GRICE ITALO A-Z V VA

 

 

Luigi Speranza – GRICE ITALO!: ossia, Grice e Varrone: LINGUISTICA FILOSOFICA – Utterer’s meaning, sentence-meaning, and word-meaning -- la ragione conversazionale e l’implicatura conversazionale della semiotica filosofica – la scuola di Rieti – filosofia lazia -- filosofia italiana – Luigi Speranza, pel Gruppo di Gioco di H. P. Grice, The Swimming-Pool Library (Rieti). Abstract. Studies in the way of words. Keywords: studies in the way of words, Grice, Mundle: Grice regarded ordinary language as the language employed by anyone who got a first in Greats. Philosophy was introduced only upon completion of five terms into your B. A. Lit. Hum., since philosophy was not taught under a separate subject at Oxford, but under classics. Filosofo lazio. Filosofo italiano. Rieti, Lazio. Grice: “I count Varrone as the first language philosopher. He woke up one day, and realised he was speaking ‘lingua latina,’ and dedicated 36 volumes to it!” --. Grice: “’Lingua latina’ has a nice Roman ring to it. In modern Italian, the ‘t’ has become an ‘z,’ as in “Lazio,  -- the calcio team from Latium – or a ‘d’ as in ‘ladino.’” Grice: “I know his Loeb edition by heart!” – Grice: “The Greeks never studied their lingo as Varro studied his! Of this Austin always reminded me: ‘We should be like Varro, analysing our tongue as a ‘fluid’ semiotic system!’”. Academic, Roman polymath, author of essays on language, agriculture, history and  philosophy, as well as satires, and principal conversationalist in CICERONE’s "Academica.” Questore della repubblica romana. Gens: Terentia. Questura in Illyricum. Pro-pretura in Spagna. Tu ci hai fatto luce su ogni epoca della patria, sulle fasi della sua cronologia, sulle norme dei suoi rituali, sulle sue cariche sacerdotali, sugli istituti civili e militari, sulla dislocazione dei suoi quartieri e vari punti, su nomi, generi, su doveri e cause dei nostri affari, sia divini che umani -- CICERONE, Academica Posteriora. Detto reatino, attributo che lo distingue da “Varrone Atacino,” vissuto nello stesso periodo. Nato da una famiglia di nobili origini, ha rilevanti proprietà terriere in Sabina, dove e educato con disciplina e severità dai familiari, integrate dall'acquisto di lussuose ville a Baia e fondi terrieri a Tusculum e Cassino. A Roma compe studi avanzati presso i migliori maestri del tempo. Lucio Elio Stilone PRECONINO (vedi) lo fa appassionare anche agli studi etimologici ed oratoria. Studia la lingua italiana con Lucio ACCIO (vedi), a cui dedica “De antiquitate litterarum.” Come molti romani, compe un grand tour in Grecia, dove ascolta filosofi accademici come Filone di Larissa e Antioco di Ascalona, da cui deduce una posizione filosofica di tipo eclettico. A differenza di molti altri filosofi del tempo, non si ritira dalla vita politica ma, anzi, vi prende parte attivamente accostandosi agl’optimates, forse anche influenzato dall'estrazione sociale. Dopo aver, infatti, percorso le prime tappe del cursus honorum – trium-viro capitale, questore, e legato -- e vicino a POMPEO, per il quale ricopre incarichi di grande importanza. Legato e pro-questore, combatte nella guerra contro i pirati difendendo la zona navale tra la Sicilia e Delo. Allo scoppio della guerra civile e propretore. In una guerra che vede i romani contro i romani, tenta un’incerta difesa del suo territorio che si concluse in una resa che GIULIO (vedi) CESARE (vedi), nei Commentarii de bello civili, define poco gloriosa. Dopo la disfatta dei pompeiani, si avvicina, comunque, a GIULIO CESARE, che apprezza il reatino soprattutto sul piano culturale, affidandogli la costituzione di una biblioteca. Dopo l’assassinio di GIULIO CESARE, anzi, e inserito nelle liste di proscrizione sia di MAR’ANTONIO che di OTTAVIANO -- interessati più alle sue ricchezze che a punire i congiuranti -- da cui si salva grazie all'intervento di Fufio CALENO (vedi) per poi avvicinarsi a OTTAVIANO a cui dedica il “De vita populi Romani” volto alla divinizzazione della figura di GIULIO CESARE. Ha una produzione di oltre 620 libri, suddivisi in circa settanta opere. Saggi: “De re rustica” (Varrone) e “De lingua Latina”. La sua vasta produzione è suddivisa da Girolamo in un catalogo. Le sue opere di sono verosimilmente 74, suddivise in 620 volumi, sebbene stesso egli rifere di aver scritto 490 saggi.  I suoi saggi  possono essere suddivise in vari gruppi, dalle opere di erudizione, filologia (filosofia del linguaggio, o semantica) e storia a quelle giuridiche e burocratiche, dalle opere di filosofia (filosofia del linguaggio, semantica, semiotica) e agricoltura alle opere di poesia, di linguistica e letteratura; di retorica e diritto, con ben 15 libri De iure civili; di filosofia. Di questa enorme produzione è pervenuta quasi integra solo un'opera, il “De re rustica”. Del “De lingua Latina” sono pervenuti solo 6 libri su 25. Probabilmente, causa del quasi completo naufragio della immane varroniana è che, avendo compulsato tanta parte della cultura romana precedente, divenne la fonte indispensabile per i filosofi successivi, perdendosi, per così dire, per assimilazione. Della sua attività filologica fa testimonianza il cosiddetto canone varroniano, elaborato a partire da due opere, le “Quaestiones Plautinae” e il “De comoediis Plautinis”, in cui riparte il corpus plautino, che include 130 fabulae. Di queste, 21 vengono definite autentiche, 19 di origine incerta (dette "pseudo-varroniane”);  le restanti, spurie.  Si occupa soprattutto di antiquaria, con i 41 libri di “Antiquitates”, il suo capolavoro, divisi in 25 di “res humanae” e 16 di “res divinae”, fonte precipua di AGOSTINO nel “De civitate Dei.” Proprio d’AGOSTINO si evidenzia l'attenzione di V. sulla religione civile, con una compiuta disamina su culti e tradizioni, pur con acute critiche alla teologia mitica dei poeti in nome di una theologia naturalis. A questo gruppo appartiene anche l'opera, non pervenuta, “De bibliothecis”, presumibilmente legata alle incombenze come bibliotecario affidategli da GIULIO CESARE. Nell'ambito filosofico, notevoli dovevano essere “I logistorici” -- dal greco “discorsi di storia” -- in 76 libri, composta in forma di dialogo in prosa, di argomento morale e antiquario, in cui ogni libro prende il nome di un personaggio storico e un tema di cui il personaggio costituiva un modello, come il “Mario”, “de fortuna” o il “Cato”, “de liberis educandis”. Questi dialoghi storico-filosofici sono tra i modelli espositivi del “Lelio”; “de amicitia” e del “Catone maggiore”, “de senectute” di CICERONE. Al suo interesse filosofico e divulgativo, probabilmente scritte lungo tutto il corso della sua parabola culturale, riconducevano le “Saturae Menippeae”, che prendeno come modello Menippo, esponente della filosofia cinica -- da cui il nome. Le “Saturae Menippeae” si componevano di 150 libri, in prosa e in versi, di cui però ci rimangono circa 600 frammenti e novanta titoli, di argomento soprattutto filosofico, ma anche di critica dei costumi, morale, con rimpianti sui tempi antichi in contrasto con la corruzione del presente. Ciascuna satira reca un titolo, desunto da proverbi (“Cave canem” -- con allusione alla mordacità dei filosofi cinici) o dalla mitologia (“Eumenide” contro la tesi stoico-cinica per cui gl’uomini sono folli, “Trikàranos”, il mostro a tre teste, con un mordace riferimento al primo triumvirate, ed era caratterizzata da lessico popolaresco, polimetria e, come in Menippo, uno stile tragi-comico. Valerio Massimo, Aulo Gellio. Ce ne parla lui stesso in “De lingua latina”. Cicerone, Academica posteriora, Appiano, Guerre civili. Varrone, De re rustica. Svetonio, Cesare, Appiano, Ausonio, Commemoratio professorum Burdigalensium, Chronicon, ann. Aulo Gellio, Gellio, I cui frammenti sono editi nell’edizione di Cardauns: “Antiquitates rerum divinarum” Cfr. Zucchelli, V. logistoricus. Studio letterario e prosopografico, Parma, Cfr., ad esempio, il Fr. XIX Riese: "Da ragazzo, avevo solo una tunica modesta e una toga, calzature senza fascette, un cavallo non sellato; bagno giornaliero, niente e, davvero di rado, una tinozza".  Horsfall, V., in Letteratura Latina (Milano, Mondadori). Cfr. Salanitro, Le Menippee di V.: contributi esegetici e linguistici (Roma, Ateneo). Sulla satira varroniana, cfr. Alfonsi, Le Menippee di V., in "ANRW". Atti del Congresso di studi varroniani. Rieti, CENTRO DI STUDI VARRONIANI. Cenderelli, “Varroniana” Istituti e terminologia giuridica nelle opere di V. (Milano, Giuffrè); Dahlmann, “V. e la teoria della lingua” (Napoli, Loffredo), Corte, “V., il terzo gran lume romano” (Genova, Istituto universitario di Magistero); “De vita populi Romani” Introduzione e commento, Pisa; Riposati, “V. De vita populi Romani”. Fonti, esegesi, edizione critica dei frammenti (Milano, Vita e pensiero), Riposati, “V.: l'uomo e il filosofo” (Roma Istituto di studi romani); Traglia, Introduzione a V., “Opere” (Torino, POMBA), Zucchelli, “V. logistoricus: prosopo-grafica”, Parma, Istituto di lingua e letteratura latina, Satira menippea Biblioteche romane Antiquitates rerum humanarum et divinarum Treccani Enciclopedie, Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana. Enciclopedia Italiana, Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana, Dizionario di storia, Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana. V. “De lingua Latina libri qui supersunt: cum fragmentis ejusdem” Biponti, ex typographia societatis. Biblioteca degli scrittori latini con traduzione e note: “V. quae supersunt opera” Venetiis, excudit Antonelli, “Grammaticae Romanae Fragmenta”, Gino Funaioli, Lipsiae, in aedibus Teubneri. “M. Terenti Varronis saturarum menippearum reliquiae” -- cur. Riese, Lipsiae, in aedibus Teubneri. In passing from Rome to Rieti we enter a different world. One rightly speaks of the Greco-Roman era as a period of unified civilisation around the Mediterranean area, but the respective roles of the Italotes and the Romns are dissimilar, if complementary. Without the other, the contribution of either would have been less significant and less productive. The Romans have for long enjoyed contact with Hellenic and Etrurian material culture and intellectual ideas, and further through the Greek settlements in the south of Italy: Sicily and Magna Grecia.The Romans learned to write from the western Greeks. But the Hellenic world fell progressively within the control of Rome, by now the mistress of the whole of Italia The expansion of Roman rule becomes complete, and the Roman Empire, as it now is, achieves a relatively permanent position, which, with fairly small-scale changes in Britain and on the northern and eastern frontiers, remains free of serious wars for years. The second half of this period earns Gibbon's encomium, 'If a man were called to fix the period in the history of the world during which the condition of the human race is most happy and prosperous, he would, without hesitation, name that which elapsed from the death of DOMIZIANO to the accession of COMMODO.' In taking over the Hellenic world, the Romans bring within their sway whatever they find on the way.The intellectual background of Etruria and the Hellenes and the polical unity and freedom of intercourse provided by Roman stability are the conditions in which the Roman Empire shines. To the Romans, Europe and much of the entire modern world owe the origins of their intellectual, moral, political and religious civilisation. From their earliest contacts, the Romans cheerfully acknowledge the superior pompousness of the Greeks – by which they included the Etrurians. Linguistically, this is reflected in the different languages of the eastern and the western provinces. In the western half of the Roman empire, where no contact had been made with a recognised civilization, Latin  -- which subsists in Italian – becomes he language of administration, business, law, learning, and social advancement. Ultimately, Latin displaces the former languages of most of the western provinces, and becomes in the course of linguistic evolution the modern Romance, or Neo-Latin, languages of contemporary Europe, notably French (Italian is no romance; Italian IS Latin!). In the east, however, already largely under Hellenic administration since the Hellenistic period, Greek retains the position it has already reached. Roman officials often complain about having to learn and use Greek in the course of their duties, and Hellenic philosophy was quite respected for its eccentricity. Ultimately this linguistic division is politically recognized in the splitting of the Roman Empire into the Western and the Eastern Empires, with the new eastern capital at COSTANTINO’s Constantinople enduring as the head of the Byzantine dominions through much trial and tribulation up to the beginning of the western Renaissance. The accepted view of the relation between Roman rule and Hellenic civilization is probably well represented in Vergil's summary of Rome's place and duty: let others (i.e. the Greeks) excel if they will in the arts, while Rome keeps the peace of the world. During the years in which Rome rules the western civilised world, there must have been contacts between speakers of Latin and speakers of other languages at all levels and in all places. Interpreters must have been in great demand, and the teaching and learning of Latin -- and, in the eastern provinces, of Greek --  must have been a concern for all manner of persons both in private households and in organized schools. Translations are numerous. Greek literature is systematically translated into Latin. So much did the prestige of Greek writing prevail, that Latin poetry abandons its native metres and was composed during the classical period and after in metres learned from the Greek poets. This adaptation to Latin of Greek metres find its culmination in the magnificent hexameters of VIRGILIO and the perfected elegiacs of OVIDIO. It is surprising that we know so little of the details of all this linguistic activity, and that so little writing on the various aspects of linguistic contacts is either preserved for us or known to have existed. The Romans are aware of multi-lingualism as an achievement. AULO GELLIO tells of the remarkable king Mithridates of Ponto who was able to converse with any of his subjects, who fell into more than twenty different speech communities. In linguistic science, the Roman experience is no exception to the general condition of their relations with Greek intellectual work. Roman linguistics is largely the application of Greek philosophy, Greek controversies, and Greek categories to the Latin language. The relatively similar basic structures of the two languages, together with the unity of civilization achieved in the Greco-Roman world, facilitate this meta-linguistic transfer. The introduction of linguistic studies into Rome is credited to one of those picturesque anecdotes that lighten the historian's narrative. CRATES, a philosopher of the Porch and grammarian, comes to Rome on a political delegation, and while sightseeing, falls on an open drain and is detained in bed with a broken leg. CRATES passes the time while recovering in giving lectures on literary themes to an appreciative audience. It is probable that Crates as a philosopher of the PORCH introduces mainly that doctrine in his teaching. But Greek philosophers and Greek philosophy enter the Roman world increasingly in this period, and by the time of V., both Alexandrian and Stoic opinions on language are known and discussed. V. is the first serious Latin philosopher on linguistic questions of whom we have any records. V. is a polymath, ranging in his interests through agriculture, senatorial procedure, and Roman antiquities. The number of his writings is celebrated by his contemporaries, and his "De lingua Latina", wherein he expounds his linguistic opinions, comprise XXV volumes, of which books V and VI and some fragments of the others survive. One major feature of V.’s linguistic philosophy is his lengthy exposition and formalization of the opposing views in the analogy-anomaly controversy, and a good deal of his description and analysis of Latin appears in his treatment of this problem. He is, in fact, one of the main sources for its details, and it has been claimed that he misrepresents it as a matter of permanent academic attack and counter-attack, rather than as the more probable co-existence of opposite tendencies or attitudes. V.'s style is criticised as unattractive, but on linguistic questions he is probably the most original of all the Latin philosophers. V. is much influenced by the philosophy of the Porch, including that of his own teacher STILONE. But V. is equally familiar with Alexandrian doctrine, and a fragment purporting to preserve his definition of grammar, 'the systematic knowledge of the usage of the majority of poets, historians, and orators' looks very much like a direct copy of Thrax's