamrs, ber Pragmat., James, A Plarai. Univ, Schiller parla del Pluralisino in generale in: Stud. in Human D ; vl ROSSO alla sfuggita in altri luoghi per la relazione del. pluralismo con l'Umanismo, vedi. Humanism, PI LA SE cosa pensabile, per quanto vasta e inclusiva, ha un ambiente esteriore: non è mai (ullo-inclusiva (AU inclusive). Nessuna inchiude lulte le cose assorbendone la realtà tutta, nessuna domina su tutte. Men{re la realtà del monismo è caratterizzata dalla All form (formia del tutto o dell'uni-tulto), quella del pluvalismo è caratterizzata dalla Zach-form (forma del le individualità o distributiva, come altrove la chiama il James): è la forma dataci dalla esperienza iminediata. Il mondo pluralistico è piuttosto una repubblica federale che un impero, un regno. L'unione delle cose singole atomi e unità spirituali non è compenetrazione di tulte in ognuna, non è il tipo del la unione monislica della tosalità-unità (Alleinheit), non è complicazione universale, ma contiguità, continuità, concatenazione di individui; è il lipo di unione synechislica , quindi vi è dislinzione e indipendenza. Perciò nessun centro di coscienza, nessuna azione puo lutto abbracciare: qualche cosa sfugge sempre e non può mai essere ridotta all'unità to) Non c'è un'assoluta unità causale del mondo; non cè un'assolula unila generica; non e'è un'assoluta unità teologica e morale; non c'è un’assolula unità estetica, non c'è un’assolula unità noelica attuale JAMES, A Plural Univ.. Il synechismo è quella tendenza del pensiero filosofico che fa dell’idea di continuità una delle più Importanti in filosofia. Il continuo è inteso come qualens cosa le di cui possibilità di determinazione sono inesavribiti. Oltre questo synechismo che è metafisico ve n'è uno epistemologico, cioè la concezione della verità sistematica come gradualmente approssimabile, ma non mai interamente taggiunsipilo dal pensiero. I.'uomo tende a una interpretazione scinpre più razionale e coupleta dell'universo, ma ogni fase del processo conoscitivo non è che una razionalizzazione parziale della realtà. CIr. l’arucolo del PrRcE Pragmatism nel ictionary of Philosophy del Bal&win. Secondo il Peirce il | Pragmatismo è parte deila dottrima più larga del synechismea. (Credo che il nemne sia del Peirce). Cfr. la bellissima opera Thegries of Knowledge, del P. WALKER S. T., TLongmans, Londra: da essi ho prese queste cliazioni n proposito del symechismo, dal La Religione nel Pragmalismo dell'universo . Vi sono «reali possibilità, reali indelerminazioni, reali incominciamenti, reali finì, roali mali, reali crisi, reali catastrofi e reali scompi . Nel mondo accanto all'ordine vi è il Cso ne, accanto al sapere, vl è l'ignoranza, accanto a bello il brutto, accanto al bene il male: non vi è dunque perfetta, unità, ma molteplicità reale neil unità imperfetta. Forse l’unità perfetta non vi sarà mai; forse non potranno essere liberate dalla disgregazione e dal disordine che certe parli del mondo, quelle alle quali si estende la nostra allivilà uni ficatrice. Ad ogni modo la piena unità, se sarà possibile, nella ipotesi pluralista non è al priucipio ma alla fine, non un primo ma un ultimo ; la salute ogni salule, anche ia parziale non è necessaria, certa a priori, ma solo possibile. Nella concezione assolulista il fondamento della realtà è l’unità statica; nella pluralista sono delle possibilità, pure possibilità. Il pragmatismo riconosce un valore reale alla prima, ma preferisce la seconda, come più in armenia col suo temperamento, poichè essa è alta a suscitare nel nustro spirito un numero maggiore di esperienze future e sprigiona in noi determinate allivilà. Il suo effetto sull'uomo non è il quielismo, 1a il lavoro strenuo, poichè com’essa insegna, da lui {dall’uomo) dipende la vittoria sul male: vittoria possibile a prezzo di lotta contro i pericoli e la resi stenza della realtà ad essere redenta è unificata. Così il jvagmatismo tiene Ja via di mezze fra l'ollimismo per il quale la salvezza del mondo e dell’uomo è “sicura e il pessimismo per il quale ogni salute anche parziale è impossibile. Il pragmatismo è meliotristi: per esso il fuluro sarà di più in più migliore del vresente come il presente è migliore del passato. E la possibilità anzi la probabilità della salvezza per JAMES, Mer Pragmatismus; A Puwal. Univ. specialmente Zesi. JAMES, Will to Believe { Schiller: In Huinanism, pagina SI p, Gitato dallo Schiller JAMES, Der Pragmatismus. i mo. il Pragmatismo 8 ja liberazione dal male e per la diminuzione della moltiplicità non unificata aumenta in proporzione del numero e della bontà delle forze iiberatrici. Vi sono delle forze sovrumane che lavorano e lottano con noi? Allora la incertezza della salute è ridoita di mollo; possiamo sperare che l'esito del mondo sarà buono. Qui si mostra in tutto il suo valore reale l'ipolesi di Dio; per questo gli uomini religiosi del tipo pluralistice hanno sempre credulo in Lui . Ma chi accelta il pluralismo ed ha bisogno di forze sovrumane , deve elaborare il concello di queste in modo da accordarlo con le esigenze e con le verità operative di tale dollrina. Quindi: la realtà divina (o le lealtà: vedremo più sotto se al singolare o al plurale) deve coesistere con lulte le altre realtà individuali inferiori, non assorbirle;j deve lasciar sussistere le possibilità, le indeterminazioni, la libertà e quindi la incerlezza del futuro; dev'essere personale al iagdo nostro, poichè diversomente ci è impossibile 1 mità con essa: in una parola: può e deve esSIRO più grande di noi, ma ron infinita, più potente RT Ta Tio onnipotente. Noi non sappiamo che Alon Si Di s7ranico alla nostra natura; noi vo: FTT ESAC sla intimo a ciò che è umano in Tondo dr 5 amen e umano, al mondo in quanto è ONT sperienza. Noi e il mondo di cui siamo Perche Dig SO nel tempo e abbiamo una storia; RSA la f apporti reali, non puramente astratCES col mondo deve esistere nel tempo e una storia, deve quindi escludere la staticità È RE Der Pragmat.. IESUe i celli accetta il pluralismo con tutti i suoi pericoli e Îlifmonda Fuso 4 se la sente di lottare du solo per rendere Riones E TERE RMS: tali uomini non hanno bisogno ui reliTenero » che pool temperamento diameualmente opposto «al tieni Ja SR dsc lAssuluto. Come si vede, il pragmatismo sulla AT i mezzo che è la via aurea perchè conta a dleì temperamenti umani. I più degli sono dai i . I pi egli uomini : si EONANO I SIANZA dei due temperamenti opposti: a questi mamente ul tipo meltorislico del telsmo, Pragmatismo PEPE], Pg ASS RE. I RARE 1 pragmatismo È s2 La Religione ne,” ed avere Un ambienté esiratemporale dell'Assolulo esterno come noi. essere, IN una arola, uno degli euch, UD mombro del mondo pluralistico, una conti nuazione di esso . i ; Uno o più? Monoteismo 9 polteismo? Si può con: cepire Dio monoteisticamente e politeisticamente dice il James purchè sj ammetta la sua finità; è Vunica via per sfuggire a tutti gli assurdi e gli 1nconvenienti che por sè l Assoluto . Tuttavia il pragmatismo inclina evidentemente al politeismo, alla concezione di diversi del, ognuno dei quali Ss! occupa di una frazione dell'universo; © di una gerarchia di coscienze inferiori che vanno dalla c0d una suprema, senza soluzione scienza della razza ® | i a non è infinita perchè di continuità; © la suprem infir ‘sintesi di coscienze finite ; © è dice il Boutroux ‘un sostituto pragmatistico dell'Uno astratto degli idealisti; in essa € per essa le coscienze inferiori possono entrare in relazione fra loro, amarsi e comprendersi : sla qui il suo valore pratico. Tanto James come Schiller tengono molto a rovarci che la loro concezione del divino sì accorda perfettamente con la religione pratica, con la esperienza religiusa dell'uomo ordinario, e con la teolo ia orlodossa non inquinata dal veleno monistico. Ne Jehova dell'Antico Testamento nè il Padre Celeste del Nuovo hanno nulla di comune con l'Assojulo se non questo, che lutti e tre sono più grandi dell'uomo. Difficilmente io posso concepire qualche fn 9” cosa di più diverso dall'Assoluto del Dio di David 0 JAMES, A putrat, Univ., DI. JAMES. ) È la teoma di Fechner che il JAMES €S sone nella IV Let ‘tara del suo: 4 Plural. Unw.: "Concerning. Fechner 0 oo : ì questa coscienza feclneriana « esistente dietro le quinte ; da È del mendo» e non ienulicabilc con l'Assoluto dei ° rascendentalisti, il James sveva già pirlato in una conferenza « sull'im- i Saggi “Pragmatisti: « L'ime | i | mortalità dell'anima, Cfr: (mortalità dell'anima », Di JI. Il Pragmatismo di Isaia. Il loro Dio è un essere essenzialmente finito nel cosmo; vi ha un'abitazione e attaccamenti locali e personali. La coscienza religiosa ordinaria postula un Dio parziale, un Dio che ci soccorra e simpatizzi con noi poveri framinentli finiti del tutto . In nessuna religione il Divino, il principio dell'aiuto e della giustizia, è riguardalo come onnipolente in pratica. Il politeismo originario dell'umanità si è svolto solo imperfellamente e oscuramente nel monoteismo. E il monoteismo stesso, in quanto è veramente una religione e non il tema di conferenze universitarie, ha sempre vedulo in Dio nient’allro che un aiuto, un primus int:r pares in mezzo alle altre potenze che presicdono alla storia del mondo e la formano. Il teisimo pratico e popolare è sempre stato piu o meno francamente un pluralismo, per non dire un politeismo. Cioè, il leismo volgare si adatta a un universo risullante di più principì indipendenti gli uni dagli altri, purchè gli sì permetta di credere che il principio divino (dal quale viene l’aiuto) sia il principio