definition. On the other hand, V. appears to use his Greek predecessors and contemporaries rather than merely apply them with the minimum of change to Latin. His statements and conclusions are supported by argument and exposition, and by the independent investigation of earlier stages of the Latin language. V. is much admired and quoted by later philosophers, though in the main stream of linguistic theory his treatment of Latin grammar does not bring to bear the influence on the successors to antiquity that more derivative scholars such as PRISCIANO does, who set themselves to describe Latin within the framework already fixed for Greek by Thrax's Techne and the syntactic works of Apollonius. In the evaluation of V.'s work on language we are hampered by the fact that only two of the XXV books of the “De lingua Latina” survive. We have his threefold division of linguistic studies, into etymology, morphology, and syntax, and the material to judge the first and second.V. envisages language developing from an original set of primal words, imposed on things so as to refer to them, and acting productively as the source of large numbers of other words through subsequent changes in letters, or in phonetic form -- the two modes of description comes to the same thing for him.. These changes take place in the course of years. An earlier forms, such as "duellum" for classical "bellum", V. cites as an instance. At the same time, a *meaning* may change, as, for example, the meaning of “hostis”, once 'stranger', but in V.'s time, 'enemy.' These etymologico-semantic statements are supported by scholarship. But a great deal of V.’s etymology suffers from the same weakness and lack of comprehension that characterizes Hellenic work in this field. "Anas", from "nare", to swim, “vitis,” from “vis;” “cilra, “care, from “cor iirere,” are sadly typical both of V.’s philosophy and of Latin etymological studies in general. A fundamental ignorance of linguistic history is seen in V.'s references to Hellenism. A similarity in a form bearing comparable meanings in Latin and Greek is obvious. Take the first personal pronoun: 'ego.' Some similarities are the produ.ct of historical loans at various periods once the two communities made indirect and then direct contact. Other similarities are the joint descendants of an earlier common Aryan forms whose existence may be inferred and whose shape may to some extent be reconstructed by the methods of comparative and historical linguistics. But of this, V., like the rest of antiquity, has no conception. All such bunch is jointly regarded by him as a direct loan from the conquered Greek, whose place in the immediate history of Latin is misrepresented and exaggerated as a result of the Romans’ consciousness of their cultural debt to Greece and mythological associations of Greek heroes -- and their enemies, like Aeneas! -- in the story of the founding of Rome. In his conception of vocabulary growing from alterations made to the forms of primal words, V. unites two separate considerations: historical etymology and the synchronic formation of derivations and inflexions. Certain canonical members of paradigmatically associated word series are said to be primal -- all the others resulting from “declinatio”, the formal process of change. A derivational prefix is given particular attention. One must regret V.’s failure to distinguish two linguistic dimensions, because, as with other linguistic philosophers in antiquity, V.’s synchronic descriptive observations are much more informative and perceptive than his attempts at historical etymology. As an example of an apparent awareness of the distinction, one may note V.’s statement that, within Latin, "equitiittis" and "eques" -- stem "equit-" – may be associated with and descriptively referred back to "equus". But that no further explanation on the same lines is possible for "equus". Within Latin, ‘equus’ is primal. Any explanation of its form and its meaning involves a dia-chronic research into an earlier stages of the Indo-European family and cognate forms in languages other than Latin. In the field of word form variations from a single root, both derivational and inflexional, V. rehearses the arguments for and against analogy and anomaly, citing Latin examples of regularity and of irregularity. Sensibly enough, V. concludes that both the principle of analogy and the principle of anomaly must be recognized and accepted in the word formations of a language and in the meanings associated with them. In discussing the limits of strict regularity in the formation of words V. notices the pragmatic nature of language, with its vocabulary more differentiated in culturally important areas than in others. Thus "equus" and "equa" have separate forms for the male and female animal, because the sex difference is important to the Romans. But "corvus" does not, because in them the difference is not important to Romans. Once this is true of "columba" -- formerly all designated by the feminine noun. But since "columbae" are domesticated, a separate, analogical, masculine form "columbUS" is ‘coined.’ V. further recognises the possibilities open to the individual, particularly in poetic diction, of variations or anomalies beyond those sanctioned by majority usage or 'ordinary language', a conception not remote from the Saussurean interpretation of langue and parole. One of V.'s most penetrating observations in this context is the distinction between derivational and inflexional formation, a distinction not commonly made in antiquity. One of the characteristic features of inflexions is their very great generality. Inflexional paradigms contain few omissions and are mostly the same for all speakers of a single dialect or of an acknowledged standard language. This part of morphology V. calls 'declinatio naturalis’, because, given a word and its inflexional class, we can infer its other forms. By contrast, synchronic derivations vary in use and acceptability from person to person and from one word root to another. From "ovis" and "sus" are formed "ovile" and "suile.” But "bovile" is *not* acceptable to V. from "bos" -- although rustic CATONE is said to have used the form as opposed to the more standard "bubile.” The facultative and less ordered state of this part of morphology, which gives a language much of its flexibility, is distinguished by V. in what he dubs ‘declinatio VOLUNTARIA.’ V. shows himself likewise original in his proposed morphological classification of Latin words. His use in this of the morphological categories shows how V. understands and makes use of Greek sources without deliberately copying their conclusions. V. recognises, as the Greeks do, case and tense as the primary distinguishing categories of inflected words, and sets up a quadripartite system of FOUR inflexionally contrasting classes. Those with case inflexion. Those with tense inflexion. Those with case and tense inflexion. Those with neither. Noun (including Adjective). Verbs. Participle. Adverb. These IV classes are further categorised as a forms which, respectively, names, makes a statement, joins (i.e. shared in the syntax of nouns and verbs), and supports (constructed with verbs as their subordinate members). In the passages dealing with these IV classes, the adverbial examples are all morphologically derived forms -- like "docte" and "lecte". V.’s definition would apply equally well to the un-derived and mono-morphemic adverbs of Latin -- like "mox" and "eras". But these are referred to elsewhere among the uninflected, invariable or 'barren,’ sterile, words. A full classification of the invariable words of Latin would require the distinction of syntactically defined sub-classes such as Thrax used for Greek and the later Latin grammarians took over for Latin. But, from his examples, it seems clear that what was of prime interest to V. is the range of grammatically different words that may be formed on a single common root -- e.g. "lego" (VERB – CLASS II), "lector" – NOUN, CLASS I --, "legens" – PARTICIPLE, CLASS III -- and "lecte" – ADVERB – CLASS IV. In his treatment of the verbal category of tense, Varro displays his sympathy with the doctrine of the Porch, in which two semantic functions are distinguished within the forms of the tense paradigms, time reference and ‘aspect.’ In his analysis of the VI INDICATIVE indicative tenses, active and passive, the *aspectual* division, incomplete-complete, is the more fundamental for V., as each aspect regularly shares the same stem form, and, in the passive voice the *completive* aspect tenses consists of *two* expressions, though V. claims that, erroneously, most people only consider the time reference dimension. IS Active Time past present future Aspect incomplete DISCIBAM  I was DISCO I learn DISCAM I shall learning learn complete DIDICERAM I had DIDICI I have DIDICERII I shall learned learned have learned Passive incomplete AMTIBAR I was AMOR I am AMITBOR  I shall be loved loved loved complete AMTITUS  I had AMTITUS I have AMIITUS I shall ERAM been sum been ERA have been loved loved loved The Latin future perfect is in more common use than the corresponding Greek (Attic) future perfect. V. puts the Latin perfect tense forms DIDICI, etc., in the present *completive* place, corresponding to the place of the Greek perfect tense forms. In what we have or know of his writings, V. does not appear to have allowed for one of the major differences between the Greek and Latin tense paradigms -- viz. that, in the Latin perfect tense, there is a syncretism of a simple past meaning ('I did'), and a perfect meaning ('I have done') -- corresponding to the Greek aorist and perfect respectively. The Latin perfect tense forms belong in *both* completive and non-completive aspectual categories, a point clearly made later by PRISCIANO in his exposition of a similar analysis of the Latin verbal tenses. If the difference in use and meaning between the Greek and Latin perfect tense forms seems to escape V.'s attention, the more obvious contrast between the V-term case system of Greek and the *VI*-term system of Latin forces itself on him, as it does on anyone else who learned both languages. Latin formally distinguished an ABLATIVE CASE. 'By whom an action is performed' is the gloss given by V.. THE ABLATIVE CASE shares a number of the meanings and syntactic functions of both the Greek GENITIVE and DATIVE case forms. V. takes the NOMINATIVE form not as a casus but as as the canonical word forms, from which the oblique forms -- cases -- are developed. Like his Greek colleagues across the pond, V. contents himself with fixing on one stereo-typical meaning or relationship as definitive for each case. V., who was no Cicero – ‘he is a Varro’ implicates ‘he is a know-it-all’ in Roman -- mistranslates ‘aitiatike ptosis’ by ACCUSATIVUS rather than the more correct, CAUSATIVUS. V. is probably the most independent and original philosopher on linguistic topics among the Romans. After V. we can follow discussions of existing questions by several philosophers with no great claim on our attention. Among others, GIULIO CESARE – the well-known general assassinated by the senators -- is reported to have turned his mind to the analogy-anomaly debate while crossing the Alps on a campaign. Thereafter, the controversy gradually fades away. PRISCIANO uses ‘analogia’ to mean the regular inflexion of an inflected word, without mentioning ‘anomalia’. ‘Anomalia’ appears occasionally among the late grammarians.V.'s ideas on the classification of Latin words have been noticed. But the word class system that is established in the Latin tradition enshrines in the ‘saggi’ of PRISCIANO and the late Latin ‘philosophical’ grammarians – cf. CAMPANELLA, ‘Grammatica filosofica’ -- is much closer to. the one given in Thrax's Techne. The number of classes remains now at VIII, with one change. A class of words corresponding to the Greek definite article ‘ho,’ ‘he,’ ‘to,’ does not exist in  Latin. The definite article of Italian develops later from weakened forms of the demonstrative pronoun ‘ille’ (il) and ‘illa’ (la). The Greek *relative* pronoun is morphologically similar to the article and classed with it by Thrax and Apollonius. In Latin, the relative pronoun – ‘qui’, ‘quae’, and ‘quod’ -- is morphologically akin to the interrogative pronoun – ‘quis’, ‘quid’ -- and both are classed together either with the noun or the pronoun class. In place of the article, Latin grammarians recognise the ‘interjection’ as a separate ‘pars orationis’, instead of treating it as a subclass of adverbs as Thrax and Apollonius do. PRISCIAN regards the separate status of the interjection as common practice among Latin scholars. But the first philosopher who is known to have dealt with it in this way is REMMIO PALEMONE, a grammatical and literary scholar who defines the interjection as having no statable meaning but merely indicating – via natural meaning, as H. P. Grice would have it – emotion, as in Aelfric he he versus ha ha (Roman versus English laughter). PRISCIANO lays more stress on the syntactic independence of the interjection in sentence structure. QUINTILIANO, a Spaniard, not a Roma, is PALEMONE’s pupil. This Spaniard writes extensively on education, and in his “Institutio aratoria”, wherein he expounds his opinions, he dealt briefly with ‘GRAMMATICA’ – the first of the trivial arts --, regarding it as a propaedeutic to the full and proper appreciation of literature in a liberal education, in terms very similar to those used by Thrax at the beginning of the Techne. In a matter of detail, QUINTILIANO discusses the analysis of the Latin case system, a topic always prominent in the minds of Latin scholars who knew Greek by default (Who didn’t have a Greek slave?). QUINTILIANO suggests isolating the instrumental use of the ABLATIVE -- "gladiii" -- as case VII, since, as he notes, this instrumental use of the ablative case has nothing in common semantically with the other meanings of the ablative. A separate ‘instrumental’ case forms is found (but a Spaniard wouldn’t know) in Sanskrit, and may be inferred for unitary Indo-european, though the Greeks and Romans knew nothing of this. It was and is common practice to name the cases by reference to one of their meanings – DATIVUS,  'giving', ABLATIVUS, 'taking away', etc. -- but their formal identity as members of a VI-term paradigm rests on their meaning, or more generally, their meanings, and their syntactic functions being associated with a morphologically distinct form in at least some of the members of the case inflected word classes. PRISCIAN and DONATO see this, and in view of the absence of any morphological feature distinguishing an alleged instrumental use of the ablative case forms from their other uses, PRISCIANO explicitly reproves of such an addition to the descriptive grammar of Latin as redundant – or “supervacuum,” as he said for ‘otiose.’ The work of V., QUINTILIANO, shows the process of absorption of Greek linguistic theory, controversies, and categories, in their application to the Latin language. But Latin linguistic scholarship is best known for the formalization of descriptive Latin grammar, to become the basis of all education in later antiquity and the traditional schooling of the modern world. The Latin grammar of the present day is the direct descendants of the compilations of the later Latin grammarians, as the most cursory examination of PRISCIANO’s “Institutiones grammaticae” will show. PRISCIANO’s grammar, comprising XVIII books and running to nearly a thousand pages may be taken as representative of their work. Quite a number of writers of Latin grammars, working in different parts of the Roman Empire, are known to us. Of them DONATO and PRISCIANO are the best known. Though they differ on several points of detail, on the whole these philosopohical grammarians set out and follow the same basic system of grammatical description. For the most part, Roman philosophical grammarians show little originality, doing their best to apply the terminology and categories of the Greek grammarians to the Latin language. The Greek technical terms are given fixed translations with the nearest available Latin word. ‘onoma’, ‘NOMEN’ ‘anto-nymia,’ ‘PRO-NOMEN’ ‘syn-desmos,’ ‘CON-IUCTIO’ etc. In this procedure they had been encouraged by DIDIMO,  a voluminous scholar, who states that every feature of Greek grammar IS TO BE found in Latin. DIDIMO follows the word class system of the PORCH, which included the article (absent in Latin) and the personal pronouns in one class, so that the absence of a word form corresponding to the Greek article does not upset him or his classification. Among the Latin philosophical grammarians, MACROBIO gives an account of the 'differences and likenesses' of the Greek and the Latin verb, but it amounted to little more than a parallel listing of the forms, without any penetrating investigation of the verbal systems of the Latin language – his own, or Greek. The succession of Latin philosophical grammarians through whom the accepted grammatical description of the language is brought to completion and handed on to the Middle Ages spanned the centuries until the foundation of Oxford. This period covers the pax Romana and the unitary Greco-Roman civilization of the Mediterranean that lasts during the first two centuries, the breaking of the imperial peace in the third century, and the final shattering of the western provinces, including Italy, by invasion from beyond the earlier frontiers of the empire. Historically these centuries witness two events of permanent significance in the life of the civilized world. In the first place, Christianity – or the coming of the Galileans -- which, from a secular standpoint, starts as the religion of a small deviant sect of Jewish zealots, spread and extended its influence through the length and breadth of the empire, until, in the fourth century, after surviving repeated persecutions and attempts at its suppression, it is recognized as the official religion of the state! (Except Giuliano). Its subsequent dominance of European thought (except Luther) and of all branches of learning for the next thousand years is now assured, and neither doctrinal schisms nor heresies, nor the lapse of an emperor into apostasy could seriously check or halt its progress. As Christianity gains the upper hand and attracts to itself men of learning, the scholarship of the period shows the struggle between the old declining pagan standards of classical antiquity and the rising generations of Christian apologists, philosophers, and historians, interpreting and adapting the heritage of the past in the light of their own conceptions and requirements. The second event is a less gradual one, the splitting of the Roman world into two halves, east and west. After a century of civil turmoil and barbarian pressure, Rome ceases under DIOCLEZIANO to be the administrative capital of the empire, and his later successor COSTANTINO transfers his government to a new city, built on the old Byzantium and named Constantino-polis (literally: ‘my (kind of) town’). By the end of the fourth century, the Roman empire is formally divided into an eastern and a western realm, each governed by its own emperor (who often did not speak to each other – and for whom there was no lingua franca to be found). This division roughly corresponds to the separation of the old Hellenized area conquered by Rome but remaining Greek in culture and language, and the provinces raised from barbarism by Roman influence and Roman letters. Constantinople, assailed from the west and from the east, continues for a thousand years as the head of the Eastern Byzantine Empire, until it falls to the Turks. During and after the break-up of the Western Empire, Rome endures as the capital city of the Roman Church, while Christianity in the east gradually evolved in other directions to become the Eastern Orthodox Church. Culturally one sees as the years pass on from the so-called 'Silver Age' a decline in liberal attitudes, a gradual exhaustion of older themes, and a loss of vigour in developing new ones. Save only in the rising Christian communities, scholarship is backward-looking, taking the form of erudition devoted to the acknowledged standards of the past. This is an era of commentaries, epitomes, and dictionaries. The Latin grammarians, whose oudook is similar to that of the Alexandrian Greek scholars, like them directed their attention to the language of classical literature, for the study of which grammar serves as the introduction and foundation. The changes taking place in the spoken and the non-literary written Latin around them arise VERY little interest – ‘the plebs use it!’ --; their works are liberally exemplified with texts, all drawn from the prose and verse writers of classical Latin and their ante-classical predecessors Plautus and Terence. How different accepted written Latin is becoming may be seen by comparing the grammar and style of GIROLAMO's fourth translation of the Bible (the Vulgate), wherein several grammatical features of the Romance languages are anticipated, with the Latin preserved and described by the grammarians, one of whom, DONATO, second only to PRISCIANO in reputation, was in fact GIROLAMO’s teacher – and learned from him that God could be allowed a solecism or two! The nature and the achievement of the Latin philosophical grammarians can best be appreciated through a consideration of the work of their greatest representative, PRISCIANO, who teaches Latin grammar in Constantino-polis. Though PRISCIANO draws much from his Latin predecessors, his aim, like theirs, is to transfer as far as he could the grammatical system of Thrax's Techne and of Apollonius's writings to Latin. PRISCIANO’s admiration for Greek linguistic scholarship and his dependence on Apollonius and his son ERODIANO, in particular, 'the greatest authorities on grammar', are made clear in his introductory paragraphs and throughout his grammar. PRISCIANO works systematically through his subject, the description of the language of classical Latin literature. Pronunciation and syllable structure are covered by a description of the “littera’, defined as the smallest part of articulate speech, of which the properties are “nomen”, the name of the letter, “figura”, its written shape, and “potestas,” its phonetic value. All this had already been set out for Greek, and the phonetic descriptions of the letters as pronounced segments and of the syllable structures carry little of linguistic interest except for their partial evidence of the pronunciation of the Latin language. From phonetics PRISCIANO passes to morphology, defining the “dictio” and the “oratio” in the same terms that Thrax uses, as the minimum unit of sentence structure and the expression of a complete thought, respectively. As with the rest of western antiquity, PRISCIANO’s grammatical model is word and paradigm, and he expressly denies any linguistic significance to a division, in what would now be called morphemic analysis, *below* the word. On one of his rare entries into this field, PRISCIANO misrepresents the morphemic composition of words containing the negative prefix “in-“ -- “indoctus” -- by identifying it with the preposition “in.” These two morphemes, “in-“, negative, and “in-”, the prefixal use of the preposition, are in contrast in “invisus”, which may negate or strengthen the stem that follows (two words with two meanings, not a polysemous expression). After a review of earlier theories of Greek linguists, PRISCIANO sets out the classical system of VIII word classes laid down by Thrax and Apollonius, with the omission of the article but the separate recognition of the interjection. Each class of words is defined, and described by reference to its relevant formal category and “accidentia,” whence the later accidence for the morphology of a language, and all are copiously illustrated with examples from classical texts. All this takes up XVI of the XVIII books, the last II being devoted to syntax. PRISCIANO addresses himself (OBVIOUSLY) to readers already knowing Greek, as Greek examples are widely used and comparisons with Greek are drawn at various points, and the last hundred pages are wholly taken up with the comparison of different constructions in the two languages. Though Constantinopolis was a Greek-speaking city in a Greek-speaking area, Latin is decreed the official language when the new city was founded as the capital of the Eastern Empire. Great numbers of speakers of Greek as a first language needed Latin teaching from then on. The VIII parts of speech, or word classes, in PRISCIANO’s grammar may be compared with those in Dionysius Thrax's Techne. Reference to extant definitions in Apollonius and PRISCIANO’s expressed reliance on him allow us to infer that PRISICIANO’s definitions are substantially those of Apollonius, as is his statement that each separate class is known by its semantic content. “Nomen,” including adjectives. The property of the noun is to indicate a substance and a quality, and it assigns a common or a particular quality to every body or thing. The property of the VERBUM is to indicate an action or a being acted on; it has tense and mood forms, but is not case inflected. The PARTICIPIUM is a class of words always derivationally referable to a VERBUM, sharing the categories of verbs and a NOMEN (tenses and cases) -- and therefore distinct from both. This definition is in line with the Greek treatment of these words. The property of the PRONOMEN is its substitutability for a proper nouns and its specifiability as to person -- first, second, or third. The limitation to proper nouns, at least as far as third person pronouns are concerned, contradicts the facts of Latin. Elsewhere, PRISCIANO repeats Apollonius's statement that a specific property of the PRONOMEN is to indicate substance *without* quality, as a way of interpreting the lack of lexical restriction on the NOMEN which may be referred to anaphorically by a PRONOMEN. The property of the ADVERBIUM is to be used in construction with a VERBUM, to which it is syntactically and semantically subordinate. The property of the PRAE-POSITIO is to be used as a separate word before case inflected words and in composition before both case-inflected and non-case-inflected words. PRISCIANO, like Thrax, identifies the first part of words like “PRO-consul” and “INTER-currere”, as PRAE-POSITIO. INTER-IECTIO is a class of words syntactically independent of a VERBUM, and indicating a feeling or a state of mind. The property of the CON-IUCTIO is to join syntactically two or more members of any other word class, indicating a relationship between them. In reviewing PRISCIANO' s work as a whole, one notices that in the context in which he is writing and in the form in which he casts his description of Latin, no definition of grammar itself is found necessary. Where other late Latin grammarians do define the term, they do no more than abbreviate the definition given at the beginning of Thrax's Techne. It is clear that the place of grammar, and of linguistic studies in general, in education is the same as is precisely and deliberately set out by Thrax and summarily repeated by QUINTILIANO. PRISCIANO's omission is an indication of the long continuity of the conditions and objectives taken for granted during these centuries. PRISCIANO organises the morphological description of the forms of nouns and verbs, and of the other inflected words, by setting up canonical or basic forms, in nouns the nominative singular and in verbs the first person singular present indicative active. From these he proceeds to the other forms by a series of letter changes, the letter being for him, as for the rest of western antiquity, both the minimal graphic unit and the minimal phonological unit. The steps involved in these changes bear no relation to morphemic analysis, and are of the type that finds no favour at all in recent descriptive linguistics, though under the influence of the generative grammarians somewhat similar process terminologies are being suggested. The accidents or categories in which PRISCIANO classes the formally different word shapes of the inflected or variable words include both derivational and inflexional sets, PRISCIANO following the practice of the Greeks in not distinguishing between them. V.’s important insight is totally disregarded! But PRISCIANO is clearly informed on the theory of the establishment of categories and of the use of semantic labels to identify them. Verbs are defined by reference to action or being acted on. But PRISCIANO points out that on a deeper consideration – SI QUIS ALTIUS CONSIDERET --  such a definition would require considerable qualification; and case names are taken, for the most part, from just one relatively frequent use among a number of uses applicable to the particular case named. This is probably more prudent, if less exciting, than the insistent search for a common or basic meaning uniting all the semantic functions associated with each single set of morphologically identified case forms. The status of the VI cases of Latin nouns is shown to rest, not on the actually different case forms of any one noun or one declension of nouns, but on semantic and syntactic functions systematically correlated with differences in morphological shape at some point in the declensional paradigms of the noun class as a whole. The many-one relations found in Latin between forms and uses and between uses and forms are properly allowed for in the analysis. In describing the morphology of the Latin verb, PRISCIANO adopts the system set out by Thrax for the Greek verb, distinguishing present, past, and future, with a fourfold semantic division of the past into imperfect, perfect, plain past – aorist -- and pluperfect, and recognizing the syncretism (as V. does not) of perfect and aorist meanings in the Latin perfect tense forms. Except for the recognition of the full grammatical status of the Latin perfect tense forms, PRISCIANO’s analysis, based on that given in the Techne, is manifestly inferior to the one set out by V. under the influence of THE PORCH. The distinction between incomplete and complete aspect, correlating with differences in stem form, on which V. lays great stress, is concealed, although PRISCIANO recognises the morphological difference between the two stem forms underlying the VI tenses. Strangely, PRISCIANO seems to have misunderstood the use and meaning of the Latin future perfect, calling it the ‘future subjunctive’, though the first person singular form by which he cited it – “scripsero” -- is precisely the form which differentiates its paradigm from the perfect subjunctive paradigm – “scripserim” -- and, indeed, from any subjunctive verb form, none of which show a first person termination in -im. This seems all the more surprising because the corresponding forms in Greek --  “tetypsomai” -- are correctly identified. Possibly his reason was that his Greek predecessors had excluded the future perfect from their schematization of the tenses, in that this tense was not much used in Greek, and was felt to be an atticism. A like dependence on the Greek categorial framework probably leads Priscian to recognize both a subjunctive mood (subordinating) and an OPTATIVE mood (independent, expressing a wish) in the Latin verb, although Latin -- unlike Greek -- nowhere distinguishes these two mood forms morphologically, as PRISCIAN in fact admits, thus confounding his earlier explicit recognition of the status of a formal grammatical category. Despite such apparent misrepresentations, due primarily to an excessive trust in a point for point applicability of Thrax's and Apollonius's systematization of Greek to the Latin language, Priscian's morphology is detailed, orderly, and in most places definitive. His treatment of syntax in the last two books is much less so, and a number of the organizing features that we find in modern grammars of Latin are lacking in his account. They are added by later scholars on to the foundation of Priscianic morphology. Confidence in PRISCIANO’s syntactic theory is hardly increased by reading his assertion that the word order, most common in Latin, nominative case noun or pronoun (subject) followed by verb is the NATURAL one, because the substance (“homo”) is PRIOR to the action it performs (“currit”). Such are the dangers of philosophising on an inadequate basis of empirical fact. In the syntactic description of Latin, PRISCIANO classifies verbs on the same lines as had been worked out for Greek by the Greek grammarians, into active (transitive), passive, and neutral (intransitive), with due notice of the deponent verbs, passive in morphological form but active or intransitive in meaning and syntax and without corresponding passive tenses. Transitive verbs are those colligating with an oblique case -- “laudo te”, “noceo tibi,” “ego miserantis” -- and the absence of concord between oblique case forms and finite verbs is noted. But the terms subject and object were not in use in PRISCIANO’s time as grammatical terms, though the use of “subiectum” to designate the logical subject of a proposition is common. PRISCIANO makes mention of the ablative absolute construction, though the actual name of this construction is a later invention. PRISCIANO gives an account and examples of exactly this use of the ablative case -- me vidente puerum cecidisti -- and -- Augusto imperiitiire Alexandria provincia facta est. Of the systematic analysis of Latin syntactic structures PRISCIANO has little to say. The relation of subordination is recognized as the primary syntactic function of the relative pronoun -- qui, quae, quod -- and of similar words used to downgrade or relate a. verb or a whole clause to