supremo, al quale gli altri sono subordinati . E vero che questo Dio e rivestito anche dal volgo, come dai filosofi, di qualcuno di quegli attributi melafisici che abbianìo così severamente giudicali. È «unico », è «infinito »; l'idea che possano esistere -più dei finiti nn è neanche discussa. Ciò si spiega dal falto che il popolo s'inchina davanti alla autorità dei filosofi amanti di unità e dei mistici inclinati al monoteisra9». In reullà la credenza religiosa è semplicemen'e la fede in qualche cosa di più grande in cui si può trovare la liberazione dal male. I bisogni pratici e le esperienze (i; James, A Plural. Univ. SQUILLER, Stud. in Zum., Schiller aveva difesa. e svolta la idea di un Dio finito gia In: Riddles of the SpIinz Cfr.: Le Dieu fini (par Dessoulavy), Rev. de Fhilos. Scun LER, Stud, in IHum. TAMES, Der Pragmat., p. 192. JAMES, L'Expér. relig., Chap. V, p. pormi T u oei”niuocoenau<{iite0tt@ en TEZZE RR a ge 84 La Religione nel Pragmatismo dell'anima religiosa NOn esigono altra credenza che esta: esisle per ogni individuo una porsnza supe: riore et lui, e a lui favorevole, alla quale può \.nirsl perchè parlecipa della sua stessa nabvura. Per suscitare la confidenza dell’uomo pasta che quel potere sia assai grande, sia più grande dell'io cosciente, non è necessario che sia infinito © unico. Si potrebbe conceirlo come Un “ jo» più grande € più divino, del quale io attuale non sarebbe che l'espressione in piccolo: Puniverso spirituale sarebbe allora Vinsienic di questi «io» più 0 meno comprensivi, ma non la uniti ussoluta. Questa specie di politeismo è sempre stata la religione del popolo e 10 è ancora . La credenza opolare “ ammette ì miracoli e le direzioni provVIdenziali; non prova nessuna difficolià @ mescolare il mondo ideale è il mundo reale, i supporre che le polenze spirituali intervengano nel gioco delle forse tisiVide che a determinarne gli avvenimenti particolari ». Qui sta il vero valore di Dio o del Divino e ì praginaUusti sì schierano tra i difensori di questo sopraunatutali. smo. Il soprannaturaUsino grossolano? Si, dice il Ja mes; e io sono persuaso che questa è L'ipotesi che sodita disfa un più gran numero di legittime aspirazioni del cuore e dello spirilo: per questo il pragmatismo la fa sua, ed anche perchè è mirabilmente confermera da ai cerle esperienze religiuse. Quelli che le hanno provate st Riti sanno che nol abillamo in un ambiente spirituale invisibile, donde ci viene l’aiuto; che la nostra anima è misteriosamente una con un'animu più vasta di cul noi siamo gli strumenti. Niente ci forza a credere che uesta anima sla intinita, perfetta: l'ipotesi più naturale e più probabile è ammettere che VI ha un Dio, ina finito, sia in potere 0 in sapere 0 nell'uno e neli'al- } tro. 1:4% (i) gas, L'Erpér. relig., DD, 7 i, JAMES, LED. , dove si trovano le parole sottoli î neate da ine; A piurat. Univ., PD. 308, gli. A_PAE: 125 è più Da categorico. DOpu aver dgto ragione 2 Giovanni Mul il quale DI aveva detto che bio non può essere oggetto di religione ine L che non gli si toglie la onnipotenza, aggiunge: To credo che : unicamente un Dio finito è degno di questo nome, appunto perche, per lui, Dio è e dev'essere il Dio della religione.bd mici dissi a = o Ie Les E così è sciollo il problema del male. Im questa concezione Dio non è responsabile dell’esistenza del male, non lo sarebbe nemmeno se il male non dovesse mai esser vinto, Nel mondo panteistico, come s’è veduto, il male, come ogni altra reallà, deve avere il suo principio in Dio: e la bontà di Dio, che è essenziale assolutaumente alla religione dice lo Schiller come sì salva? Ebbene ammettiamo che fin dall'origine il mondo è un insieme di principî distinti, che il male non è parte essenziale, ma un elemento indipendente e la bontà di Dio è salva: il problema teorico del male èsciolto. E col leorico anche il pratico. Se tullo ciò che è, è essenziale, come parte dell'Assolulo, il male è indistruttibile; se invece è elemento non appartenente alessenza della realtà, noi possiamo sperare di poterÌ lo espellere (il male) presto 0 tardi . Perciò lutte a le forme di teologia, eccettuata quella più filosofica che ee ha subito l'influsso degli assolutisli, concepiscono di fulto il male come dovuto a un potere che non è Dio e ne è in qualche modo indipendente: è denominato variamente: materia, volontà libera, o il diavolo. La onnipotenza di Dio dei teologi non è quella dell’Assoluto: essa è dipendente da necessità metafisiche . HE Concludendo: In questa concezione di Dio elaborala col criterio del valore pratico sulle rovine della critica. È dell'Assoluto e del leismo scolastico e in armonia col si pluralismo, abbiamo tutto ciò che corrisponde alle. 4 esigenze umane del divino; è salva la libertà dell'uomo: è dato un fondamento alle sue speranze è al suoi desideri di salule ed è resa possibile la massima. intimità fra il mondo c Dio: intimità di sentimento e intimità morale, cioè la vera religione, che tanto ha operato e opera sulla condotta. Noi chiediamo; Di che natura sono le reallà spl TOA = L'Expér. relig., Chap. V, D. . . “A ScHILLer, Stud, in Mum.; JAMES, 4 Plural. Uniw,, La Religione nel Pragmatismo; P, rituali più alte? » « Io l’ignoro » risponde il James . Chiediamo ancora: ‘ esistenza di Dio è un puro "contenuto soggettivo, ovvero è oggettiva? Poichè am mettiamo bene che l’azione di Dio, nell'esperienza re| ligiosa, è reale, che ha un'efficacia reale e che tutto | accade come Se una forza sopramondana agisse direttamente sul mondo dell'esperienza umana ; am mettiamo bene che l’esistenza di Dio ha un reale valore pratico quando è affermata con fede, specialmente coloso com'è quello del pluralismo ; in un mondo peri ina noi sappiamo dal James stesso « che certi oggetti ovocano in nol delle reazio uramente intellettuali pr C i C î ‘così 0 più forli che gli oggetti sensibili o reali . Ora è precisamente questo che domandiamo: le realtà sovraumane hanno un'esistenza oggeltiva, indipen dente per sé dalla nostra esperienza soggettiva, 9 in dipendente solo perchè noi, con Patto di [ede, V'alfer miamo lale? e TS il pragmatismo questa domanda non ha sen -S0; richiamiamoci alla mente la sua dottrina della verità, della realtà e della conoscenza. Una dottrina che nega il valore rappresentativo dei concetti e professa il nominalismo; che dichiara di te abbandonare la logica francamente, recisamente © irrevocabilmente» non può condurre che all'agnoslicismo e allo scetticismo. È Ben poco ci rimane da dire dell’applicazione pragmalistica del criterio delle conseguenze alla reli gione dopo quanto siamo venuti esponendo fin qui. Che cos'è la religione? È assai probabile che nen e che quindi è impossibile definirla. « Religione » non designa un principio unico, ma piuttosto una collezione: non v'è un'emozione religiosa elementare, come L'Expér. relig., D. . James, L'Erper. relig.. D., Zut, p. 45. ù A_Plur, Univ. arriveremo mai a scoprire “ l'essenza della religione »- Il Pragmatismo non esistono nè un oggelto religioso nè un atto religioso specificamente determinati. Se è impossibile dare una definizione astratta della essenza della religione non è però impossibile delimitarne il campo e inchiudere in una formula i lraiti caratteristici empimci délla religione. Una divisione salta subito agli occhi: tra istituzioni religiose (o religioni stabilite) e religioni individuali (o personali). La religione stabilita è un insieme di istituzioni, di cerimonie, di riti, di sacrifici propiziatori, di dogmi, di organizzazione del clero; si può definirla: un'arte pratica di assicurarsi il favore della divinità, La religione personale è la vita interio re dell'uomo religioso; gli atti che essa produce sono personali, non rituali ; l'individuo sbriga da sè i propri affari con la divinità ; e la chiesa coi suoi preli, coi suoi sacrumenti e con tutti i suoi intermediari passa in ultima linea. Si può definire: «le impressioni, i sentimenti, gli atli dell'individuo preso isolatamente in quanto si considera in rapporto con ciò che gli apparisce conie divino » , comunque poi s'intenda questo divino: come legge dell'universo, come anima del mondo o come un Dio personale. Parliamo anzitutto del valore della religione in senso personale e poi del valore delle religioni o istituzioni religiose. Per quanto grande sia la differenza con cui l'elemento religioso si combina nell'uomo con gli altri elementi del pensiero, anzi, per quanto diverso sia il principio stesso religioso nella molteplicità delle sette, dei credo, e dei tipi religiosi , noi possiamo affermare che le credenze più caratteristiche della vita religiosa sono: 1.