another, main, verb or clause. The concept of subordination is employed in distinguishing nouns (and pronouns used in their place) and verbs from all other words, in that these latter were generally used only in syntactically subordinate relations to nouns or verbs, these two classes of word being able by themselves to constitute complete sentences of the favourite, productive, type in Latin. But in the subclassification of the Latin conjunctions, the primary grammatical distinction between subordinating and coordinating conjunctions is left unmentioned, the co-ordinating “TAMEN”, being classed with the sub-ordinating “QUAMQUAM” and “QUAMSI”. – cf. Grice on ‘if’ as subordinating. Once again it must be said that it is all too easy to exercise hindsight and to point out the errors and omissions of one's predecessors. It is both more fair and more profitable to realise the extent of PRISCIANO’s achievement in compiling his extensive, detailed, and comprehensive description of the Latin language of the classical authors, which is to serve as the basis of grammatical theory for centuries and as the foundation of Latin teaching up to the present day. Such additions and corrections, particularly in the field of syntax, as later generations need to make could lie incorporated in the frame of reference that Priscian employs and expounds. Any division of linguistics (or of any other science) into sharply differentiated periods is a misrepresentation of the gradual passage of discoveries, theories, and attitudes that characterizes the greater part of man's intellectual history. But it is reasonable to close an account of Roman linguistic scholarship with PRISCIANO. In his detailed -- if in places misguided -- fitting of Greek theory and analysis to the Latin language he represents the culmination of the expressed intentions of most Roman scholars once Greek linguistic work had come to their notice. And this was wholly consonant with the general Roman attitude in intellectual and artistic fields towards 'captive Greece' who 'made captive her uncivilized captor and taught rustic Latium the finer arts. PRISCIANO’s work is more than the end of an era. It is also the bridge between antiquity and the Middle Ages in linguistic scholarship. By far the most widely used grammar, PRISCIANO’s “Institutiones grammaticae” runs to no fewer than one thousand manuscripts, and forms the basis of mediaeval Latin grammar and the foundation of mediaeval linguistic philosophy – i modisti or philosophical grammarians. PRISCIANO’s grammar is the fruit of a long period of Greco-Roman unity. This unity had already been broken by the time he writes, and in the centuries following, the Latin west is to be shattered beyond recognition. In the confusion of these times, the philosophical grammarians, their studies and their teaching, have been identified as one of the main defences of the classical heritage in the darkness of the Dark Ages. ARENS, Sprachwissenschaft: der Gang ihrer Entwicklung von der Antike bis zur Gegenwart, Freiburg. Bolgar, The classical heritage and its beneficiaries, Cambridge. J. Collart, V. grammairien latin, Paris. FEHLING, 'V. und die grammatische Lehre von der Analogie und der Flexion', Glotta, LERSCH, Die Sprachphilosophie der Alten, Bonn, H. NETTLESHIP, The study of grammar among the Romans, Journal of philology, ROBINS, Ancient and mediaeval grammatical theory in Europe, London, JSANDYS, History of classical scholarship, Cambridge, STEINTHAL, Geschichte der Sprachwissenschaft bei den Griechen und Romern, Berlin. GIBBON, The decline and fall of the Roman Empire (ed. BURY), London, VERGIL, Aeneid 6, Ssi-3: Tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento (hae tibi erunt artes), pacisque imponere morem, parcere subiectis et debellare superbos. Noctes Atticae GEHMAN, The interpreters of foreign languages among the ancients, Lancaster, Pa., FEHLING, FUNAIOLI, Grammaticorum Romanorum fragmenta, Leipzig. Ars grammatica scientia est eorum quae a poetis historicis oratoribusque dicuntur ex parte maiore. De lingua Latina CHARisrus, Ars grammaticae I (KEIL, Grammatici, Leipzig). On Varro's linguistic theory in relation to modern linguistics, cp. D. LANGENDOEN, 'A note on the linguistic "theory of V.', Foundations of language 2, SUETONIUS, Caesar, GELLIUS, Noctes Atticae  PRISCIANO, Institutio de nomine pronomine et verbo 38, Institutiones grammaticae PROBUS, Instituta artium (H. KEIL, Grammatici Latini), DIONYSIUS-THRAX, Techne BEKKER, Anecdota Graeca, Berlin, APOLLONIUS DYSCOLUS, Syntax As noun, PRISCIAN as pronoun,- PROBUS, Instituta (KEIL, Grammatici APOLLONIUS, De adverbio, BEKKER, Anecdota Graeca, CHARISIUS, Ars grammaticae KEIL, Grammatici -- Nihil docibile habent, significant tamen adfectum animi. QUINTILIAN, Institutio aratoria Their works are published in KEIL, Grammatici Latini, Leipzig, PRISCIAN De figuris numerorum  PRISCIAN De differentiis et societatibus Graeci Latinique verbi, KEIL, Grammatici 5, Leipzig, Artis grammaticae maximi auctores', dedicatory preface Dictio est pars minima orationis constructae; Oratio est ordinatio dictionum congrua, sententiam perfectam demonstrans. Proprium est nominis substantiam et qualitatem significare; Nomen est pars orationis, quae unicuique subiectorum corporum seu rerum communem vel propriam qualitatem distribuit. Proprium est verbi actionem sive passionem significate; Verbum est pars orationis cum temporibus et modis, sine casu, agendi vel patiendi significativum. Participium iure separatur a verbo, quod et casus habet, quibus caret verbum, et genera ad similitudinem nominum, nee modos habet, quos continet verbum; Participium est pars orationis, quae pro verba accipitur, ex quo et derivatur naturaliter, genus et casum habens ad similitudinem nominis et accidentia verba absque discretione personarum et modorum. The problems arising from the peculiar position of the participle among the word classes, under the classification system prevailing in antiquity, are discussed there. Proprium est pronominis pro ali quo nomine proprio poni et certas significare personas; Pronomen est pars orationis, quae pro nomine proprio uniuscuiusque accipitur personasque finitas recipit. Substantiam significat sine aliqua certa qualitate. Proprium est adverbii cum verbo poni nee s·ine eo perfectam significationem posse habere; Adverbium est pars orationis indeclinabilis, cuius.significatio verbis adicitur. Praepositionis proprium est separatim quidem per appositionem casualibus praeponi coniun~tim vero per compositionem tam cum hahentibus casus quam cum non habentibus; Est praepositio pars orationis indeclinabilis, quae praeponitur aliis partibus vel appositione vel compositione. 48. IS-7·40: Videtur affectum habere in se Yerbi et plenam motus animi significationem, etiamsi non addatur verbum, demonstrare. Proprium est coniunctionis diversa nomina vel quascumque dictiones casuales vel diversa verba vel adverbia coniungere; Coniunctio est pars orationis indeclinabilis, coniunctiva aliarum partium orationis, quibus consignificat, vim vel ordinationem demons trans. so. cp. MATTHEWS, 'The inflectional component of a word-and-paradigm grammar', :Journal of linguistics HORACE, Epistles 2.1.156-7: Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit et artes Intulit agresti Latio. .LOT, La fin du monde antique et le debut du moyen age, Paris.  Marco Terenzio Varrone. He led an active and sometimes risky political life. Although he backed the wrong side in the civil war, he survived. He was a pupil of Posidonio at Rome. He was influenced by Antioco d’Ascalon. He wrote hundreds of works, most of which have since been lost. Amongst them was an extended series of fictional philosophical dialgoues, the Logistorici, in wich assorted Romans debated a variety of toipics, illustrating the arguments with examples from history. Tertulliano calls him the Roman Cynargo, perhaps because of some satires he wrote but it is highly unlikely that he was a Cinargo. Better attested is his interest in Pythagoreanism, whose cult he followed to the letter. THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARY  FOUXDED BY JAMES LOEB, LL.D. ED. BY  T. E. PAGE, C.H., UTT.D.   E. CAPPS, ph.d., ll.d. W. H. D. ROUSE, utt.d. V. DELLA LINGUA DEL LAZIO WITH A TR. BY KENT, LONDON, HEINEMANN LTD. V. was born in at Reate in the Sabine country, where his  family, which was of equestrian rank, possessed large  estates. He was a student under L. Aelius Stilo  Praeconinus, a scholar of the equestrian order, widely  versed in Greek and Latin literature and especially  interested in the history and antiquities of the Roman  people. He studied philosophy at Athens, with Anti-  ochus of Ascalon. With his tastes thus formed for  scholarship, he none the less took part in public life,  and was in the campaign against the rebel Sertorius  in Spain, in 76. He was an officer with Pompey in the  war with the Cilician pirates in 67, and presumably  also in Pompey 's campaign against Mithradates. In  the Civil War he was on Pompey 's side, first in Spain  and then in Epirus and Thessaly.   He was pardoned by Caesar, and lived quietly at  Rome, being appointed librarian of the great collec-  tion of Greek and Latin books which Caesar planned  to make. After Caesar's assassination, he was pro-  scribed by Antony, and his villa at Casinum, with  his personal library, was destroyed. But he himself  escaped death by the devotion of friends, who con-  cealed him, and he secured the protection of Octavian. He lived the remainder of his life in peace and quiet,  devoted to his -writings, and died in 27 B.C., in his  eighty-ninth year.   Throughout his life he wrote assiduously. His  works number seventy-four, amounting to about six  hundred and twenty books; they cover virtually all  fields of human thought : agriculture, grammar, the  history and antiquities of Rome, geography, law,  rhetoric, philosophy, mathematics and astronomy,  education, the history of literature and the drama,  satires, poems, orations, letters.   Of all these only one, his De Re Rustica or Treatise  on Agriculture, in three books, has reached us complete.  His De Lingua Latina or On the Latin Language, in  twenty-five books, has come down to us as a torso.;  only Books V. to X. are extant, and there are serious  gaps in these. The other works are represented by  scattered fragments only. The grammatical works of V., so far as we know  t hem, were the following : De Lingua Latina, in twenty-five books, a fuller account of which is given below. De Antiquitate Litterarum, in two books, addressed to the tragic poet L. Accius, who died about 86 b.c.; it was therefore one of V. 's earliest writings. De Origine Linguae Latinae, in three books, ad- dressed to Pompey. Ylzpl XapaKTrjpuv, in at least three books, on the formation of words. Quaestiones Plautinae, in five books, containing interpretations of rare words found in the comedies of Plautus. De Similitudine Verborum, in three books, on re- gularity in forms and words. De Utilitate Sermonis, in at least four books, in which he dealt with the principle of anomaly or irregularity. De Sermone Latino, in five books or more, addressed to Marcellus, which treats of orthography and the metres of poetry. DiscipUnae, an encyclopaedia on the liberal arts, in nine books, of which the first dealt with Grammatica. The extant fragments of these works, apart from those of the De Lingua Latina, may be found in the Goetz and Schoell edition of the De Lingua Latina, pages 199-242; in the collection of Wilmanns, pages 170-223; and in that of Funaioli, pages 179-371 (see the Bibliography). V.'s treatise On the Latin Language was a work in twenty-five books, composed in 47 to 45 B.C., and published before the death of Cicero in 43. The first book was an introduction, containing at the outset a dedication of the entire work to Cicero. The remainder seems to have been divided into four sections of six books each, each section being by its subject matter further divisible into two halves of three books each. Books II.-VII. dealt with the impositio vocabulorum, or how words were originated and applied to things and ideas. Of this portion, Books II. -IV. were prob- ably an earlier smaller work entitled De Etymologia or the like; it was separately dedicated to one Septumius or Septimius, who had at some time, which we cannot now identify, served V. as quaestor. Book II. presented the arguments which were advanced against Etymology as a branch of learning; Book III. presented those in its favour as a branch of learning, and useful; Book IV. discussed its nature. Books V.- VI I. start with a new dedication to Cicero. They treat of the origin of words, the sources from which they come, and the manner in which new words develop. Book V. is devoted to words which are the names of places, and to the objects which are in the places under discussion; VI. treats words denoting time-ideas, and those which contain some time-idea, notably verbs; VII. explains rare and difficult words which are met in the writings of the poets. Books VIII.-XIII. dealt with derivation of words from other words, including stem-derivation, de- clension of nouns, and conjugation of verbs. The first three treated especially the conflict between the principle of Anomaly, or Irregularity, based on con- suetude* ' popular usage,' and that of Analogy, or Regularity of a proportional character, based on ratio ' relation ' of form to form. VIII. gives the arguments against the existence of Analogy, IX. those in favour of its existence, X. V. 's own solution of the con- flicting views, with his decision in favour of its exi- stence. XI.-XIII. discussed Analogy in derivation, in the wide sense given above : probably XI. dealt with nouns of place and associated terms, XII. with time- ideas, notably verbs, XIII. with poetic words, Books XIV.-XIX. treated of syntax. Books XX.- XXV. seem to have continued the same theme, but probably with special attention to stylistic and rhetorical embellishments. Of these twenty-five books, we have to-day, apart from a few brief fragments, only Books V. to X., and in these there are several extensive gaps where the manuscript tradition fails. The fragments of the De Lingua Latina, that is, those quotations or paraphrases in other authors which do not correspond to the extant text of Books V.-X., are not numerous nor long. The most considerable of them are passages in the Nodes Atticae of Aulus Gellius ii. 25 and xvi. 8. They may be found in the edition of Goetz and Schoell, pages 3, 146, 192-198, and in the Collections of Wilmanns and Funaioli (see the Bibliography). It is hardly possible to discuss here even summarily V.'s linguistic theories, the sources upon which he drew, and his degree of independence of thought and procedure. He owed much to his teacher Aelius Stilo, to whom he refers frequently, and he draws heavily upon Greek predecessors, of course, but his practice has much to commend it : he followed neither the Anomalists nor the Analogists to the extreme of their theories, and he preferred to derive Latin words from Latin sources, rather than to refer practically all to Greek origins. On such topics reference may be made to the works of Barwick, Kowalski, Dam, Dahlmann, Kriegshammer, and Frederik Muller, and to the articles of Wolfflin in the eighth volume of the Archiv fur lateinische Lexikographie, all listed in our Bibliography. The text of the extant books of the De Lingua Latina is believed by most scholars to rest on the manuscript here first listed, from which (except for our No. 4) all other known manuscripts have been copied, directly or indirectly. 1. Codex Laurentianus li. 10, folios 2 to 34, parch- ment, written in Langobardic characters in the eleventh century, and now in the Laurentian Library at Florence. It is known as F. F was examined by Petrus Victorius and Iacobus Diacetius in 1521 (see the next paragraph); by Hieronymus Lagomarsini in 1740; by Heinrich Keil in 1851; by Adolf Groth in 1877; by Georg Schoell in 1906. Little doubt can remain as to its actual readings. 2. In 1521, Petrus Victorius and Iacobus Diacetius collated F with a copy of the editio princeps of the De Lingua Latina, in which they entered the differences which they observed. Their copy is preserved in Munich, and despite demonstrable errors in other portions, it has the value of a manuscript for v. 119 to vi. 61, where a quaternion has since their time been lost in F. For this portion, their recorded readings are known as Fv; and the readings of the editio princeps, where they have recorded no variation, are known as (Fv). 3. The Fragmentum Cassinense (called also Excerptum and Epitome), one folio of Codex Cassinensis 361, parchment, containing v. 41 Capitolium dictum to the end of v. 56; of the eleventh century. It was probably copied direct from F soon after F was written, but may possibly have been copied from the archetype of F. It is still at Monte Cassino, and was transcribed by Keil in 1848. It was published in facsimile as an appendix to Sexti Iulii Frontini de aquaeductu Urbis Romae, a phototyped reproduction of the entire manuscript, Monte Cassino, 1930. 4. The grammarian Priscian, who flourished about a.d. 500, transcribed into his De Figuris Numerorum Yarro's passage on coined money, beginning with multa, last word of v. 168, and ending with Nummi denarii decuma libella, at the beginning of v. 174. The passage is given in H. Keil's Grammatici Latini iii. 410-411. There are many manuscripts, the oldest and most important being Codex Parisinus 7496, of the ninth century. 5. Codex Laurentianus li. 5, written at Florence in 1427, where it still remains; it was examined by Keil. It is known as^*. 6. Codex Havniensis, of the fifteenth century; on paper, small quarto, 108 folia; now at Copenhagen. It was examined by B. G. Niebuhr for Koeler, and his records came into the hands of L. Spengel. It is known as H. 7. Codex Gothanus, parchment, of the sixteenth century, now at Gotha; it was examined by Regel for K. O. Mueller, who published its important variants in his edition, pages 270-298. It is known as G. 8. Codex Parisinus 7489, paper, of the fifteenth century, now at Paris; this and the next two were examined by Donndorf for L. Spengel, who gives their different readings in his edition, pages 661-718. It is known as a. 9- Codex Parisinus 6142, paper, of the fifteenth century; it goes only to viii. 7 declinarentur. It is known as b, 10. Codex Parisinus 7535, paper, of the sixteenth century; it contains only v. 1-122, ending with dictae. It is known as c. 11. Codex Vindobonensis lxiii., of the fifteenth century, at Vienna; it was examined by L. Spengel in 1835, and its important variants are recorded in the apparatus of A. Spengel's edition. It is known as V. 12. Codex Basiliensis F iv. 13, at Basel; examined by L. Spengel in 1838. It is known as p. 13. Codex Guelferbytanus, of the sixteenth cen- tury, at Wolfenbiittel; examined by Schneidewin for K. O. Mueller, and afterwards by L. Spengel. It is known as M. 14. Codex B, probably of the fifteenth century, now not identifiable; its variants were noted by Petrus Victorius in a copy of the Editio Gryphiana, and either it or a very similar manuscript was used by Antonius Augustinus in preparing the so-called Editio Vulgata. These are the manuscripts to which reference is made in our critical notes; there are many others, some of greater authority than those placed at the end of our list, but their readings are mostly not available. In any case, as F alone has prime value, the variants of other than the first four in our list can be only the attempted improvements made by their copyists, and have accordingly the same value as that which attaches to the emendations of editors of printed editions. Fuller information with regard to the manuscripts may be found in the following : Spengel, edition of the De Lingua Latina (1826), pages v-xviii. K. O. Mueller, edition (1833), pages xii-xxxi. Andreas Spengel, edition (1885), pages ii-xxviii. Giulio Antonibon, Supplemento di Lezioni Varianti ai libri de lingua Latina (1899) 3 pages 10-23. G. Goetz et F. Schoell, edition (1910), pages xi-xxxv. THE LAURENTIAN MANUSCRIPT F Manuscript F contains all the extant continuous text of the De Lingua Latina, except v. 119 trua quod to vi. 61 dicendojinit; this was contained in the second quaternion, now lost, but still in place when the other manuscripts were copied from it, and when Victorius and Diacetius collated it in 1 521 . There are a number of important lacunae, apart from omitted lines or single words; these are due to losses in its archetype. Leonhard Spengel, from the notations in the manuscript and the amount of text between the gaps, calculated that the archetype of F consisted of 16 quaternions, with these losses : Quaternion 4 lacked folios 4 and 5, the gap after v. 162. Quaternion 7 lacked folio 2, the end of vi. and the beginning of vii., and folio 7, the gap after vii. 23. Quaternion 11 was missing entire, the end of viii. and the beginning of ix. Quaternion 15 lacked folios 1 to 3, the gap after x. 23, and folios 6 to 8, the gap after x. 34. The amount of text lost at each point can be cal- [tJber die Kritik der V.nischen Bucher de Lingua Latina] culated from the fact that one folio of the archetype held about 50 lines of our text. There is a serious transposition in F, in the text of Book V. In § 23, near the end, after qui ad humum, there follows id Sabini, now in § 32, and so on to Septi- viontium, now in § 41; then comes demissior, now in § 23 after humum, and so on to ab hominibus, now in § 32, after which comes nominatum of § 41. Mueller," who identified the transposition and restored the text to its true order in his edition, showed that the altera- tion was due to the wrong folding of folios 4 and 5 in the first quaternion of an archetype of F; though this was not the immediate archetype of F, since the amount of text on each page was different. This transposition is now always rectified in our printed texts; but there is probably another in the later part of Book V., which has not been remedied because the breaks do not fall inside the sentences, thus making the text unintelligible. The sequence of topics indicates that v. 115-128 should stand be- tween v. 140 and v. 141 6; there is then the division by topics : General Heading v. 105 De Victu v. 105-112 De Vestitu v. 113-114, 129-133 De Instrument v. 134-140, 115-128, 141-183 a In the preface to his edition, pp. xvii-xviii. The dis- order in the text had previously been noticed by G. Buchanan, Turnebus, and Scaliger, and discussed by L. Spengel, Emen- dationum V.nianarum Specimen I, pp. 17-19. 6 L. Spengel, Emendationum V.nianarum Specimen I, pp. 13-19, identified this transposition, but considered the transpositions to be much more complicated, with the follow- ing order: §§105-114, §§ 129-140, § 128, §§ 166-168, §§118- 127, §§ 115-117, §§ 141-165, § 169 on. Then also vi. 49 and vi. 45 may have changed places, but I have not introduced this into the present text; I have however adopted the transfer of x. 18 from its manuscript position after x. 20, to the position before x. 19, which the continuity of the thought clearly demands. The text of F is unfortunately very corrupt, and while there are corrections both by the first hand and by a second hand, it is not always certain that the corrections are to be justified. The orthography of F contains not merely many corrupted spellings which must be corrected, but also many variant spellings which are within the range of recognized Latin orthography, and these must mostly be retained in any edition. For there are many points on which we are uncertain of V.'s own practice, and he even speaks of certain per- missible variations : if we were to standardize his orthography, we should do constant violence to the best manuscript tradition, without any assurance that we were in all respects restoring V.'s own spelling. Moreover, as this work is on language, V. has intentionally varied some spellings to suit his etymological argument; any extensive normal- ization might, and probably would, do him injustice in some passages. Further, V. quotes from earlier authors who used an older orthography; we do not know whether V., in quoting from them, tried to use their original orthography, or merely used the orthography which was his own habitual practice. I have therefore retained for the most part the spellings of F, or of the best authorities when F fails, replacing only a few of the more misleading spellings by the familiar ones, and allowing other variations to remain. These variations mostly fall within the following categories : 1. EI : V. wrote EI for the long vowel I in the nom. pi. of Decl. II (ix. 80); but he was probably not consistent in writing EI everywhere. The manuscript testifies to its use in the following : plebei (gen.; cf. plebis vi. 91> in a quotation) v. 40, 81, 158, vi. 87; eidem (nom. sing.) vii. 17 (eadem F), x. 10; scirpeis vii. 44; Terentiei (nom.), vireis Terentieis (masc), Teren- tieis (fem.) viii. 36; infeineiteis viii. 50 (changed to infiniteis in our text, cf. (in)finitam viii. 52); i(e)is viii. 51 (his F), ix. 5; iei (nom.) ix. 2, 35; hei re(e)i fer(re)ei de(e)i viii. 70; hinnulei ix. 28; utrei (nom. pi.) ix. 65 (utre.I. F; cf. utri ix. 65); (B)a(e)biei, B(a)ebieis x. 50 (alongside Caelii, Celiis). 2. AE and E : V., as a countryman, may in some words have used E where residents of the city of Rome used AE (cf. v. 97); but the standard ortho- graphy has been introduced in our text, except that E has been retained in seculum and sepio (and its compounds : v. 141, 150, 157, 162, vii. 7, 13), which always appear in this form. 3. OE and U : The writing OE is kept where it appears in the manuscript or is supported by the context : moerus and derivatives v. 50, 141 bis, 143, vi. 87; moenere, moenitius v. 141; Poenicum v. 113, viii. 65 bis; poeniendo v. 177. OE in other words is the standard orthography. 4. VO UO and VU UU : V. certainly wrote only VO or UO, but the manuscript rarely shows VO or UO in inflectional syllables. The examples are novom ix. 20 (corrected from nouum in F); nomina- tuom ix. 95, x. 30 (both -tiuom F); obliquom x. 50; loquontur vi. 1, ix. 85; sequontur x. 71; clivos v. 158; perhaps amburvom v. 127 (impurro Fv). In initial syllables VO is almost regular : volt vi. 47, etc.; volpes v. 101; volgus v. 58, etc., but vulgo viii. 66; Folcanus v. 70y etc.; volsillis ix. 33. Examples of the opposite practice are aequum vi. 71; duum x. 11; antiquus vi. 68; sequuntur viii. 25; confiuunt x. 50. Our text preserves the manuscript readings. 5. UV before a vowel : V. probably wrote U and not UV before a vowel, except initially, where his practice may have been the other way. The examples are : Pacuius v. 60, vi. 6 (catulus (Fv)), 94, vii. 18, 76, and Pacuvius v. 17, 24, vii. 59; gen. Pacui v. 7, vi. 6, vii. 22; Pacuium vii. 87, 88, 91, 102; compluium, impluium v. 161, and pluvia v. 161, compluvium v. 125; simpuium v. 124 bis (simpulum codd.); cf. panuvellium v. 114. Initially : uvidus v. 24; uvae, uvore v. 104; uvidum v. 109- 6. U and I : V. shows in medial syllables a variation between U and I, before P or B or F or M plus a vowel. The orthography of the manuscript has been retained in our text, though it is likely that V. regularly used U in these types : The superlative and similar words : albissumum viii. 75; fnigalissumus viii. 77; c{a)esi(s)sumus viii. 76; intumus v. 154; maritumae v. 113; melissumum viii. 76; optumum vii. 51; pauperrumus viii. 77; proxuma etc. v. 36, 93, ix. 115, x. 4, 26; septuma etc. ix. 30, x. 46 ler; Septumio v. 1, vii. 109 5 superrumo vii. 51; decuma vi. 54. Cf. proximo, optima maxima v. 102, minimum vii. 101, and many in viii. 75-78. Compounds of -fex and derivatives : pontufex v. 83, pontufices v. 83 (F 2 for pontifices); artufices ix. 12; sacrujiciis v. 98, 124. Cf. pontifices v. 23, vi. 54, etc.; artifex v. 93, ix. Ill, etc.; sacrificium vii. 88, etc. Miscellaneous words : monumentum v. 148, but monimentum etc. v. 41, vi. 49 bis; mancupis v. 40, but mancipium etc. v. 163, vi. 74, 85; quadrupes v. 34, but quadripedem etc. vii. 39 bis, quadriplex etc. x. 46 etc., quadripertita etc. v. 12 etc. 7. LUBET and LIBET : V. probably wrote lubet, lubido, etc., but the orthography varies, and the manuscript tradition is kept in our text : lubere lubendo vi. 47, lubenter vii. 89, lubitum ix. 34, lubidine x. 56; and libido vi. 47, x. 60, libidinosus Libentina Libitina vi. 47, libidine x. 61. 8. H : Whether V. used the initial H according to the standard practice at Rome, is uncertain. In the country it was likely to be dropped in pronuncia- tion; and the manuscript shows variation in its use. We have restored the H in our text according to the usual orthography, except that irpices, v. 136 bis, has been left because of the attendant text. Examples of its omission are Arpocrates v. 57; Ypsicrates v. 88; aedus ircus v. 97; olus olera v. 108, x. 50; olitorium v. 146; olitores vi. 20; ortis v. 103, ortorum v. 146 bis, orti vi. 20; aruspex vii. 88. These are normalized in our text, along with certain other related spellings : sepulchrum vii. 24 is made to conform to the usual sepulcrum, and the almost invariable nichil and nichili have been changed to nihil and nihili. 9. X and CS : There are traces of a writing CS for X, which has in these instances been kept in the text : xx arcs vii. 44 {ares F); acsitiosae (ac sitiose F), acsitiosa (ac sitio a- F) vi. 66; dues (duces F) x. 57. 10. Doubled Consonants : V.'s practice in this matter is uncertain, in some words. F regularly has littera (only Uteris v. 3 has one T), but obliterata (ix. 16, -atae ix. 21, -at-trf v. 52), and these spellings are kept in our text. Communis has been made regular, though F usually has one M; casus is in- variable, except for de cassu in cassum viii. 39, which has been retained as probably coming from V. himself. Iupiter, with one P, is retained, because invariable in F; the only exception is Iuppitri viii. 33 (iuppiti F), which has also been kept. Numo vi. 61, for nummo, has been kept as perhaps an archaic spelling. Decusis ix. 81 has for the same reason been kept in the citation from Lucilius. In a few words the normal orthography has been introduced in the text : grallator vii. 69 bis for gralaior, grabatis viii. 32 for grabattis. For combinations resulting from pre- fixes see the next paragraph. 11. Consonants of Prefixes : V.'s usage here is quite uncertain, whether he kept the unassimilated consonants in the compounds. Apparently in some groups he made the assimilations, in others he did not. The evidence is as follows, the variant orthography being retained in our text : Ad-c- : always acc-, except possibly adcensos vii. 58 (F 2, for acensos F 1 ). Ad-f- : always off-, except adfuerit vi. 40. Ad-l- : always all-, except adlocutum vi. 57, adlucet vi. 79, adlatis (ablatis F) ix. 21. Ad-m- : always adm-, except ammonendum v. 6, amministrat vi. 78, amminicula vii. 2, amminister vii. 34 (F2, for adm- F*). Ad-s- : regularly ass-, but also adserere vi. 64, adsiet vi. 92, adsimus vii. 99? adsequi viii. 8, x. 9> a^- significare often (always except assignificant vii. 80), adsumi viii. 69, adsumat ix. 42, adsumere x. 58. Ad-sc-, ad-sp-, ad-st- : always with loss of the D, as in ascendere, ascribere, ascriptos (vii. 57), ascriptivi (vii. 56), aspicere, aspectus, astans. Ad-t- : always a#-, except adtributa v. 48, and possibly adtinuit (F 1, but a^- F 2 ) ix. 59- Con-l-, con-b-, con-m-, con-r-: always coll-, comb-, comm.-, corr-. Con-p- : always comp-, except conpernis ix. 10. Ex-f- : always eff-, except exfluit v. 29. Ex-s- : exsolveret v. 176, exsuperet vi. 50, but exuperantum vii. 18 (normalized in our text to exsuperantum). Ex-sc- : exculpserant v. 143. Ex-sp- : always expecto etc. vi. 82, x. 40, etc. Ex-sq- : regularly Esquiliis; but Exquilias v. 25, Exquiliis v. 159 (Fv)i normalized to Esq- in our text. Ex-st : extol v. 8, vi. 78; but exstat v. 3, normalized to extat in our text. In-l- : usually ill-, but inlicium vi. 88 bis, 93 (illici- tum F), 94, 95, inliceret vi. 90, inliciatur vi. 94; the variation is kept in our text: In-m- : always imm-, except in (i?i)mutatis vi. 38, where the restored addition is unassimilated to indi- cate the negative prefix and not the local in. In-p- : always imp-, except inpos v. 4 bis (once ineos F), inpotem v. 4 (inpotentem F), inplorat vi. 68. Ob-c-, ob-f-, ob-p- : always occ-, off-, opp-. Ob-t- : always opt-, as in optineo etc. vii. 17, 91 > x. 19, optemperare ix. 6. Per-l- : pellexit vi. 94, but perlucent v. 140. Sub-c-, sub-f-, sub-p- : always succ-, suff-, supp-, except subcidit v. 116. Subs- and subs- + consonant : regularly sus- + con- sonant, except subscribunt vii. 107. Sub-t- : only in suptilius x. 40. Trans-l- : in tralatum vi. 77, vii. 23, 103, x. 71; tralaticio vi. 55 (tranlatio Fv) and translaticio v. 32, vi. 64- (translatio F, tranlatio Fv), translaticiis vi. 78. Trans-v- : in travolat v. 118, and transversus vii. 81, x. 22, 23, 43. ' Trans-d- : in traducere. 12. DE and DI : The manuscript has been followed in the orthography of the following : directo vii. 15, dirigi viii. 26, derecti x. 22 bis, deriguntur derectorum x. 22, derecta directis x. 43, directas x. 44, derigitur x. 74; deiunctum x. 45, deiunctae x. 47. 13. Second Declension : Nora. sing, and acc. sing, in -uom and -uum, see 5. Gen. sing, of nouns in -ius : V. used the form ending in a single I (cf. viii. 36), and a few such forms stand in the manuscript : Muci v. 5 (muti F); Pacui v. 7, vi. 6, vii. 22; Mani vi. 90 5 Quinti vi. 92, Ephesi viii. 22 (ephesis F), Plauti et Marci viii. 36, dispendi ix. 54 (quoted, metrical; alongside dispendii ix. 54). The gen. in II is much commoner; both forms are kept in our text. Nom. pi., written by V. with EI (cf. ix. 80); examples are given in 1, above. Gen. pi. : The older form in -um for certain words (denarium, centumvirum, etc.) is upheld viii. 71, ix. 82, 85, and occurs occasionally elsewhere : Velabrum v. 44, Querquetulanum v. 49, Sabinum v. 74, etc. Dat.