° Il mondo visibile non è che una parte d'un universo invisibile e spirituale, dal quale viene lutto il suo valore. Il fine dell'uomo è l'unione intima, armoniosa con questo universo. James, L'Expér. relig., D. . « Nous entendrons exclusivement par le divin une réalité première de telle nature que l'individu se sent obbligé de prendre vis-A-vis_ delle une attitude solennelle et grave, en Jaissant de coté tout blasphème et toute plaisanterie. Son io che sottolineo. JAMES, L'Expér, relig., , tas dee tie. nea 880. La Religione nel Pragmatismo La preghiera, cioè la comunione con lo spirit dell'universo sio esso un Dio 0 solamente una ; legge è UV atto che non resta senza effetto: ne i risulla un influsso di energia spirituale che può mo“A ‘ dificare in una maniera sensibile (anto i fenomeni materiali quanto quelli dell'anima . (ei Nella valutazione di queste credenze il criterio non sarà, naluralmente, un sistema speculativo o {eologico, ma i frutti, le conseguenze pratiche : dal frutto . sì conosce. l'albero. E poichî nella religione il sentimento vi ha la parte fondnmentale, vediamo qual'è il valore affettiva della religione. Tolstoi ha detto che Ja religione fa vivere gli uomini. Il sentimento veligioso è uneccitazione giocunda, un'espansione dinemogenica che tonifica e rianima la potenza vitale: aggiunge n valore nuovo alla vita, c agli oggetti più ore inart un fascino e uno splendore insolili. Se la religione non avesse che questo valore soggettivo, IR non fosse che una serie di fenomeni psichici, senza } $ nessull contenuto intellettuale, vera 0 falsa che cessa RAI fosse, nol sarebbe meno una delle funzioni biologi UU: che più importanti della specie umana; ciò che ha SRO, fatto dire al Leuba che il fine della religione non è Dio, ma la vita, una vila più larga, più ricca: Dio 2: non si conosce, non si comprende, Ma si sfrutta . Ma la religione ha anche un'immensa fecondità pratica sociale. II frutto della vila religiosa è la santità, che inchiude in sè tutto ciò che di meglio ci abbia dato la storia. La santità ha avulo bensì delle manifestazioni ché la coscienza moderna non può acceltare, ma VE n'ha di quelle e SONO più numerose che ci rivelavo nei santi dei precursori © dei creatori. La sanlità accresce nel mondo în somma di energia morale, di bontà, d'armonia, di felicità. La santità con la AMES, . Nol sappiamo già a quale fra le varie convezioni «el divino il pragmatismo dà la preferenza e per quali ragioni. Citato dal JAN:S, D.: «Il ne faut Pas dire que l’on connalt Dieu, cu qu'on Je comprend; ll faut dire que l'on s'en serta, sua forza d'animo, col suo amore eroico pei miserabili più ributltanti, col suo spirito di. sacrificio, è un fallore essenziale del benessere sociale. La religione è la condizione necessaria di certi effetti, la «fonte dei quali nè l'individuo nè la società hanno saputo trovare altrove: il disinteresse, l'energia, la perseveranza. : 2 BAR Olire questo valere affettivo, o biologico, indivi duale e svciale, la religione ha anche un valore inlelleltuale? Questa questione si divide in due dice il James: «Solto la moltitudine delle credenze vi sono delle affermazioni comuni? » E: «sono vere tali affermazioni?» La risposta alla prima questione è affermativa: in tutte le religioni vi sono due stali »- . d'anima identici: il sentimento d’inquietudine che <S in noi c'è qualche cosa che va male, e il sentimento che noi siamo salvati dal male entrando in rapporto con esseri superiori con qualche cosa più yrande di noi: lotta e liberazione: ecco la sintesi della religione personale e il perchè del suo immenso valore sulla vita. Ma che cos'è questo qualche cosa di più grande? È reale o immaginario? Come possiamo en{rare in rapporto con lui? Qual'è, insomma la verità della religione? Xispondeve a quesle questioni impiicile nelia se-. conda è costruire delle sopracredenze (surcroyances) individuali e collettive, tutte buone se aiimentano il nucleo vitale della religione. Vi possono essere e vi sono di fatto tante aggiunte individuali alla credenza unica quanle sono le anime o i lipi religiosi , Il «rapporto col divino potendo essere, o essere inter{ pretato come rapporto o morale o fisico, o rituale, «Si capisce come possano nascere delle costruzioni 7A _ losofiche e leologiche delle quali abbiamo visto Valore e anche come sorgano le Chiese. James, e con lui, naturalmente, più o meno tuil SA JAMES, L'Expérien. relig.) JasrEs, Ci è nota la sua croyance. 0% ‘La Religione net Pragmatismo pragmalisti non ama a dir poco le Chiese, con la loro organizzazione, coi loro. dogmi, con le loro tradizioni, perchè in esse è uccisa la vita inte AQ ogni modo e dogmi e culto e mi debbono es: sere giudicati daì frutti individuali e social, e i frutti della vita religiosa sono sommessi alla giurisdizione del buon sense e dei pregiudizi filosofici e istinti morali dice allrove . Ed essendo questi pregiu‘dizt, questi istinti e questo buon senso frutti, essi stessi, dî una. evoluzione empirica incessante, anché le idee religiose si andranno incessantemente modificando. Dal giorno che ìi frutti di una data forma religiosa perdono ognì valore, dal giorno che la vec chia credenza è in contraddizione con un nuovo ideale; dal giorno che la ragione la dichiara lroppo puerile, troppo assurda o troppo immorale essa cade trascinando, nella sua caduta, il Dio creato dall'uomo per «servirsene. E noi confessiamo che in i una dottrina interamente antropocentrica, nella quale l'uomo è la misura di iulte le cose, cioè, le esi È enzo, i desideri e gl’interessi umani nel modo che s'è veduto, lutto ciò è logico ©... anche utile, fino et un certo punto. Ed è naturale che il pragmatismo crede di fare un mondo di bene alla religione € alle religioni. Ci dice Schiller: Il pragmatismo jo uma nist,0) ha dimostrato che la volontà di credere sta. ulla base, non solo della religione, ma di qualunque - gpecie di inferenza 0 di atto razionale, e che, quindi, la sfera dei iudizi di valore non è coestensiva solo | |» alle verità religiose, ma a qualunque verità: la fede i lia così cessato dì essere un ‘avversario e un sosli- i futo della ragione ed è diventata un suo costitutivo | essenziale. Come potrà la ragione contestare la validità della dor: L'Erpér. relig. Pel «s î actetta: Pel «servirsene» cita ancora il Lepba L lì Pragmatismo dI fede, se la fede è essenziale alla sua stessa validità? E altrove: « Tutte le religioni (concrete) possono profillare dell’atteggiamento di simpatia che l'umanismo assume davanti agli istinti religiosi della nalura umana e verso le evidenze e i metodi delle religioni. 1l pragmatismo, affermando il fatto religioso e il suo valore sulla base dell'esperienza interiore e dei risultati individuali e sociali, rende vani gli altacchi razionalistici e mette la religione al sicuro dalle confutazioni dialettiche. Il pragmatismo inol(re, come si è mostrato un eccellente « eirenicon » tra le dottrine filosofiche, apparirà un «eirenicon» non meno efficace tra le religioni. Non è vero che lutte operano (in senso pragmatista) in una cerchia più o meno vasta? Ma allora esse sono identiche nella loro parle veramente vilale, attiva: e che importa sc differiscono teoricamente? Terzo beneficio: il: pràgmalismo libera, così, le religioni da ciò che vi è in esse di non-funzionale, dalle incrostazioni parassilarie ed csiziali, e, per tal modo, le rinvigorisce. Che cos'è la parte non-funzionale della religione? È il suo lato teologico . 18 qui una tirata contro i sistemi teologici, contro le infiltrazioni della metafisica greca nel « Credo atanasiano » e contro l’identificazione di Dio con «l'Uno». Già! La conclusione possiamo accettarla anche noi, ma basandola su fondamenti affutio diversi da quelli del pragmatismo: «La reli- 5 gione più vera è quella che proclama una vita mi- $, gliore e la promuove. ; Stud. in Hum. ScurLrer: Stud. in Hum. ,..(8ì E la conclusione dell'Essay, XVI: Fatt, Reason and Ri ligion in: Stud. in Humarism: «the truest reli tons that Which issues in and fosters the best life», Rd A eri della Logica formale nella con= S 1. Caratt { 2. La validità formale. cezione di Schiller. gi. Schiller sotto il nome di « logica formale» inchiude e condanna non solo quella che da al tri è designata col nome di logica formalistica mn anche la logica formale propriamente detta, e, criticando e condannando quella, presume di aver criticato e condannato anche questa, cioè, in blocco, . tulla la logica tradizionale e classica, alla quale dovrà sostituirsi la logica psicologica, 0 psicologistica, cioè quel complesso di leggi o regole o norme del pensiero che risultano dall'analisi psicologica del pensiero, ossia dalla considerazione dei processi del pensiero, non in una pretesa forma di esso di materia idel concetto, del giudizio, del raziocinio con: siderati astraltamente nella loro forma verbale di temine, proposizione € sillogismo considerai9 esso pure, a sua volla, astrattamente), ma nel loro sorgere e syolgersi allraverso la fitta rete psichica di Fferessi, di desideri, ecc. : la logica dello psicologi smo e della forma speciale di esso offertaci dal pragmatismo, insomma. Una logica et posteriori risut SCHILLER. Formul Logic. A sclentifle and s0cial Problem. > Un yol, Macmillan and 0.9, London. stinta dalla | er selezione, non a priori, una logica, pare, SOA sì, ma indotta in base a postulati, non dedotta. Il pensiero puro, così come la forma pura del pensiero non esistono; quindi ogni logica è necessariamente empirica nella sua origine e nel suo valore. E così con la logica sillogislica è condannata anche la logica del concello col solo semplicismo che abbiamo imparato a conoscere altre volte nello Schiller. Ma, evidentemente, prima di condannare in blocco, bisogna vedere se tra la logica formale e formalislica c'è idenlità, o se non c’è invece una diiferenza radicale che impone una pertraltazione a parle e radicalmente diversa di quelle due discipline. La logica formale vera è la dottrina della forma unica del pensiero: il concelto, come sintesi di individuale c come concelto universale contro, come scienza del concetto puro. Per essa la forma verbale in cui si suole incarnare generalmente il concetto non ha nessun valore logico e si guavda bene dal cousiderane le distinzioni verbali come distinzioni conceltuali 0 l’identità di forma verbale come identità concettuale. La logica forinalislica invece, trasporta nei concetti le qualità e le distinzioni dei termini, trasporta nei giudizi le modalita e le specie delle proporzioni, lrasporta nei raziocinì le figure e ì modì dei sillogismi: anzi la distinzione stessa delle forme logiche in concelti, giudizì e raziocini è nient’allro che una proiezione di forme verbali nell’altivita del pensiero. Perciò la logica formalistica qua talis, non ha valore speculativo (logico in senso vero), ima solo empirico © UCSCLILLvo; ci dà, Massunti, con piu o meno pretese (il copielezza, i modi piu consueti dei quali l'uomo 51 serve nel suo discorrere, nell'esposizione e ncila a discussione delle idee; è un'arte in senso di tecnica, 9 meglio, è una collezione (non connessione) delle forme del discorso empirico umano, una specie di leltorica 0 grammatica messa a servizio non del parlur bello ma del parlur giusto. Può essere ed è fino a un certo punto praticamente utile come tutte le discipline descriltive assunte a discipline nurmative d universale, come storia o guidizio sintetico, a priori, . DA | Sèhiller e la logica formale e precettistiche, ma non ha valore speculativo, ron ci dè, anzi ci nastonde la forma intima. del pensiero necessario € unico, © SÌ contenta di offrire! le forme esteriori, arbitrarie è quindi componibili € combina: bili all'infinito. I Jo Schiller na un buon gioco a mostrare il caraltere arbitrario di questa logica, la astrallezza di essa, la îmulilità e perfino il danno non leggero che essa può anrecare allo sviluppo Serio delle scienze © della mente individuale. Ha ragione lo Schiller: « IL îs nol .? ossible t0 abstract {rom the aclual use of the logical | material and lo consider forms ol lought @ 4 Ihemselves, voilout incurring thereby a total loss, 1’ hi nol only of Wrui, but also of meaning ”. i s 2. Ma con ciò non si è déito che ba ragione @ | ‘non riconoscere altre logica ché que:lu psicolugica, | tutt'altro. Oltre la logica formalistica (0 tormale cu- | mè la chiama erroneamente lo Schaller), c'è la logica i formale vera secondo la quale la maleria è fusa nel la forma, poichè per èssa la forma logica, concel‘tuale, sintesi di materia e forma, di pensiero e lup ‘esentazione: è forma Non astratta me concrela ; e tulto il pensiero reale storico perchè appunto sun: f (esi univarsale individuale: è il razionale-reale, il fl concetto.È Dio ci salvi dalla logica psicologica 0 psicologistica! Poichè in essa, oltre che non trovare nulla di # meno arbitrario che nella logica forinalistica non sì ì trova neanche quella apparenzà di necessità e di asSolutezza che la logica tradizionale ci oifre, sia pure solto una forma astratta e verbalistica. Finchè non si accetta e non SÌ capisce la logitù del concetto puro e semplice, ogni tentativo di riforme logiche sarà nulla più che un saltare dall'arbiltàrio all’avbitrario, dall'astratto ali’astratto e un aggiungere al mele nuovo male o una forma nuova del male. L per yitenere questo scopo non mette certo conto di scrivere un grosso libro come questo. Sé lo Schiller avesse rinesso bene su quelli che lui ritiene e sono i due caratteri fondamentali della 1oMl Praqmalismo' gica formalistica e cioè: I° la credenza che sia possibile considerare la «validità formale» come una cosa a parle e indipendente e astrarre dalla verità «materiale »; 2° la credenza che sia possibile trattare la iogica senza riguardo alla psicologia e di aslrarre dal contesto atluale in cui le asserzioni sorgono, tempo, luogo, circostanze, Scopo, personalilà, ecc. e se avesse poi esaminato con più spassionatezza la logica del concetto-sloria, non avrebbe forse futto giustizia sommaria di lutta la logica tradizionale cd avrebbe trovato che parecchie delle sue critiche sono state già fatte da altri, i quali non senlirono però il bisogno di sostituire, come fa lui, le elichelte psicologiche alle elichette della logica formalistica. In questo libro c'è molto del buono anche perchè dai principio alla fine corre nelle pagine una domanda sempre crescente di concretezza ce, anzi, pare a volte che lo Schiller abbia colto il centro della critica e della ricostruzione. Purtroppo i: pregiudizi pragmalislici gli impediscono di assurgere ad un punto di vista superiore; anche lui, pur nella lotta contro gli schemi e !e elichetle, maneggia schemi ed etichette; meno mole, anzi molto bene che, da buon pragmatisla, ne è consapevole.:= et | La reazione contro l'intellettualismo. Verità e ‘utilità. Del pragmatismo non si parla più che com di un indirizzo di ricerche e di asserzioni, che ha avi | {fo il suo proverbiale quarto d'ora di celebrità pei scomparire per sempre e senza visibili influssi sullu svolgimento complessivo ulteriore del pensiero. Nata da une reazione all'intellettualismo razionalislico ed empiristico, che non sapevano valutare l'attività de: soggetto nella creazione del mondo del pensiero € della vita; allermalosi come volontarismo ceudemo:; nistico o come filosofia dell'azione utilitaria, non ha sapulo nè volulo evilare, con una doverosa distin: zione dì logica e psicologia, lo scoglio terribile dellà formula protagorica: l’uomo è la misura di tutte lt cose ed'è finito nello agnoslicisnio e nello scellici sino, È inulile she ci ripetiamo. Iidotla la filoso; fia a un prodolto dell'individuo, © ad espressioni del la nostra soggellività volitiva e i giudizi scientifici speculativi a semplici giudizi morali; negala la pos sibilità di raggiungere l'assoluto, la ragione intima immanente e ascendente dell'essere o del divenire con l'affermazione della universale soggettività e Ie ‘natività; posto l’utilitarismo a base di ogni costruzio: ne concelluale e considerati, quindi, i concetti com‘ funzioni dell'interesse individuale, 0 tutt'al più s0 ciale, il pragmatismo si risolve logicamente in uni rinunzia a fi osofare. Può essere metodo per sè, I i UT Il Pragmatismo : i lla vita colta non filosofia sc IRRMIgSORE E So nella sua razionalità e nei s o ve omalismo profes E, infatti, come s'è veduto, 1 flo: esso non ha sa di essere semplicemente ua Coe etodo WNGNan: dog int aa istcao mon è forse una dottrina? Magli vamestto he riassume il meNon è una dottrina la formula c arsi tutte todo pragmatistico: « Sono er 6 da acco utili le neri SAS SIE n è forse implicito alla svitaza in: ilitari ico e, insieme, il n più Sconto no leorecot È esp ducslo ab: Dima definito, credo, Felino due aspetti più es ziali la teoria pragmati nd AR Sa CLES Della quale non è qui il luogo di TISIRLS estesamente il valore storico. Possiamo dire il nos D pensiero in due parole: il pragmatismo è andato all'eccesso opposto nella sua reazione all intellettualismo, perchè ha negato addirittura il concetto come tale, ogni concello, rendendo, con ciò stesso, vano, perchè senza fondamento, la Rane buona . dell'indirizzo, quella che, purificata di tutto l’utilitarismo + materialistico che troppo spesso la intorbida, si può esprimere nelle parole evangeliche: Dai frutti conoscerete l'albero. L'utilità nel senso spirituale altissimo della parola è un aspetto della verità: la verità eleva, la verità libera, la verità sacrifica. Ma, non dimentichiamolo mai, una dottrina non è vera, a propriamente parlare, perchè e in quanto è utile, ma è utile perchè‘vera. La verità metafisica e logica di una idea e di un Sistema d’idee è il fondamento di tutti gli altri attributi dell'idea e del sistema e di tutte le loro corrispondenze alle esigenze etiche dell'uomo. Yogi Pragmatis Rimandiamo alle seguenti pibliografie: The Pych Zev. Parini, Saggì pragmatisti, R. Carabba, Lanciano; SPIRITO, Il pragmatismo nella Jilosofia contemporanea, Firenze, Vallecchi Sinvio TISSI, Nota bibl. al vol. su James, Milano,. Ed. Athena | Segnaliamo poi, nella ricchissima bibliografia dell’argomento oltre ui molti scritti segnalati occasioalmente nelle note le seguenti opere: G. VAILATI, Scritti, Firenze, Secher; Papini, Sul Pragmatismo, Milano, Libr. Ed. Milanese (ripubblicato da Vallecchi); M. CALDERONI è G. VAILATI, IL $ pragmatismo, Lanciano, R. Carabba, SPIRITO, ; M. CaLpeRONI, Scritti, a cura di O. CAM7 Cna, con pref. di G. PAPINI, Firenze, «La Voce», INDIVISUO LINEE FONDAMENTALI DEL PRAGMATISMO. Il Pragmatismo anglo-americano. Pragmatismo e Umanismo.Pragmatismo e conoscenza. LA TEORIA DELLA VERITÀ E DELLA REALTÀ. La condotta. La dottrina dolla verità. La dottrina della realtà. LA RELIGIONE NEL PRAGMATISMO. Lo preoccupazioni etiche e religioso. L’esistonza di Dio. Il concetto di Dio.Religione e Religioni. SCHILLER E LA LOGICA FORMALE.Caratteri della logica formale nella concozione dello Schiller. La validità formale Ù 5 5 9 - VALUTAZIONE CRITICA. La reazione contro l’intellettualismo. Verità e utilità. È. NOTA BIBLIOGRAFICA. I MAESTRI DEL PENSIERO. VOLUMI CHE INIZIANO LA COLLEZIONE i) ei n VALENTINO PICCOLI À {Bi: INTRODUZIONE DELLA FILOSOFIA. ROTTA PAOLO ROTTA. ARISTOTELE BERKELEY | IALENTINO SETCOO LI ! TAROZZI PLATONE LOCKE | S: PICURO. LAMANNA AAA ° "KANT RUIZ na LOTINO MAGGIORE FICHTE HQ C. AGOSTINO MIGNOSI E. C. SCHELLING AQUINO MAGGIORE | C. HEGEL i S. FIDANZA Big ni x TISSI c ARTESI O SCHOPENHAUER i Fa PAOLO. ROTTA E. MOTOMIL MI o SPINOZA STUART MILL “50 »ALENTINO PICCOLI E. MORSELLI Î Y MIENIINO PICCOL CUORSEI È Pubblicati: P. ROTT _ SEINOZS x ì. MiGGIONE HEGE ZINI =. 2 SoioFENnAUER LAMANNA KA MAGGIORE FIGI TITE . C. S. TOMASO VICO "TISSI _ GATESIO MORSELLI. COMTE BOT. ARISTOTELE. SCHELUINO IRINA Kc} fe3: Nome compiuto: Emilio Chiocchetti. Chiocchetti. Keywords: prammatico, Grice: “In Italy, just to know that a philosopher has a religion orientation disqualifies as a philosopher, and that is at it should. The keyword is: anti-Popish, Vico, Croce, estetica, Aquino, Gentile, Neo-Scolastica. Refs.: Luigi Speranza, “Grice e Chiocchetti” – The Swimming-Pool Library.