-abl. pi., written by V. with EIS (cf. ix. 80); examples are given in 1, above, but the manuscript regularly has IS. Dat.-abl. pi. of nouns ending in -ius, -ia, -turn, are almost always written IIS; there are a few for which the manuscript has IS, which we have normalized to IIS : Gabis v. 33, (Es)quilis v. 50, kostis v. 98, Publicis v. 158, Faleris v. 162, praeverbis vi. 82 (cf. praeverbiis vi. 38 bis), mysteris vii. 34- (cf. mysteriis vii. 19) 5 miliaris ix. 85 (inilitaris F). Deus shows the following variations : Nom. pi. de{e)i viii. 70, dei v. 57, 58 bis, 66, 71, vii. 36, ix. 59, dii v. 58, 144, vii. 16; dat.-abl. pi. deis v. 122, vii. 45, diis v. 69, 71, 182, vi. 24, 34, vii. 34. 14. Third Declension : The abl. sing, varies between E and I : supellectile viii. 30, 32, ix. 46, and supellectili ix. 20 (-lis F); cf. also vesperi (uespert- F) and vespere ix. 73. Nom. pi., where ending in IS in the manuscript, is altered to ES; the examples are mediocris v. 5; partis v. 21, 56; ambonis v. 115; urbis v. 143; aedis v. 160; compluris vi. 15; Novendialis vi. 26; auris vi. 83; dis- parilis viii. 67; lentis'vs.. 34; omnis ix. 81; dissimilis ix. 92. Gen. pi. in UM and IUM, see viii. 67. In view of dentum viii. 67, expressly championed by V., Veientum v. 30 (uenientum F), caelestum vi. 53, Quiritum vi. 68 have been kept in our text. Acc. pi. in ES and IS, see viii. 67. V. 's dis- tribution of the two endings seems to have been purely empirical and arbitrary, and the manuscript readings have been retained in our text. 15. Fourth Declension : Gen. sing. : Gellius, Nodes Atticae iv. 16. 1, tells us that V. always used UIS in this form. Nonius Marcellus 483-494 M. cites eleven such forms from V., but also sumpti. The De Lingua Latina gives the following partial examples of this ending : usuis ix. 4 (suis F), x. 73 (usui F), casuis x. 50 {casuum F), x. 62 (casus his F). Examples of this form ending in US are kept in our text : fructus v. 34, 134, senatus v. 87, exercitus v. 88, panus v. 105, domus v. 162, census v. 181, mofws vi. 3, sonitus vi. 67 sensus vi. 80, wjms viii. 28, 30 c, except as noted below. Letters changed from the manuscript reading are printed in italics. Some obvious additions, and the following changes, are sometimes not further explained by critical notes : ae with italic a, for manuscript e. oe, with italic o, for manuscript ae or e. italic b and v, for manuscript u and b. italic f andpA, for manuscript ph andf. italic i and y, for manuscript y and i. italic h, for an h omitted in the manuscript. The manuscripts are referred to as follows; read- ings without specification of the manuscript are from F : F=Laurentianus li. 10; No. 1 in our list. F 1 or m 1, the original writer of F, or the first hand. F 2 or m 2, the corrector of F, or the second hand. Fv = readings from the lost quaternion of F, as recorded by Victorius; our No. 2. Frag. Cass. = Cassinensis 361; our No. 3. f= Laurentianus li. 5; our No. 5. H= Havniensis; our No. 6. G = Gothanus; our No. 7. a = Parisinus 7489; our No. 8. 6 = Parisinus 6142; our No. 9- c=Parisinus 7535; our No. 10. V= Vindobonensis lxiii.; our No. 1 1 . p = Basiliensis F iv. 13; our No. 12. M= Guelferbytanus 896; our No. 13. B = that used by Augustinus; our No. 14. The following abbreviations are used for editors and editions (others are referred to by their full names) : Laetus = editio princeps of Pomponius Laetus. Rhol. = Rholandellus, whose first edition was in 1475. Pius = Baptista Pius, edition of 1510. Aug. = Antonius Augustinus, editor of the Vul- gate edition 1554, reprinted 1557. Sciop. = Gaspar Scioppius, edition of 1602, re- printed 1605. L. Sp. = Leonhard Spengel, edition of 1826 (and articles). Mue. = Karl Ottfried Mueller, edition of 1833. A. Sp. = Andreas Spengel, edition of 1885 (and articles). GS. = G. Goetz and F. Schoell, edition. De Disciplina Originum Verborum ad ClCERONEM. Quemadmodum vocabula essent imposita rebus in lingua Latina, sex libris exponere institui. De his tris ante hunc feci quos Septumio misi : in quibus est de disciplina, quam vocant eri'/ioAoyi/ojv 1 : quae contra ea(m) 2 dicerentur, volumine primo, quae pro ea, secundo, quae de ea, tertio. In his ad te scribam, a quibus rebus vocabula imposita sint in lingua Latina, et ea quae sunt in consuetudine apud (popu- lum et ea quae inveniuntur apud) 3 poetas. 2. Cuwz 1 unius cuiusque verbi naturae sint duae, a qua re et in qua re vocabulum sit impositum (itaque § 1. 1 For ethimologicen. 2 Rhol., for ea. 3 Added by A. Sp. §2. 1 Rhol., for cui. §1. "Books II. -VII.; Book I. was introductory. * Books II.-IV. e Quaestor to V., cf. vii. 109; but when or where is not known. Possibly he was the writer on architecture mentioned by Vitruvius, de Arch. vii. praef. 1 4, and even the composer of the Libri Observationttm men- ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE Ox THE SciEXCE OF THE ORIGIN OF WORDS, ADDRESSED TO ClCERO. In what way a name (like ‘shagy’) is applied to a thing (like shagginess) in Latin, I undertak to expound. Of this exposition, I have already composed three parts b before this one, and address them to SETTUMIO (vedasi) c; in those three parts I treat of the branch of learning which I call ‘etymology,’ from the Greek for ‘true’. The considerations which might be raised against it, I have put in a first part; those adduced in its favour, in the second; those merely describing it, in the third. In the following, addressed to thee, CICERONE, I shall discuss the PROBLEM – philosophical if ever there is one -- from what a thing a name is applied, either a name which is habitual with the ordinary folk, or that which is found in the poets, so-called, only. Inasmuch as each and every WORD [cf. Grice, “Utt ] has two innate features, from what thing and to what thing tioned by Quintilian, Inst. Orat. iv. 1. 19. d Cicero, to whom V. addresses the balance of the work, Books V.-XXV., written apparently in 47-45 b.c. 3 V. a qua re sit pertinacia cum requi(ri)tur, 2 ostenditur 3 esse a perten(den)do 4; in qua re sit impositum dicitur cum demonstratur, in quo non debet pertendi et pertendit, pertinaciam esse, quod in quo oporteat manere, si in eo perstet, perseverantia sit), priorem illam partem, ubi cur et unde sint verba scrutantur, Graeci vocant £Tu//oAoyiav, 5 illam alteram Trtp(}) °" r l- /xcuvo/xevwi'. De quibus duabus rebus in his libris promiscue dicam, sed exilius de posteriore. 3. Quae ideo sunt obscuriora, quod neque omnis impositio verborum extat, 1 quod vetustas quasdam delevit, nec quae extat sine mendo omnis imposita, nec quae recte est imposita, cuncta manet (multa enim verba li(t)teris commutatis sunt interpolata), neque omnis origo est nostrae linguae e vernaculis verbis, et multa verba aliud nunc ostendunt, aliud ante significabant, ut hostis : nam turn eo verbo dicebant peregrinum qui suis legibus uteretur, nunc dicunt eum quern turn dicebant perduellem. 4. In quo genere verborum aut casu erit illustrius unde videri possit origo, inde repetam. Ita fieri oportere apparet, quod recto casu quom 1 dicimus inpos, 2 obscurius est esse a potentia qua(m> 3 cum 2 OS., for sequitur. 3 For hostenditur. 4 Rhol., for pertendo. 5 For ethimologiam. § 3. 1 For exstat. § 4. 1 Aug., with B, for quem. 2 p, Laetus, for ineos. 3 For qua. § 2. ° Properly an abstract formed from pertinax, itself a compound of tenax ' tenacious,' derived from tenere ' to hold.' § 3. ° Cf. vii. 49. Not from potentia; but both from radical pot-. the name is applied (therefore, when the question is raised from what thing pertinacia ' obstinacy ' is,° it is shown to be from pertendere ' to persist ' : to what thing it is applied, is told when it is explained that it is pertinacia ' obstinacy ' in a matter in which there ought not to be persistence but there is, because it is perseverantia ' steadfastness ' if a person persists in that in which he ought to hold firm), that former part, where they examine why and whence words are, the Greeks call Etymology, that other part they call Semantics. Of these two matters I shall speak in the following books, not keeping them apart, but giving less attention to the second. 3. These relations are often rather obscure for the following reasons : Not every word that has been applied, still exists, because lapse of time has blotted out some. Not every word that is in use, has been applied without inaccuracy of some kind, nor does every word which has been applied correctly remain as it originally was; for many words are disguised by change of the letters. There are some whose origin is not from native words of our own language. Many words indicate one thing now, but formerly meant something else, as is the case with hostis ' enemy ' : for in olden times by this word they meant a foreigner from a country independent of Roman laws, but now they give the name to him whom they then called perduellis ' enemy.' a 4. I shall take as starting-point of my discussion that derivative or case-form of the words in which the origin can be more clearly seen. It is evident that we ought to operate in this way, because when we say inpos ' lacking power ' in the nominative, it is less clear that it is from potentia a ' power ' than when we 5 V. dicimus inpotem 4; et eo obscurius fit, si dicas pos quam 5 inpos : videtur enim pos significare potius pontem quam potentem. 5. Vetustas pauca non depravat, multa tollit. Quem puerum vidisti formosum, hunc vides defor- mem in senecta. Tertium seculum non videt eum homincm quem vidit primum. Quare ilia quae iam maioribus nostris ademit oblivio, fugitiva secuta sedulitas Muci 1 et Bruti retrahere nequit. Non, si non potuero indagare, eo ero tardior, sed velocior ideo, si quivero. Non mediocres 2 enim tenebrae in silva ubi haec captanda neque eo quo pervenire volumus semitae tritae, neque non in tramitibus quaedam obz'ecta 3 quae euntem retinere possent. 6. Quorum verborum novorum ac veterum dis- cordia omnis in consuetudine com(m)uni, quot modis 1 commutatio sit facta qui animadverterit, facilius scrutari origines patietur verborum : reperiet enim esse commutata, ut in superioribus libris ostendi, maxime propter bis quaternas causas. Litterarum enim fit demptione aut additione et propter earum tra(ie)ctionem 2 aut commutationem, item syllabarum productione (aut correptione, denique adiectione aut 4 Aug., for inpotentem. 5 Aug., with B, for postquam. § 5. 1 For muti. 2 For mediocris. 3 For oblecta. § 6. 1 After modis, Fr. Fritzsche deleted litterarum. 2 Scaliger and Popma,for tractationem. Avoided in practice, in favour of dissyllabic potis. " Be- cause the nasal was almost or quite lost before s; cf. the regular inscriptional spelling cosol= consul. § 5. ° P. Mucius Scaevola and M. Junius Brutus, distin- guished jurists and writers on law in the period 150-130 b.c. Mucius, as pontifex maximus, seems to have collected and e(n)ta'fodinae 2 et viocurus ? Secundus quo grammatica escendit 3 antiqua, quae ostendit, quem- admodum quodque poeta finxerit verbum, quod confinxerit, quod declinarit; hie Pacui : Rudentum sibilus, hie : Incwrvicervicum 4 pecus, hie : Clamide clupeat bacchium. s 8. Tertius gradus, quo philosophia ascendens per- venit atque ea quae in consuetudine communi essent aperire coepit, 1 ut a quo dictum esset oppidum, vicus, via. Quartus, ubi est adytum 2 et initia regis : quo si non perveniam (ad) 3 scientiam, at* opinionem aucupabor, quod etiam in salute nostra nonnunquam facit 5 cum aegrotamus medicus. 3 Added by Kent, after Scaliger, Mite., OS.; cf. Quintilian, hist. Orat. i. 6. 32. 4 After libris, Aug. deleted qui. §7. 1 After infimus, Sciop. deleted in. 2 Canal, for aretofodine. 3 Sciop., for descendit. 4 O, Aldus, for inceruice ruicum. 8 For bacchium. §8. 1 For caepit. 2 Sciop., for aditum. 3 Added by L. Sp. 4 Sciop., for ad. 5 Aldus, with p, for fecit. § 7. ° Cf. viii. 62. 6 Teucer, Trag. Rom. Frag. 336 Ilibbeck 3; R.O.L. ii. 296-297 Warmington. c Ex inc. fab. xliv, verse 408, Trag. Rom. Frag. Ribbeck 3, R.O.L. ii. 292-293 Warmington, referring to the dolphins of Nereus; the entire 8 ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. &-8 by examples, in the preceding books, of what sort these phenomena are, I have thought that here I need only set a reminder of that previous discussion. 7. Now I shall set forth the origins of the indivi- dual words, of which there are four levels of explana- tion. The lowest is that to which even the common folk has come; who does not see the sources of argentifodinae a ' silver-mines ' and of viocurus ' road- overseer ' ? The second is that to which old-time grammar has mounted, which shows how the poet has made each word which he has fashioned and derived. Here belongs Pacuvius's 6 The whistling of the ropes, here his c Incurvate-necked flock, here his d With his mantle he beshields his arm. 8. The third level is that to which philosophy ascended, and on arrival began to reveal the nature of those words which are in common use, as, for example, from what oppidum ' town ' was named, and vicus ' row of houses,' a and via ' street.' The fourth is that where the sanctuary is, and the mysteries of the high- priest : if I shall not arrive at full knowledge there, at any rate I shall cast about for a conjecture, which even in matters of our health the physician sometimes does when we are ill. verse in Quintilian, Inst. Orat. i. 5. 67, Nerei repandirostrum incurvicervicum pecus. d Hermiona, Trag. Rom. Frag. 186 Ribbeck 3, R.O.L. ii. 232-233 Warmington; the entire verse in Nonius Marcellus, 87. 23 M. : currum liquit, clamide contorta astu clipeat braccium. § 8. ° From this meaning, either an entire small ' village ' or a ' street ' in a large city. Quodsi summum gradum non attigero, tamen secundum praeteribo, quod non solum ad Aris- tophanis lucernam, sed etiam ad CleantAis lucubravi. Volui praeterire eos, qui poetarum modo verba ut sint ficta expediunt. Non enim videbatur consen- taneum qua(e>re 1 me in eo verbo quod finxisset Ennius causam, neglegere quod ante rex Latinus finxisset, cum poeticis multis verbis magis delecter quam utar, antiquis magis utar quam delecter. An non potius mea verba ilia quae hereditate a Romulo rege venerunt quam quae a poeta Livio relicta ? 10. Igitur quoniam in haec sunt tripertita verba, quae sunt aut nostra aut aliena aut oblivia, de nostris dicam cur sint, de alienis unde sint, de obliviis re- linquam : quorum partim quid ta(men) invenerim aut opiner 1 scribam. In hoc libro dicam de vocabulis locorum et quae in his sunt, in secundo de temporum et quae in his fiunt, in tertio de utraque re a poetis comprehensa. 11. Pythagoras Samius ait omnium rerum initia esse bina ut finitum et infinitum, bonum et malum, §9. 1 Aug., for quare. § 10. 1 After A. Sp., with tamen from Fay's quo loco tamen; for quo ita inuenerim ita opiner. §9. Aristophanes of Byzantium, 262-185 b.c, pupil of Zenodotus and Callimachus at Alexandria, and himself one of the greatest of the Alexandrian grammarians, who busied himself especially with the textual correction and editing of the Greek authors, notably Homer, Hesiod, and the lyric poets. 6 Frag. 485 von Arnim; Cleanthes of Assos, 331- 232 b.c, pupil and successor of Zeno, founder of the Stoic school of philosophy (died 264), as head of the school, at Athens, and author of many works on all phases of the Stoic teaching. e L. Livius Andronicus, c. 284-202 b.c, born at Tarentum; first epic and dramatic poet of the Romans. §11. Pythagoras, born probably in Samos about 567 b.c, But if I have not reached the highest level, I shall none the less go farther up than the second, because I have studied not only by the lamp of Aris- tophanes, but also by that of Cleanthes. 6 I have desired to go farther than those who expound only how the words of the poets are made up. For it did not seem meet that I seek the source in the case of the word which Ennius had made, and neglect that which long before King Latinus had made, in view of the fact that I get pleasure rather than utility from many words of the poets, and more utility than pleasure from the ancient words. And in fact are not those words mine which have come to me by inheritance from King Romulus, rather than those which were left behind by the poet Livius ? c 10. Therefore since words are divided into these three groups, those which are our own, those which are of foreign origin, and those which are obsolete and of forgotten sources, I shall set forth about our own why they are, about those of foreign origin whence they are, and as to the obsolete I shall let them alone : except that concerning some of them I shall none the less write what I have found or myself conjecture. In this book I shall tell about the words denoting places and those things which are in them; in the follow- ing book I shall tell of the words denoting times and those things which take place in them : in the third I shall tell of both these as expressed by the poets. 