 

Luigi Speranza -- Grice e Chiodi: l’implicatura conversazionale dell’esistenti – scuola di Corteno Golgi – filosofia bresciana – filosofia lombarda -- filosofia italiana – Luigi Speranza (Corteno Golgi). Filosofo bresciano. Filosofo lombardo. Filosofo italiano. Corteno Golgi, Brescia, Lombardia. Grice: “I like Chiodi; for one, he plays, somethings rather sneakily, with the Italian language as Heidegger played with the German language: Heidegger is able to play with Latinate versus Germanic words: tat (deed) versus fakt. The Italians only have ‘fatto’ and this leads Chiodi to restrict ‘fatto’ to ‘tat’ and invent ‘effetto’ for ‘fakt!’ – “But other than that he was a genius!” Frequenta le scuole elementari al paese natio e le medie inferiori e superiori a Sondrio sotto la guida di Credaro, che lo avvia allo studio della filosofia. Dopo aver conseguito l'abilitazione magistrale si trasferì a Torino, dove si laureò sotto la guida di Abbagnano. Nell'anno successivo ottenne la cattedra di storia e filosofia del liceo classico Giuseppe Govone di Alba, dove insegnò/ Qui entrò in contatto con Cocito, del quale divenne intimo amico, ed ebbe tra i suoi allievi Fenoglio. Questi ricorderà più volte nei suoi scritti i due insegnanti, con i loro nomi o con pseudonimi; Chiodi diventerà così, nel romanzo Il partigiano Johnny, il personaggio di Monti.  Grazie ai suoi contatti con Cocito, fervente comunista e antifascista, C. entra far parte di una formazione partigiana Giustizia e Libertà col nome di battaglia di “Piero”. Venne catturato dalle SS italiane, assieme ai suoi compagni, e deportato in un campo di prigionia a Bolzano, quindi a Innsbruck. Aiutato dal comandante del lager e da un medico, ottenne il visto di rimpatrio. Era alla stazione di Innsbruck diretto a Verona. Il 3 ottobre, verso sera, giunse nell'albese. Qui riprese la sua attività di partigiano, ora sotto il nome di battaglia di Valerio, mettendosi a capo, nelle Langhe, di un battaglione della CIII Brigate Garibaldi intitolato al suo collega Cocito, impiccato dai tedeschi a Carignano (località pilone Virle), insieme ad altri patrioti. Narrò la propria esperienza di lotta, di prigionia e di guerra civile nel libro scritto in forma diaristica e pubblicato dall'ANPI, Banditi, uno dei primi memoriali di deportati politici italiani.  Dopo la liberazione di Torino, C.  torna ad Alba. Si trasfere come insegnante al Liceo di Chieri e poi al Liceo Alfieri del capoluogo piemontese. Ottenne la libera docenza e fu incaricato e poi titolare della cattedra di Filosofia della storia alla Facoltà di Lettere e filosofia a Torino. L’Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei gli assegnò il premio del Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione per la filosofia e negli fu conferito il Premio Bologna.  Alla ristampa di Banditi C. premise questa avvertenza, poi conservata nelle edizioni successive: «La presente ristampa si rivolge particolarmente ai giovani, non già per far rivivere nel loro animo gli odi del passato, ma affinché, guardando consapevolmente ad esso, vengano in chiaro senza illusioni del futuro che li attende se per qualunque ragione permetteranno che alcuni valoricome la libertà nei rapporti politici, la giustizia nei rapporti economici e la tolleranza in tutti i rapportisiano ancora una volta manomessi subdolamente o violentemente da chicchessia».  Raccolse grande stima ed affetto tra suoi allievi, che ne conservano tuttora il ricordo di un grande Maestro, limpido esempio di tolleranza e serenità di giudizio.  Attività filosofica L'attività filosofica di C. si concentra specialmente sull'Esistenzialismo, riletto in chiave positiva. La maggior parte delle sue opere è dedicata a Heidegger.  Egli è il primo traduttore in italiano di “Essere e tempo.” Proprio a C. si deve la definizione della terminologia heideggeriana in italiano, divenuta poi abituale tra gli studiosi. Valga un caso per tutti: la traduzione di “Dasein” come “esserci”, capolavoro di sintesi ed efficacia, spesso e volentieri non ancora raggiunta in questo specifico caso in altre lingue. Al filosofo tedesco dedica anche, ovviamente, diversi saggi: L'esistenzialismo di Heidegger, L'ultimo Heidegger, Esistenzialismo e fenomenologia. È, inoltre, traduttore di L'essenza del fondamento e Sentieri interrotti. A Kant dedica, invece, La deduzione nell'opera di Kant e ne tradusse la Critica della ragion pura e gli Scritti morali. È infine da ricordare il suo interesse per Sartre, del quale si occupa nell'opera Sartre e il marxismo.  L'esperienza partigiana rimase sempre una pagina fondamentale nella vita di C.i, per cui il valore della libertà occupa sempre il primo posto. Non è un caso che Fenoglio fa rivolgere da parte di Monti, nel Partigiano Johnny, proprio questo ammonimento ai giovani partigiani di Alba: «Ragazziteniamo di vista la libertà». La sua unica opera narrativa, Banditi, ricca di valore non solo storico e morale ma anche letterario, è stata definita da Lajolo «Il più vivo, più semplice, più reale di tutta la letteratura partigiana» (L'Unità) e da Fortini “un capolavoro.” Ci sono dei tratti straordinari, nel tragico come nel comico».  Opere C., Banditi, con introduzione di Beccaria, Torino, Einaudi, C., Esistenzialismo e filosofia contemporanea, Cambiano, Pisa, Edizioni della Normale, Deportati Politici Italiani, su restellistoria.altervista.org. C., Banditi, Torino, Einaudi, Conoscere la Resistenza, Milano, Unicopli, Resistenza italiana Deportati politici italiani Esistenzialismo Heidegger Opere di C.,.  Biografia di C. nel sito dell'Associazione nazionale partigiani d'Italia, su anpi. Centro Studi Fenoglio C., su centrostudibeppefenoglio.Antifascismo Filosofia Filosofo del XX secolo Partigiani italiani Corteno Golgi Torino Brigate Giustizia e Libertà Deportati politici italiani. Nome compiuto: Pietro Chiodi. Keywords: esistenti, nulla annhihila, Kant imperative, counsel of prudence, rule of ability, practical reason, existentialism, Heidegger, greatest philosopher, maxim universality, maxim universability. Refs.: Luigi Speranza, “Grice e Chiodi” – The Swimming-Pool Library.

 

Luigi Speranza -- Grice e Chitti: l’implicatura conversazionale – scuola di Citanova – scuola di Macerata – filosofia maceretese – filosofia marchese -- filosofia italiana – Luigi Speranza  (Citanova). Filosofo marchese. Filosofo italiano. Citanova, Macerata, Marche. Grice: “I like Chitti; not so much for what he philosophised about – law and law and law – but the way he corresponded with Say – a French philosopher – on the lack of an adequate philosophical vocabulary in Italian to express Aristotle’s principles of oeconomia!” Fervor, temperanza e, ingegno finissimo fanno di lui uno di quegli filosofi che sono atti egualmente alla filosofia ed all'azione.  Figlio di Giuseppe, avvocato e giudice alla Gran Corte Criminale di Reggio. Partecipa a Napoli, col padre ed i fratelli, alla rivoluzione. In seguito alla capitolazione del Forte Castel Nuovo, ripara in Francia. A Parigi, termina gli studi giuridici e strinse amicizia con molti patrioti del tempo.   Ferdinando I delle Due Sicilie Tornato a Napoli, esercita in città la professione di avvocato e difese Casalnuovo (l'odierna Cittanova) contro la feudataria del luogo, la principessa di Gerace, davanti alla regia commissione feudale. Fattosi un nome come avvocato, dopo la restaurazione ha la nomina di segretario generale al Ministero di Grazia e Giustizia del Regno. A Napoli sposa la figlia di Hipman, un capo dipartimento di uno dei Ministeri del Regno. Coinvolto nella rivolta contro Ferdinando I organizzata dai sottotenenti Morelli e Silvati, e quindi privato della carica ed esiliato. Passa un periodo a Londra, e tenta di ritornare a Napoli, ma ha l'inibizione ufficiale a rientrare nella capitale. Anda a Firenze e di lì a poco, chiamato da amici, si reca a Bruxelles.  In Belgio da lezioni di diritto pubblico e di economia sociale, ottenne la carica di segretario della Banca Fondiaria e si fece un nome. Il governo belga gli confere la licenza di professare Economia Sociale, e tenne quattro letture pubbliche nel Museo di Bruxelles. Le sue quattro letture sono intitolate da lui stesso «Corso di Economia sociale», compendio delle sue vaste vedute e della sua non comune cultura sull'argomento. Pubblica altre saggi ed in seguito alla fama acquisita, il governo belga gli conferì la carica di professore alla facoltà di diritto dell'Bruxelles. In Belgio pubblica la maggior parte dei suoi saggi e strinse amicizia con GIOBERTIi, che lo define valente economico. Nonostante la revoca dell'esilio, non torna a Napoli ma rimane in Belgio. Altre saggi: “Trattato di economia politica o semplice esposizione del modo col quale si formano, si distribuiscono e si consumano le ricchezze; seguito da un'epitome dei principi fondamentali dell'economia politica di Giovanni Battista Say” (Napoli, Stamperia del Ministero della Segreteria di Stato). Ermenegildo Schiavo, Four centuries of Italian-American history, Vigo Press. The New York Herald morning edition mercoledì. New York Daily Times pag. 4  Daily Free Democrat. The American almanac and repository of useful knowledge, Center for Migration Studies Special Issue: Four Centuries of Italian American History Wiley Online Library  Vincenzo De Cristo, Prime notizie sulla vita e sulle opere di C. Economista, Prem. Tip. e Lib. Claudiana, Dizionario biografico degli italiani, Roma, Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana.  Per una rassegna delle interpretazioni dell’azione  economica corporativa si veggano i nostri : Lineamenti  di politica economica corporativa. Catania, Studio Editoriale Moderno, Sono ivi ricordati i contributi più notevoli, teorici e  descrittivi, nel campo dell’azione economica corporativa. Si vegga pure il nostro studio : « Homo Oeconomi-  cus » e Stato Corporativo in : Giornale degli Economisti. Riportiamo qui la bibliografia essenziale dei contributi italiani allo studio dell’economia  corporativa, tralasciando di segnalare gli studi, numerosi, di carattere polemico e giornalistico, ma privi di  consapevolezza scientifica e, spesso, deformatori della  stessa realtà politica corporativa : Alberti M. : L’Homo Oeconomicus e V Esperienza Fascista in Giornale degli economisti, Arias G. : L’Economia Nazionale corporativa, Roma, Libreria del Littorio, idem. idem. Economia Corporativa, Firenze,  Poligrafica Universitaria, Amoroso L. e Stefani A. : Scritti cit. ; Arena C. : Scritti, cit. ; Benini R. ;  Scritti cit. : Breglia A. : Cenni di teoria della politica  economica, in « Giornale degli Economisti ». Classifica le varie politiche economiche. Carattere  di quella corporativa: autogoverni economici particolari, con il compito di emanare misure rispondenti, nei  rami particolari, alla politica economica generale emanante dal governo economico centrale. Le corporazioni  sarebbero gli autogoverni economici particolari). Bruguier G. : A proposito di interventi statali, in «Archivio di studi corporativi », Pisa; Borgatta G. : Prefazione al nostro volume av. cit. : Lineamenti di politica economica corporativa; Carli F. : Teoria generale della economia politica nazionale, Milano, Hoepli, e dello stesso: Le  crisi economiche delV ordinamento corporativo della  produzione, in « Atti del II Convegno di studi sindacali corporativi», Ferrara; Chessa: Caratteri e  forme delT attività economica, in «Rivista di Politica  economica » Secondo questo autore  J economia corporativa non è altro che un’ economia di  complessi economici, che dev’ essere studiata nella sua  realta concreta, prescindendo da erronee identificazioni  dell individuo con la società e di questa con lo Stato).  Dello stesso autore: Vecchio e nuovo corporativismo economico in «Saggi di Storia e Teoria economica, in  onore di Prato», Torino, In questo studio l’autore conclude che il corporativismo italiano pur traendo alcuni suoi elementi dalle teorie enunciate dal Genovesi, dal Bastiat e dal List si differenzia da queste  in quanto che inquadra le sue idee in una concezione  piu larga, che non tiene solo conto degli interessi  dei singoli, ma anche di tutta la collettività nazionale,  che per essere sempre più aderente ai bisogni ed agli  interessi della Nazione, viene organizzata gerarchicamente dallo Stato); Degli Espinosa A.: La forma e  la sostanza della economia corporativa, Firenze Poligrafica Universitaria; Del Vecchio G.: Teoremi  economici deW ordinamento corporativo. Comunicazione  alla XIX riunione della «Società pel Progresso della  Scienza», riassunta in « Lo Stato »; Einaudi L. : Trincee economiche e corporativismo in « La Riforma Sociale », ;  e dello stesso: Corporazione aperta in «La Riforma Sociale » Fanno M. scritto cit.; Fasiani  M.: Contributo alla teoria delVuomo corporativo, in  « Studi sassaresi », ; Ferri C. E.: L’ordinamento corporativo dal punto di vista  economico, Padova, CEDAM, Fovel M.: Economia  e corporativismo, Ferrara, S.A.T.E. e dello stesso:  La rendita e il Regime Fascista, Milano, Ediz. dei « Problemi del Lavoro», Politica economica ed economia corporativa, Ediz. «Diritto del lavoro»; Camera corporativa e redditi di gruppo, S.A.T.E. Ferrara; Fossati A.: Premesse per lo studio di ima economia e di una pplitica economica corporativa, in : « Rivista di Politica Economica »,  (Ritiene  questo A. che tanto la politica economica corporativa,  quanto l’attività corporativa come condotta ipotetica degli individui dei gruppi animati di una coscienza corporativa sono teorizzabili: il secondo per definizione, e in  tanti modi quanti significati vogliano attribuirsi alla coscienza corporativa (all’autore parendo il più adatto  perchè conforme alle direttive del Regime quello che  ha a base 1 interesse della Nazione, ossia il massimo benessere individuale compatibile col benessere della Nazione); ed il primo, quando le norme abbiano sufficiente chiarezza (univocità) e costanza da consentire  una costruzione logica di conseguenze possibili. Purché non si mescolino precetti e teoremi, e peggio, non  si confondano gli uni con gli altri, è perfettamente  legittimo fare della economia corporativa una « economia » astratta, trovare il nocciolo razionale del concreto empirico). Gobbi U. : Il procedimento sperimentale della economia corporativa, « Giornale degli economisti»; Galli R. : Corso di economìa  politica, Firenze, Poligrafico Universitario, e dello  stesso: Corso sulle imprese industriali, Firenze, Poligrafico Universitario; Jannaccone P.: La scienza  economica e Vinteresse nazionale (Discorso tenuto all’inaugurazione dell’anno accademico della R. Università di Torino,  e dello stesso : Scienza,  critica e realtà economica, in « La Riforma Sociale »; Lanzillo A.: Studi di economia applicata, Padova, Cedam, e dello stesso  A.: Il contenuto dell’ economia corporativa, Rivista Bancaria, ed Economia corporativa e politica economica, Giornale degli Economisti; Lo Stato come fattore di produzione, Rivista Bancaria (Lo Stato  come inserzione di volontà nell’ attività economical.  