11. Pythagoras the Samian says that the primal elements of all things are in pairs, as finite and infinite, removed to Croton in South Italy about 529 and was there the founder of the philosophic-political school of belief which attaches to his name. His teachings were oral only, and were reduced to writing by his followers.V. vitam et mortem, diem et noctem. Quare item duo status et motus, (utrumque quadripertitum) 1 : quod stat aut agitatur, corpus, ubi agitatur, locus, dum agitatur, tempus, quod est in agitatu, actio. Quadri- pertitio magis sic apparebit : corpus est ut cursor, locus stadium qua currit, tempus hora qua currit, actio cursio. 12. Quare fit, ut ideo fere omnia sint quadri- pertita et ea aeterna, quod neque unquam tempus, quin fuerit 1 motus : eius enim 2 intervallum tempus; ncque motus, ubi non locus et corpus, quod alterum est quod movetur, alterum ubi; neque ubi is agitatus, non actio ibi. Igitur initiorum quadrigae locus et corpus, tempus et actio. 13. Quare quod quattuor genera prima rerum, totidem verborum : e quis (de) locis et ns 1 rebus quae in his videntur in hoc libro summatim ponam. Sed qua cognatio eius erit verbi quae radices egerit extra fines suas, persequemur. Saepe enim ad limitem arboris radices sub vicini prodierunt segetem. Quare non, cum de locis dicam, si ab agro ad agrarium 2 hominem, ad agricolam pervenero, aberraro. Multa §11. 1 Added by L. Sp. §12. 1 For fuerint. 2 A ug., for animi. § 13. 1 L. Sp., for uerborum enim horum dequis locis et his. 2 L. Sp., for agrosium. § 13. ° Celebrated on April 23 and August 19, when an offering of new wine was made to Jupiter. good and bad, life and death, day and night. There- fore likewise there are the two fundamentals, station and motion, each divided into four kinds : what is stationary or is in motion, is body; where it is in motion, is place; while it is in motion, is time; what is inherent in the motion, is action. The fourfold division will be clearer in this way : body is, so to speak, the runner, place is the race-course where he runs, time is the period during which he runs, action is the running. 12. Therefore it comes about that for this reason all things, in general, are divided into four phases, and these universal; because there is never time without there being motion — for even an intermission of motion is time —; nor is there motion where there is not place and body, because the latter is that which is moved, and the former is where; nor where this motion is, does there fail to be action. Therefore place and body, time and action are the four-horse team of the elements. 13. Therefore because the primal classes of things are four in number, so many are the primal classes of words. From among these, concerning places and those things which are seen in them, I shall put a summary account in this book; but we shall follow them up wherever the kin of the word under discus- sion is, even if it has driven its roots beyond its own territory. For often the roots of a tree which is close to the line of the property have gone out under the neighbour's cornfield. Wherefore, when I speak of places, I shall not have gone astray, if from ager ' field ' I pass to an agrarius ' agrarian ' man, and to an agricola ' farmer.' The partnership of words is one of many members : the Wine Festival a cannot be set 13 V. societas verborum, nec Vinalia sine vino expediri nec Curia Calabra sine calatione potest aperiri. II. 14. Incipiam de locis ob 1 ipsius loci origine. Locus est, ubi locatum quid esse potest, ut nunc dicunt, collocatum. Veteres id dicere solitos apparet apud Plautum : Filiam habeo grandem dote cassa(m> atque inlocabile 3 Neque earn queo locare cuiquam. Apud Ennium : O Terra T/jraeca, ubi Liberi fanum incZutfum 3 Maro 4 locavi. 5 15. Ubi quidque consistit, locus. Ab eo praeco dicitur locare, quod usque idem it, 1 quoad in aliquo constitit pretium. In(de) 2 locarium quod datur in stabulo et taberna, ubi consistant. Sic loci muliebres, ubi nascendi initia consistunt. III. 16. Loca natura(e) 1 secundum antiquam divisionem prima duo, terra et caelum, deinde par- ticulatim utriusque multa. Caeli dicuntur loca su- § 14. 1 Sciop., for sub. 2 So Plautus, for cassa dote atque inlocabili F; Plautus also has virginem for filiam. 3 Wilhelm, for inciuium. 4 For miro F 2, maro F 1 . 6 Ribbeck, for locaui. § 15. 1 Turnebus, for id emit. 2 Laetus,for in. § 16. 1 Aug., for natura. 6 A place on the Capitoline Hill, near the cottage of Romulus, and also the meeting held there on the Kalends, when the priests announced the number of days until the Nones; cf. vi. 27, and Macrobius, Saturnalia, i. 15. 7. § 14. a Theuncompounded word; which, like its compound, meant both ' established in a fixed position ' and ' established in a marriage.' b Aulularia, 191-192. e That is, in marriage. d Trag. Rom. Frag. 347-348 Ribbeck 3; R.O.L. 14 on its way without wine, nor can the Curia Calabra ' Announcement Hall ' b be opened without the calatio ' proclamation.' II. 14. Among places, I shall begin with the origin of the word locus ' place ' itself. Locus is where something can be locatum a ' placed,' or as they say nowadays, colhcatum ' established.' That the ancients were wont to use the word in this meaning, is clear in Plautus 6 : I have a grown-up daughter, lacking dower, unplaceable,' Nor can I place her now with anyone. In Ennius we find d : O Thracian Land, where Bacchus' fane renowned Did Maro place. 15. Where anything comes to a standstill, is a locus ' place.' From this the auctioneer is said locare 1 to place ' because he is all the time likewise going on until the price comes to a standstill on someone. Thence also is locarium ' place-rent,' which is given for a lodging or a shop, where the payers take their stand. So also loci muliebres ' woman's places,' where the beginnings of birth are situated. III. 16. The primal places of the universe, accord- ing to the ancient division, are two, terra ' earth ' and caelum ' sky,' and then, according to the division into items, there are many places in each. The places of the sky are called loca super a ' upper places,' and i. 376-377 Warmington. Maro, son of Euanthes and priest of Apollo in the Thracian Ismaros, in thanks for protection for himself and his followers, gave Ulysses a present of excellent wine (Odyssey, ix. 197 ff.). Because of this, later legend drew him into the Dionysiac circle, as son or grandson of Bacchus, or otherwise. There were even cults of Maro himself in Maroneia, Samothrace, and elsewhere. pera et ea deorum, terrae loca infcra et ea hominum. Ut Asia sic caelum dicitur modis duobus. Nam et Asia, quae non Europa, in quo etiam Syria, et Asia dicitur prioris pars Asiae, in qua est Ionia ac provincia nostra. 17. Sic caelum et pars eius, summum ubi stellae, et id quod Pacuvius cum demonstrat dicit : Hoc vide circum supraque quod complexu continet Terram. Cui subiungit : Id quod nostri caelum memorant. A qua bipertita divisione Lua'Zius 1 suorum un(i)us 2 et viginti librorum initium fecit hoc : Aetheris et terrae genitabile quaerere tempus. 18. Caelum dictum scribit Aelius, quod est ccelatum, aut contrario nomine, celatum quod aper- tum est; non male, quod (im)positor 1 multo potius (caelare) 2 a caelo quam caelum a caelando. Sed non § 17. 1 Scaliger, for lucretius. 2 Laetus, for unum. § 18. 1 GS.,for posterior. 2 Added by Scaliger. § 16. ° Asia originally designated probably only a town or small district in Lydia, and then came to be what we now call Asia Minor, and finally the entire continent. 6 Ionia was a coastal region of Asia Minor, including Smyrna, Ephesus, Miletus, etc., and was included within provincia nostra. But ' our province ' ran much farther inland, comprising Phrygia, Mysia, Lydia, Caria (Cicero, Pro Flacco, 27. 65), which explains the ' and.' § 17. ° Chryses, Tray. Rom. Fray. 87-88 and 90 Ribbeck 3; R.O.L. 2. 202-203, lines 107-108, 1 1 1 Warmington. 6 Satirae, verse 1 Marx. As there were thirty books of Lucilius's Satires, the limitation to twenty-one by V. must be based on another division (for which there is evidence), thus : Books XXVI.-XXX. were written first, in various metres; I.-XXI., these belong to the gods; the places of the earth are loca infer a ' lower places,' and these belong to man- kind. Caelum ' sky ' is used in two ways, just as is Asia. For Asia means the Asia, which is not Europe, wherein is even Syria; and Asia means also that part a of the aforementioned Asia, in which is Ionia 6 and our province. 17. So caelum ' sky ' is both a part of itself, the top where the stars are, and that which Pacuvius means when he points it out : See this around and above, which holds in its embrace The earth. To which he adds : .That which the men of our days call the sky. From this division into two, Lucilius set this as the start of his twenty-one books 6 : Seeking the time when the ether above and the earth were created. 18. Caelum, Aelius writes," was so called because it is caelatum ' raised above the surface,' or from the opposite of its idea, 6 celatum ' hidden ' because it is exposed; not ill the remark, that the one who applied the term took caelare ' to raise ' much rather from caelum than caelum from caelare. But that second to which V. here alludes, were a second volume, in dactylic hexameters, which Lucilius had found to be the best vehicle for his work; XXII.-XXV. were a third part, in elegiacs, probably not published until after their author's death. § 18. ° Page 59 Funaioli. Caelum is probably connected with a root seen in German heiter ' bright,' and not with the words mentioned by V.. 6 Derivation by the contrary of the meaning, as in ludus, in quo minime luditur ' school, in which there is very little playing ' (Fesrus, 122. 16 M.). vol. I c 17 V. minus illud alterum de celando ab eo potuit dici, quod interdiu celatur, quam quod noctu non celatur. 19. Omnino epk(ap). 3 A puteis oppidum ut Puteoli, quod incircum eum locum aquae frigidae et caldae multae, nisi a putore potius, quod putidus odoribus soepe ex sulphure et alumine. Extra oppida a puteis puticuli, quod ibi in puteis obruebantur homines, nisi potius, ut Aelius scribit, puticuli 4 quod putescebant ibi cadavera proiecta, qui locus publicus ultra Esquilias. 5 Itaque eum Afranius /mti/ucos 6 in Togata appellat, quod inde suspiciunt per p?*teos 7 lumen. 26. Lacus lacuna magna, ubi aqua contineri potest. Palus paululum aquae in altitudinem et palam latius diffusae. Stagnum a Graeco, quod ii 1 o-reyvov quod non habet rimam. 2 Hinc ad villas rutunda 3 stagna, quod rutundum facillime continet, anguli maxime laborant. § 25. 1 For summi. 2 Buttmann, for potamon sic po tura potu. 3 Victorius, for pe. 4 Mue.,for puticulae. 5 For exquilias. 6 Scaliger, for cuticulos. 7 Canal, for perpetuos. § 26. 1 For 11. 2 Scaliger, for nomen habet primam. 3 B, for rutundas. § 25. Or ' pit '; derivative of root in pidare ' to cut, think,' cf. amputare ' to cut off.' 6 Aeolis, nom. pi. = Greek AloXeis. " This and ttvtcos are unknown in the extant remains of Aeolic Greek, but a number of Aeolic words show the change : anv for a-no, vfioCcos for ofiotcos. d The modern Pozzuoli, on the Bay of Naples, in a locality characterized by volcanic springs and exhalations; V.'s derivation is correct. * Page 65 Funaioli. ' The Roman ' potters' field,' for the poor and the slaves. * Com. Rom. Frag. 430 Ribbeck 3; with a jesting transposition of the consonants. Cf. for a similar effect ' pit-lets ' and ' pit-lights.' The description suggests that they were constructed like the Catacombs. If this moisture is in the ground no matter how far down, in a place from which it pote ' can ' be taken, it is a puteus ' well ' °; unless rather because the Aeolians 6 used to say, like 7ruTa/zos c for Trorafios ' river,' so also Trvreos ' well ' for iroreos ' drinkable,' from pohis ' act of drinking,' and not (f>peap ' well ' as they do now. From patei ' wells ' comes the town- name, such as Puteoli, d because around this place there are many hot and cold spring-waters; unless rather from putor ' stench,' because the place is often putidus ' stinking ' with smells of sulphur and alum. Outside the towns there are puticuli ' little pits,' named from putei ' pits,' because there the people used to be buried in putei ' pits '; unless rather, as Aelius e writes, the puticuli are so called because the corpses which had been thrown out putescebant ' used to rot ' there, in the public burial-place f which is beyond the Esqui- line. This place Afranius 9 in a comedy of Roman life calls the Putiluci ' pit-lights,' for the reason that from it they look up through putei ' pits ' to the lumen ' light.* 26. A lacus ' lake ' is a large lacuna a ' hollow,' where water can be confined. A palus b ' swamp ' is a paululum ' small amount ' of water as to depth, but spread quite widely palam ' in plain sight.' A stagnum c ' pool ' is from Greek, because they gave the name o-reyvos d ' waterproof ' to that which has no fissure. From this, at farmhouses the stagna ' pools ' are round, because a round shape most easily holds water in, but corners are extremely troublesome. §26. ° Lacuna is a derivative of lacus. 6 Palus, paulu- lum, palam are all etymologically distinct. e Properly, a pool without an outlet; perhaps akin to Greek arayuv ' drop (of liquid).' d Original meaning, ' covered.' Fluvius, quod fluit, item flumen : a quo lege praediorum urbanorum scribitur 1 : Stillicidia fluminaque 2 ut ita 3 cadant fluantque; inter haec hoc inter(est), quod stillicidium eo quod stillatim cadit, 4 flumen quod fluit continue. 28. Amnis id flumen quod circuit aliquod : nam ab ambitu amnis. Ab hoc qui circum Aternum 1 habitant, Amiternini appellati. Ab eo qui popu- lum candidatus circum it, 2 ambit, et qui aliter facit, indagabili ex ambitu causam dicit. Itaque Tiberis amnis, quod ambit Martium Campum et urbem; op- pidum Interamna dictum, quod inter amnis est constitutum; item Antemnae, quod ante amnis, qu(a> Anto 3 influit in Tiberim, quod bello male ac- ceptum consenuit. 29. Tiberis quod caput extra Latium, si inde nomen quoque exfluit in linguam nostram, nihil (ad) 1 eTv/ioAoyov Latinum, ut, quod oritur ex Samnio, For scribitur scribitur. 2 For flumina quae. 8 L. Sp., after Gothofredus, for ut ita. 4 a, Pape, for cadet. §28. 1 Aug., with B, for alterunum. 2 For id. 3 Canal, for quanto. § 29. 1 Added by Thiersch. § 27. a Cf. Digest, viii. 2. 17. That is, rain-waters dripping from roofs and streams resulting from rain shall in city properties not be diverted from their present courses. Such supplies of water were in early days a real asset. § 28. " Probably to be associated with English Avon (from Celtic word for ' river '), and not with ambire ' to go around.' b Good etymology; Amiternum was an old city in the Sabine country, on the Aternus River; with ambi- ' around ' in the form am-, as in amicire ' to place (a garment) around.' Fluvhis ' river ' is so named because it jiuit ' flows,' and likewise jiumen ' river ' : from which is written, according to the law of city estates," Stillicidia ' rain-waters ' and flumina ' rivers ' shall be allowed to fall and to flow without interference. 6 Between these there is this difference, that stillicidium ' rain-water ' is so named because it cadit ' falls ' stillatim ' drop by drop,' and Jiumen ' river ' because it jiuit ' flows ' uninterruptedly. 28. An amnis a is that river which goes around something; for amnis is named from ambitus ' circuit.' From this, those who dwell around the Aternus are called Amiternini ' men of Amiternum.' 6 From this, he who circum it ' goes around ' the people as a candi- date, ambit ' canvasses,' and he who does otherwise than he should, pleads his case in court as a result of his investigable ambitus ' canvassing.'" Therefore the Tiber is called an amnis, because it ambit ' goes around ' the Campus Martius and the City d; the town Interamna ' gets its name from its position inter amnis ' between rivers '; likewise Antemnae, because it lies ante amnis ' in front of the rivers,' where the Anio flows into the Tiber a town which suffered in war and wasted away until it perished. 29. The Tiber, because its source is outside Latium, if the name as well flows forth from there into our language, does not concern the Latin ety- mologist; just as the Volturnus, because it starts from e That is, for corrupt electioneering methods. d The Tiber swings to the west at Rome, forming a virtual semicircle. A city in Umbria, almost encircled by the river Nar. § 29. Adjective from voltur ' vulture '; there was a Mt. Voltur farther south, on the boundary between Samnium and Apulia. Volturnus nihil ad Latinam linguam : at 2 quod proxi- mum oppidum ab eo secundum mare Volturnum, ad nos, iam 3 Latinum vocabulum, ut Tiberinus no(me)n.' Et colonia enim nostra Volturnu?