Anche Ettore Lolini, a parte la sua antipatia per la  scienza economica tradizionale e la notevole incomprensione degli economisti ortodossi i quali riescono interessanti a seguire non come simpatizzanti delle idee liberali o di altre tendenze, ma come scienziati dell’economia, riconosce che per dare un carattere di  socialità, che concili l’interesse privato con quello  sociale o nazionale, alla economia privata, non è necessario giungere alla totale abolizione dell’economia  privata ed alla identificazione dell’ economia pubblica,  come ha fatto Spirito, il quale col porre erroneamente  al centro dell attività economica umana la produzione  e non lo scambio non ha visto che nello scambio si  ha la sintesi dell’ interesse individuale e dell’ interesse  sociale, perchè nello scambio, mentre l’interesse è individuale, il risultato è sociale. Per eliminare del tutto,  come vorrebbe Spirito, il carattere individualistico dei  valori economici ed il movente egoistico dei fatti economici e identificare F iniziativa economica privata  coll’iniziativa economica pubblica o statale, bisognerebbe trasformare la psicologia umana, abolire la personalità economica umana e con essa tutte le diff erenze  di bisogni, di desideri e di gusti che esistono ed esisteranno sempre fra gli uomini, differenze che costituiscono  la base dello scambio e la molla del progresso economico  e che nessun sistema di economia socialista è mai riuscito a sopprimere. Il porre a fondamento dell’economia corporativa la  produzione e quindi l’organizzazione e la gestione economica della produzione invece dello scambio, inteso  nel senso della ripartizione del prodotto di ogni grande  ciclo produttivo fra tutti i fattori della produzione mediante l’accordo contrattuale dei prezzi del lavoro,  del capitale, della direzione tecnica e dell’opera degli  intermediari, porta a delle conseguenze pratiche fonda-  mentali per la definizione dei fini e delle funzioni  della Corporazione. Nel primo caso, infatti, si dovrebbe  giungere alla Corporazione organo di gestione economica col passaggio di tutta l’iniziativa economica privata alla Corporazione e con la conseguente trasformazione di tutta l’economia privata in economia pubblica. Nel secondo caso, invece, la Corporazione non assumerà la direzione della gestione economica della produzione, ma avrà la funzione economico-sociale di eliminare il classismo o particolarismo economico, di impedire che uno o più fattori della produzione si facciano la parte del leone nei confronti con gli altri fattori e di adeguare l’andamento dei prezzi al produttore con quello dei prezzi al consumatore. Cfr. di  questo A.: Il problema fondamentale dell’economia  corporativa, Critica Fascista;  Masci F.: scritti cit. e: Saggi critici di teoria e metodologia economica, Catania. Sono raccolti con lievi  modificazioni gli scritti citati ed altri saggi); Paoni C.:  A proposito di un tentativo di teoria pura del corporativismo, in « Fiamma italica », e  dello stesso: Strumenti teorici di corporativismo, in Giornale degli economisti,  (in questi  scritti il Pagni critica a fondo la costruzione teorica corporativa del Fovel. Contro questi si schiera anche Bru-  guier nello scritto sopra citato ed anche noi nei nostri  scritti av. cit. Contra anche Arias ed altri); Sensini G.:  L’equazione dell’equilibrio economico nei regimi corpo-  rativisti, in «Lo Stato;  Serpieri A.: Lo Stato e Veconomia, in «Educazione Fascista », e, dello stesso : Economia corporativa e agricoltura, in Atti del Convegno di studi  sindacali e corporativi», Ferrara; Spirito U.: La  critica dell’economia liberale, Milano, Treves, dello  stesso: I fondamenti dell’ economia corporativa, Milano,  Treves, e Capitalismo e corporativismo, Firenze,  Sansoni. L’interesse suscitato degli scritti filosofici di questo  A. sono dovuti a ragioni di carattere esclusivamente  polemico. Nulla di nuovo ha espresso il giovane filosofo.  Nella critica all’economia liberale, infatti non fa che  ripetere, con sintesi brillante, quanto è stato detto dai  seguaci della scuola storica tedesca e dagli istituzionalisti americani contro la economia liberale. È confusa  la scienza economica con la praxis dei governi liberali  e demoliberali. Nella critica al capitalismo non fa che  ripetere, in linea essenziale, quanto il Sombart ha  espresso nella sua opera monumentale sul capitalismo  e quanto altri economisti contemporanei hanno scritto  contro il sistema capitalistico, e che l’A. si guarda bene  dal ricordare. Nè è fatta alcuna discriminazione, fra  capitalismo e capitalismo, senza, per es., ricordare che  m Italla 11 capitalismo è, appena, al suo inizio. Nei  tentativi di costruzione teorica del corporativismo fascista tiene conto, in particolare delle dichiarazioni della  Carta del Lavoro che rincalzano la propria tesi per  Ja quale vede la soluzione corporativa n clini entità  assoluta tra Stato ed individuo che riecheggia il pensiero di Hegel e di Marx. Nulla di nuovo nemmeno nella costruzione teorica la  quale e apparsa a sfondo social-comunista per l’ammis-  sione della corporazione come proprietaria. Propugna,  inoltre, 1 A. il partecipazionismo operaio, altro espediente vecchio e già discusso ampiamente nei tempi  passati. Ma, con buona volontà, si può Scorgere nel  sistema di Spinto anche un liberalismo assoluto per  cui dopo aver letto gli scritti di questo A. del corporativismo si riuscirà a capire meno di prima. E non  m tenrnamo quii su altri grossolani errori espressi  dall A. nel campo delle realizzazioni pratiche corporative, come per es. su quelle in cui consiglia per il  nostro Paese una industrializzazione ad oltranza, la  emissione di prestiti esteri, una politica commerciale  che sara forse realizzata, ecc (Tutte  queste idee sono espresse nel voi.: Capitalismo e Corporativismo, Sansoni, Firenze).   Contra a Spirito, si vegga: Arias, cit., Jannaccone,  cit., Lanzillo, cit., Moretti, appresso cit.. Vinci, appresso citato, ed i seguenti scritti. CROCE (si veda), L’economia filosofata e attualizzata, Critica; Galli, Sull’identità dell’individuo  con lo stato, La Vita Italiana;  (jANGEMI L. : Individuo e Stato nella concezione corporatina, m «Atti del Secondo Convegno di Studi Sindacali e Corporativi, Ferrara; Brucculeri: L economia corporativa, in «La Civiltà Cattolica», e dello stesso: Crisi e capitalismo, nella stessa rivista, etc. Cesarini-Sforza in un lucido scritto: Individuo e  Stato nelle Corporazioni (Archivio di Studi Corporativi) mostra come la formula  dell identità è chiarissima nel pensiero dei socialisti e  dei liberali. L’individualismo moltiplicando le sue forze non rinuncia ad essere sè stesso. Il grande significato  del Corporativismo è la disciplina economica nazionale.  Con il Corporativismo si passa dal soggettivismo all’oggettivismo. Alla organizzazione professionale è affidata,  sopratutto la oggettivazione delle scelte economiche.  Il nuovo modello della realtà economica non potrà non  essere anch’eseo, naturalistico e deterministico: non c’è  scienza senza determinismo. Caratteristica delle concezioni dello Spirito è l’ottimismo. (Per es. nello Stato  Corporativo non vi saranno più disoccupati!).   La nostra divergenza ideale con l’economia degl’idealisti non va assolutamente confusa con le invettive di quei messeri interessati ad un intervento che oggi  chiedono e ieri respingevano, nè con le interpretazioni  di coloro che hanno gli occhi sulla nuca!   Ricordiamo ancora: Moretti V.: I principii della  Scienza Economica e l’economia corporativa («Rivista  di Politica Economica»). M. rifiuta 1 identificazione fra Stato e Individuo. Integrando  e correggendo le opinioni di Arias e Fovel considera  l’economia corporativa come una economia non euclidea. Papi, Un principio teorico dell’economia corporativa, Giornale degli Economisti, e  più diffusamente in Lezioni di Economia Generale e  Corporativa», Gedam, Padova. (P.  ritiene che il sistema corporativo si possa considerare  come lo strumento capace di assicurare le imprese contro i (risdhi extra-economici (guerre, crisi, scioperi, etc.). Rossi, Economia e Finanza. Chiarifica il  concetto di concorrenza e mostra i caratteri della teoria dell’equilibrio economico generale. L’ordinamento  corporativo traduce nel diritto positivo un complesso  di norme di diritto naturale, che presiedono al fenomeno sociale della ricchezza. Ne risulta un diritto corporativo, definizione giuridica della libertà economica  c e sottopone 1 arbitrio del singolo alla regola; e la  figura dell’uomo corporativo si risolve nell’uomo economico libero. L’economia corporativa importa la penetrazione nell’organismo produttivo di un sistema organico, razionale di politica economica. L’economia corporativa risolve il contrasto fra l’essere e il dover  essere della vita economica. Dover essere: razionalità  (teoria economica pura), eticità (politica economica). Le forze direttrici corporative devono fornire al dinamismo economico il volano regolatore). Vinci F.: Il corporativismo e la scienza economica  (Rivista Italiana di Statistica, etc..  Questo A., conscio delle interdipendenze fra i vari fattori di produzione e fra le varie imprese e delle condizioni di concorrenza mondiale, ha dimostrato che  la « disciplina unitaria e l’autodecisione, ove conducesse  fino ala determinazione delle produzioni e dei consumi, esorbiterebbe largamente dalle attribuzioni dell’uria o dell’altra Corporazione investirebbe i rapporti  reciproci, non solo fra due o tre, ma fra tutte le Corporazioni, imponendo al Consiglio Nazionale delle Corporazioni un continuo, pericoloso compito di revisione  e di conciliazione in base a valutazioni complicatissime, a criteri di difficile determinazione oggettiva. Sulla Finanza Corporativa.   Si espressero anni addietro a favore del contingente:  Griziotti, Finanza di guerra e riforma tributaria, in  «La Riforma Sociale. Contro il  contingente: Einaudi, Principii di Scienza delle Finanze, Torino. Ed oggi, a favore del  contingente (citiamo gli scritti più seri): Benini, loco  cit. ; Montemurri G. : Per una finanza corporativa, Echi e Commenti, e dello stesso: Ordinamento corporativo e ordinamento tributario, in « Atti  del II Convegno di Studi Sindacali e Corporativi », Ferrara; Bonanno: L’extra-individualismo  nelle entrate del bilancio dello Stato, « Dir. e prat.  trib. »e dello stesso: Lo Stato corporativo e la  sua finanza, Diritto del Lavoro;  Uckmar : Ordinamento Corporativo e ordinamento tributario, Relazione al I Convegno nazionale di Studi  Corporativi», Roma, e dello stesso: Verso una  revisione corporativa della pubblica finanza, Diritto  del Lavoro, Roma; Riforme tributarie e Stato  corporativo, in « Diritto del Lavoro», Roma, ; Finanza corporativa, in « Diritto e Pratica Tributaria.  Roma, ed infine, sempre dello stesso: Ordinamento corporativo e ordinamento tributario, in Atti  del II Convegno di Studi Sindacali e Corporativi, Ferrara. Fra questi autori la corrente radicale  trova favorevoli Benini, Bonanno e Montemurri.  Uckmar ritiene che la finanza sia individualista e perciò la vorrebbe riformata in un senso meno individualista, ma nei suoi studi esprime delle proposte che  trova consenziente tutti coloro, fra i quali lo scrivente,  che riconoscono doversi inserire nell’ordinamento corporativo anche la finanza allo scopo di raggiungere quei  fini che gli conferiscono caratteri fascisti.   Sono contro D’Alessio, in un suo articolo: Evasione fiscale e riforma tributaria, Augustea, e Genco («Comunicazione al II Convegno di Studi Sindacali e Corporativi », Ferrara) i quali vorrebbero arrivare all’abolizione o per  lo meno alla riduzione degli organi finanziari statali  ed alla loro sostituzione con le Corporazioni! Uckmar,  contingentista moderato, riconosce che il potere impo-  sizionale tributario spetta allo Stato. Quest’autore quindi può inscriversi fra i fautori di una finanza coordinata all’ordinamento corporativo, ma è lontano dalle  Improvvisate e rivoluzionarie trasformazioni. La finanza  oltre a presentare un contenuto politico, riveste un contenuto tecnico con il quale male si accorda la improvvisazione degli innovatori. Ai quali rimarrà la soddi-  stazione di essere considerati rivoluzionari al cento per  cento, mentre agli altri rimarrà la soddisfazione di non  avere incoraggiato i salti nel buio che in materia finanziaria si scontano amaramente dalla Nazione, e perciò  si ritengono solleciti dell’interesse nazionale e cioè non  meno rivoluzionari dei loro colleghi che manifestano  i ce piu radicali. Il tempo sarà giudice sereno fra tanto contendere. Ricordiamo i seguenti scritti fra i tanti che  accolgono, con moderazione, una riforma tributaria in  ™° m A a C °p 1 ^gamzzazione corporativa: Garino Ca-  Problemi di Finanza, Torino, Giappichelli; Scandali: E.: Imposizione tributaria e Stato Cor-  porativo in « Echi e Commenti », e dello   TTr- A r-,ane r e   in «Giustizia tributaria»,; Gangemi L-   rinanza Corporativa, in « Rivista di Politica Economi-   Stato C e dell ° stesso: La finanza nello  Stato Corporativo, Commercio, Roma, £ r” cernii in   «Rivista di Politica Economica» (e una carica a fondo contro la funzione graduale,  ransitona e limitata del contingente come è propugnata da Montemurri e dal Cardelli il quale ultimo  ha espresso la sua tesi in Il Commercio)i Toselli Colonna: Teoria e  problemi della- economia finanziaria corporativa, Alessandria Colombani (è questa una diligente rassegna dei problemi corporativi della finanza). Infine,  si segnala 1 eccellente studio di Borgatta: Le funzioni  WaC “ f *’ in « Lo Stato », febbraio e   CEDAM L Tfmi {XeZ ' W ' t SCÌCnZa delle fi nanze ’ Padova,  CEDAM) non sembra opportuno affidare all’Associazione Sindacale la ripartizione degli oneri tributari  a gin associati. Le associazioni sindacali, probabilmente « non sarebbero neppure molto disposte ad assumersi  tali compiti, ohe spesso non sarebbero neppure in grado  di svolgere efficientemente data la limitatezza e l’inadeguatezza dei mezzi che hanno a propria disposizione,  anche a prescindere dal giusto timore dei dirigenti di  potersi creare m tal modo animosità lesive di quella  compattezza dell’Associazione Fascista, che costituisce  uno dei suoi requisiti più essenziali in relazione ai fini  propostisi dal nostro legislatore. Un chiarimento sulla tesi riformista di Benini. La  ritorma propugnata da questo autore (studio cit.), per  quanto riguarda l’imposizione diretta, è vasta e coraggiosa: due tipi di imposte dirette, proporzionali, l’una sul reddito totale di famiglia, l’altra sul patrimonio-.   Senza dubbio, la scienza finanziaria ed il procèsso  evolutivo della legislazione fiscale degli Stati moderni  pongono in evidenza i tributi globali e personali come  il fondamento di un corretto sistema di imposizione diretta in luogo delle imposte reali imperfette e causa di  sperequazioni gravi ed inevitabili. Il nostro sistema attuale è fondato appunto sui tributi reali, integrati da  una imposta personale, la complementare, che con i  procedimenti fatti approvare dal Ministro Jung presenta una struttura che le consente di assolvere agli importanti suoi compiti. Ma, appunto perchè la riforma proposta dal Benini  muterebbe radicalmente, ab imis, il nostro sistema d’imposizione diretta, sono necessari, per giungere ad essa,  lunghi e ponderati studi sulla entità, sulla composizione,  sulla distribuzione e sul raggruppamento dei redditi,  sulla organizzazione tecnica della nuova amministrazione; sopra tutto occorre, per concepire ed attuare una  riforma così vasta e complessa che le condizioni dell’economia nazionale e della pubblica finanza entrino  in un periodo di sufficiente tranquillità e stabilità. Tutte  cose queste di cui il Benini è consapevole. Un posto a parte tiene Griziotti il quale fra le  due opposte opinioni che esiste una finanza corporativa oppure il contrario che questa non esiste sostiene  una terza e differente che trova riscontro nei seguenti  scritti: La trasformazione delle finanze pubbliche nello  Stato Corporativo fascista, Il Diritto del Lavoro); Idee generali sulla trasformazione  del nostro sistema tributario, esposte al Primo Convegno  di Studi Corporativi a Roma, in « Bollettino del Consi.  glio Prov. dell’Economia di Pavia; Le  finanze pubbliche e l’ordinamento corporativo, in « Economia », N. 6 del 1930. Il Griziotti, se non erriamo,  desidera un sistema di imposte congegnate in modo da  rispettare le esigenze della produzione. Vuole un sistema tecnico e razionale che sodisfi anche i criteri della  giustizia nella ripartizione dei carichi pubblici. Rico-   Gangemi, Dottrina Fasciata ed economia. nosce che l’opera del primo periodo della finanza fascista ha tenuto conto delle esigenze della produzione.  Queste idee evidentemente indicano in Grìzìotti un  fautore della finanza corporativa. Dove il nostro non  ci trova consenzienti è nei dettagli (ammortamento delle imposte, tassazione esclusiva delle rendite e dei sopraredditi, ecc.). Ma su questo sarebbe lungo il discorso.   Secondo un distinto allievo del Griziotti, il Pugliese  (La Finanza e i suoi compiti extra-fiscali negli Stati  Moderni, Padova, GEDAM) « Nello  Stato Corporativo l’economia continua a basarsi fondamentalmente sulla iniziativa privata dei capitalisti, nè  alcuno dei principi che reggono l’economia capitalista  viene apriosticamente ripudiato: ma vi si aggiunge un  elemento che è quello del controllo sociale che, sulla  iniziativa privata e sul suo svolgersi, viene attuato dallo  Stato.  Nello Stato corporativo anche la politica finaziaria deve necessariamente seguire le direttive, che non  coincidono nè con quelle del sistema liberale-capitalista  (benché ad esse siano assai più vicine) nè con quelle  del sistema collettivista.   Essendo l’imposta uno dei principali strumenti di  cui lo stato qualora rispetti il principio della proprietà privata  si può valere, per intervenire nel campo dell’economia, individuale, è logico che ad essa faccia più largo ricorso uno Stato, che ha per principio  l’intervento, ogni qualvolta l’interesse nazionale lo richieda.  E essenziale rilevare che nel sistema corporativo,  mutano fondamentalmente i modi dell’azione statale:  mentre nel sistema liberale-capitalista lo Stato si propone fini di benessere e prosperità, che vengono attuati  mediante la protezione di tutte quelle forze individuali  che si dimostrano utili a tale intento, lo Stato corporativo, oltre a proseguire per tale via i propri fini, si fa  esso stesso agente diretto e primario per l’attuazione degli scopi suddetti, non solo proteggendo e favorendo le forze utili' ai propri fini, ma facendosi iniziatore dei  provvedimenti atti ai dirigere le forze individuali all’obbiettivo prefisso. Non possiamo chiudere questa nota senza ricordare  il contributo che, anche in questo campo ha dato Maffeo Pantaleoni col suo scritto: Finanza fascista, in  « Politica », maggio-giugno 1933, scritto che i nuova-  tori sistematici ed i creatori di schemi astratti farebbero bene a leggere ed a meditare se veramente sono,  come si ritengono, difensori dell’interesse nazionale. Nome compiuto: Luigi Chitti. Chitti. Keywords: economia sociale, economia politica, l’economia filosofica d’Aristotele, econnomia corporativa. Refs.: Luigi Speranza, “Grice e Chitti” – The Swimming-Pool Library.