/? 5 et deus Tiberinus. 30. Sed de Tiberis nomine anceps historia. Nam et suum Etruria et Latium suum esse credit, quod fuerunt qui ab Thebri vicino regulo Veientum 1 dixe- rint appellat?fimam 4 Novam Viam locus sacellum (Ve>labrum. 5 44. Velabrum a vehendo. Velaturam facere etiam nunc dicuntur qui id mercede faciunt. Merces (dicitur a mcrendo et aere) huic vecturae qui ratibus transibant quadrans. Ab eo Lucilius scripsit : Quadrantis ratiti. VIII. 45. Reliqua urbis loca olim discreta, cum Argeorum sacraria septem et viginti in (quattuor) §43. x Added by Laetus. 2 Mue., with M, for auen- tinum. 3 Added by L. Sp. 4 Turnebus, for fimam. 5 Mue., for labrum. § 43. ° Page 115 Funaioli. Etymologies of place-names are particularly treacherous; none of those given here ex- plains Aventinus. V. elsewhere (de gente populi Romani, quoted by Servius in Aen. vii. 657) says that some Sabines established here by Romulus called it Aventinus from the Avens, a river of the district from which they had come. 6 Frag. Poet. Rom. 27 Baehrens; R.O.L. ii. 56-57 Warming- ton. c The spelling with d is required by the sense. d V. says that a ferry-raft was called a velabrum, and that this name was transferred to the passage on which the rafts had plied, when it was filled in and had become a street; but that there survived a chapel in honour of the ferry-rafts. § 44. ° Correct etymology. 6 Incorrect etymology. -±5 several origins. Naevius b says that it is from the aves ' birds,' because the birds went thither from the Tiber; others, that it is from King Aventinus the Alban, because he is buried there; others that it is the Adventine c Hill, from the adventus ' coming ' of people, because there a temple of Diana was estab- lished in which all the Latins had rights in common. I am decidedly of the opinion, that it is from advectus ' transport by water '; for of old the hill was cut off from everything else by swampy pools and streams. Therefore they advehebaniur ' were conveyed ' thither by rafts; and traces of this survive, in that the way by which they were then transported is now called Velabrum ' fern",' and the place from which they landed at the bottom of New Street is a chapel of the Velabra. " 44. Velabrum ° is from vehere ' to convey.' Even now, those persons are said to do velatura ' ferrying,' who do this for pay. The merces 6 ' pay ' (so called from merere ' to earn ' and aes ' copper money ') for this ferrying of those who crossed by rafts was a farthing. From this Lucilius wrote c : Of a raft-marked farthing. 1 * VIII. 45. The remaining localities of the City were long' ago divided off, when the twenty-seven c 1272 Marx. d The quadrans or fourth of an as was marked with the figure of a raft. § 45. ° It would seem simpler if the shrines numbered twenty-four, six in each of the four sections of Rome. But both here and in vii. 44 the number is driven as twenty-seven. It is hardly likely that in both places XXUII ( =XXVII) has been miswritten for XXIIII; yet this supposition must be made by those who think that the correct number is twenty- four. partis 1 urbi(s) 2 sunt disposita. Argeos dictos putant a principibus, qui cum /fercule Argivo venerunt Romam et in Saturnia subsederunt. E quis prima scripta est regio Suburana, 3 secunda' Esquilina, tertia Collina, quarta Palatina. 46. In Suburanae 1 regionis parte princeps est Caelius mons a C#ele Vibenna, 2 Tusco duce nobili, qui cum sua manu dicitur Romulo venisse auxilio contra 7atium 3 regem. Hinc post Caelis 4 obitum, quod nimis munita loca tenerent neque sine suspicione essent, deducti dicuntur in planum. Ab eis dictus Vicus Tuscus, et ideo ibi Vortumnum stare, quod is deus Etruriae princeps; de Caelianis qui a suspicione liberi essent, traductos in eum locum qui vocatur Cfleliolum. 4-7. Cum Cflelio 1 coniunctum Carinae et inter eas quern locum Caer(i)o/ensem 2 appellatum apparet, § 45. 1 L. Sp., for sacraria in septem et uiginti partis. 2 Ijaetus, for urbi. 3 Aug., for suburbana F 1, subura F 2 . § 46. 1 Aug., with B,for suburbanae. 2 Frag. Cass., for uibenno / cf. Tacitus, Ann. iv. 65. 3 Puccius, \oith Servius in Aen. v. 560, for latinum. 4 Coelis Aug., for celii. § 47. 1 Laetus, for celion. 2 Kent; Caeliolensem ten Brink {and similarly through the section); for ceroniensem. * Puppets or dolls made of rushes, thrown into the Tiber from the Pons Sublicius every year on May 14, as a sacrifice of purification; the distribution of the shrines from which they were brought was to enable them to take up the pollu- tion of the entire city. Possibly the dolls were a substitute for human victims. The name Argei clearly indicates that the ceremony was brought from Greece. § 46. Comparison with § 47, § 50, § 52, § 54, shows that shrines of the Argei 6 were distributed among the four sections of the City. The Argei, they think, were named from the chieftains who came to Rome with Hercules the Argive, and settled down in Saturnia. Of these sections, the first is recorded as the Suburan region, the second the Esquiline, the third the Colline, the fourth the Palatine. 46. In the section of the Suburan region, the first shrine ° is located on the Caelian Hill, named from Caeles Yibenna, a Tuscan leader of distinction, who is said to have come with his followers to help Romulus against King Tatius. From this hill the followers of Caeles are said, after his death, to have been brought down into the level ground, because they were in possession of a location which was too strongly forti- fied and their loyalty was somewhat under suspicion. From them was named the Vicus Tuscus ' Tuscan Row,' and therefore, they say, the statue of Vertumnus stands there, because he is the chief god of Etruria; but those of the Caelians who were free from suspicion were removed to that place which is called Caeliohim ' the little Caelian.' 6 47. Joined to the Caelian is Cannae ' the Keels '; and between them is the place which is called Caerio- the sacra Argeorum (§ 50) used princeps, terticeps, etc., to designate numerically the shrines in each pars; and that the place-name was set in the nominative alongside the neuter numeral : therefore " the first is the Caelian Hill " means that the first shrine is located on that hill. Cf. K. O. Mueller, Zur Topographle Horns : ilber die Fragmenta der Sacra Argeorum bei V., de Lingua Latlna,v. 8 (pp. 69-94 in C. A. Bottiger, Archaohgle und Kunst, vol. i., Breslau, 1828). * The Caeliolum, spoken of also as the Caeliculus (or -um) by Cicero, De liar. Resp. 15. 32, and as the Caelius Minor by Martial, xii. 18. 6, seems to have been a smaller and less im- portant section of the Caelian Hill. quod primae regionis quartum sacrarium scriptum sic est : Caer(i)olensis 3 : quarticeps 4 circa Minerviuin qua in Caeli?/(m> monte(m) B itur : in tabernola est. Cflcrolensis s a Carinarum 7 iunctu dictus; Carinae pote a 8 caeri(m)onia, 9 quod hinc oritur caput Sacrae Viae ab Streniae sacello quae pertinet in arce(m), 10 qua sacra quotquot mensibus feruntur in arcem et per quam augures ex arce profecti solent inaugurare. Huius Sacrae Viae pars haec sola volgo nota, quae est a Foro eunti primore 11 clivo. 48. Eidem regioni adtributa Subura, quod sub muro terreo Carinarum; in eo est Argeorum sacel- lum sextum. Subura(m) 1 Iunius scribit ab eo, quod fuerit sub antiqua urbc; cui testimonium potest esse, quod subest ei 2 loco qui terreus murus vocatur. Sed (ego a) 3 pago potius Succusano dictam puto Suc- cusam : (quod in nota etiam) 4 nunc scribitur (SVC) 5 3 Kent, for cerolienses. 4 Aug., for quae triceps. 5 Aug., for celio monte. 6 Kent, for cerulensis. 7 For carinaernm. 8 Jordan, for postea. 9 cerimonia Bek- ker, for cerionia. 10 Aug., and Frag. Cass., for arce. 11 Aldus, for primoro. § 48. 1 Wissowa, for subura. 2 Victorius, for et. 3 Added by Laetus (a Frag. Cass.). 4 Added by Mae., after Quintilian, Inst. Orat. i. 7. 29. 5 Added by Merck- lin, to fill a gap capable of holding three letters, in F; cf. Quintilian, loc. cit. § 47. ° That is, Caeliolensis ' pertaining to the Caeliolus.'' Through separation in meaning from the primitive, the r has been subject to regular dissimilation as in caerulus for *catlu- lensis, a obviously because the fourth shrine of the first region is thus written in the records : Coeriolensis : fourth 6 shrine, near the temple of Minerva, in the street by which you go up the Caelian Hill; it is in a booth.' Caeriolensis is so called from the joining of the Carinae with the Caelian. Carinae is perhaps from caerimonia ' ceremony,' because from here starts the beginning of the Sacred Way, which extends from the Chapel of Strenia d to the citadel, by which the offerings are brought ever)' year to the citadel, and by which the augurs regularly set out from the citadel for the observation of the birds. Of this Sacred Way, this is the only part commonly known, namely the part which is at the beginning of the Ascent as you go from the Forum. 48. To the same region is assigned the Subura, which is beneath the earth-wall of the Cannae; in it is the sixth chapel of the Argei. Junius 6 writes that Subura is so named because it was at the foot of the old city (sub urbe); proof of which may be in the fact that it is under that place which is called the earth- wall. But I rather think that from the Succusan dis- trict it was called Succusa; for even now when abbre- viated it is written SVC, with C and not B as third his, Parilia for Palilia; possibly association with Carinae furthered the change. * Cf. § 46, note a. e The words sinistra via or dexteriore via may have been lost before in tabernola; cf. ten Brink's note. d A goddess of health and physical well-being. § 48. " Etymology entirely uncertain. The neuters quod and in eo, referring to Subura, mutually support each other. 6 M. Junius Gracchanus, contemporary and partisan of the Gracchi; page 1 1 Huschke. He wrote an antiquarian work Be Potestatibus. 45 V. tertia littera C, non B. Pagus Succusanus, quod succurrit Carinis. 49. Sccundac rcgionis Esquiliae. 1 Alii has scrip- serunt ab excubiis regis dictas, alii ab eo quod (aes- culis} 2 excultae a rege Tullio essent. Huic origini magis concinunt loca vicina, 3 quod ibi lucus dicitur Facutalis et Larum Querquetulanum sacellum et l?*cus 4 Mefitis et Iunonis Lucinae, quorum angusti fines. Non mirum : iam diu enim late avaritia una (domina) 5 est. 50. Esquiliae duo montes habiti, quod pars (Op- pius pars) 1 Cespzus 2 mons suo antiquo nomine etiam nunc in sacris appellatur. In Sacris Argeorum scriptum sic est : Oppius Mons : princeps quili(i>s 3 u/s 4 l?. 4 Sunt qui, quod ibi vimineta 5 fuerint. Coin's 6 Quirinalis, (quod ibi) 7 Quirini fanum. Sunt qui a Quiritibus, qui cum Tatio Curibus venerunt ad Roma(m), 8 quod ibi habuerint castra. 52. Quod vocabulum coniunctarum regionum nomina obliteravit. Dictos enim collis pluris apparet ex Argeorum Sacrificiis, in quibus scriptum sic est : Collis Quirinalis : terticeps cis 1 aedem Quirini. Collis Salutaris : quarticeps adversum est polinar cis 2 aedem Salutis. 13 Mue., for sceptius. 14 Mue., for quinticepsois. 15 Laetus, for lacum. 16 Scaliger, for esquilinis. § 51. 1 L. Sp., for colles. 2 Laetus, for uiminales. 3 Aug., with B, for uimino / cf Festus, 376 a 10 M. 4 L. Sp., after ten Brink (arae eius), for arae. 6 O, Aug., for uiminata. 6 Laetus, for colles. 7 Added by L. Sp. 8 Ten Brink; Romam Laetus; for ab Roma. § 52. 1 Mue., for terticepsois. 2 Apollinar cis Mue., for pilonarois. c Apparently to be associated with putidus ' stinking,' because of the mention of Mefitis a few lines before; but if so, the oe is a false archaic spelling, out of place in putidus and its kin. Another possibility is that it is to be connected with the plebeian gens Poetelia; one of this name was a member of the Second Decemvirate, 450 b.c. d That is, adjacent to the sacristan's dwelling. Cespian Hill : fifth shrine, this side of the Poetelian " Grove; it is on the Esquiline. Cespian Hill : sixth shrine, at the temple of Juno Lucina, where the sacristan customarily dwells.* 51. To the third region belong five hills, named from sanctuaries of gods; among these hills are two that are well-known. The .Viminal Hill got its name from Jupiter Viminius ' of the Osiers,' because there was his altar; ■ but there are some a who assign its name to the fact that there were vimineta ' willow- copses ' there. The Quirinal Hill was so named because there was the sanctuary of Quirinus 6; others c say that it is derived from the Quirites, who came with Tatius from Cures d to the vicinity of Rome, because there they established their camp. 52. This name has caused the names of the adjacent localities to be forgotten. For that there were other hills with their own names, is clear from the Sacrifices of the Argei, in which there is a record to this effect ° : Quirinal Hill : third shrine, this side of the temple of Quirinus. Salutary Hill * : fourth shrine, opposite the temple of Apollo, this side of the temple of Salus. §51. "Page 118 Funaioli. b Quirinalis, Quirinus, Quirites belong together; but Cures is probably to be kept apart. c Page 116 Funaioli. d An ancient city of the Sabines, about twenty-four miles from Rome, the city of Tatius and the birthplace of Xnma Pompilius, successor of Romulus; cf. Livy, i. 13, 18. § 53. ° Page 6 Preibisch. 6 Sal u tar is, from salus ' preservation '; the temple perhaps marked the place of a victory in a critical battle, or commemorated the end of a pestilence. We do not know whether this Salus was the same as Iuppiter Salutaris. mentioned by Cicero, De Finibus, iii. 20. 66; cf. the Greek Zevs aarrqp ' Zeus the Saviour.' vol. l E 49 V. Collis Mucialis : quinticeps apud aedem Dei Fidi 3; in delubro, ubi aeditumus habere solet. Colli's 4 Latiaris 5 : sexticeps in Vico Instef'ano 6 summo, apud au(gu)raculum'; aedificium solum est. Horum deorum arae, a quibus cognomina habent, in cius regionis partibus sunt. 53. Quartae regionis Palatium, quod Pallantes cum Euandro venerunt, qui et Palatini; (alii quod Palatini), 1 aborigines ex agro Reatino, qui appeliatur Palatium, ibi conse(de)runt 2; sed hoc alii a Palanto 3 uxore Latini putarunt. Eundem hunc locum a pecore dictum putant quidam; itaque Naevius Balatium appellat. 5 1. Huic Cermalum et Velias 1 coniunxerunt, quod in hac rcgione 2 scriptum est : Germalense : quinticeps apud aedem Romuli. Et Veliense 3 : sexticeps in Velia apud aedem deum Penatium. 3 For de i de fidi. 4 For colles. 5 M, Laetus, for latioris. 6 Jordan, for instelano; cf Livy, xxiv. 10. 8, in vico Insteio. 7 Turtiebus,for auraculum. § 53. 1 Added by A. Sp. 2 Fray. Cass., M, Laetus, for conserunt. 3 Mite., (Palantho L. Sp.), for palantio / cf Fest. 220. 6 M. § 54. 1 For uellias. 2 M, Laetus, for religione. 3 Bentlnus, for uelienses. c 3Ivcialis, apparently from the gens Mucia; the first known Mucius was the one who on failing to assassinate Porsenna, the Etruscan king who was besieging Pome, burned his right hand over the altar-fire and thus gained the cognomen Scae- vola ' Lefty.' Several Mucii with the cognomen Scaevola were prominent in the political and legal life of Rome from 215 to 82 b.c. d Detts Fidivs was an aspect of Jupiter; cf. Greek Zev? marios. e Latiaris 'pertaining to Latium'; Iuppiter Latiaris was the guardian deity of the Latin Con- federation, cf. Cicero, Pro Milone, 31. 85. Mucial Hill e : fifth shrine, at the temple of the God of Faith, 4 in the chapel where the sacristan customarily dwells. Latiary Hill * : sixth shrine, at the top of Insteian Row, at the augurs' place of observation; it is the only building. The altars of these gods, from which they have their surnames, are in the various parts of this region. 53. To the fourth region belongs the Palatine, so called because the Pallantes came there* with Evan- der, and they were called also Palatines; others think that it was because Palatines, aboriginal inhabitants of a Reatine district called Palatium, 6 settled there; but others c thought that it was from Palanto, d wife of Latinus. This same place certain authorities think was named from the pecus ' flocks '; therefore Naevius e calls it the Balalium f ' Bleat-ine.' 54. To this they joined the Cermalus ° and the Veliae, 6 because in the account of this region it is thus recorded c : Germalian : fifth shrine, at the temple of Romulus, and Velian : sixth shrine, on the Velia, at the temple of the deified Penates. § 53. ° For Palatium, there is no convincing etymology. 6 An ancient city of the Sabines, on the Via Salaria, forty- eight miles from Rome, on the banks of the river Velinus. ' Page 116 Funaioli. 4 According to Festus, 220. 5 M., Palanto was the mother of Latinus; she is called Pallantia by Servius in Jen. viii. 51. e Frag. Poet. Rom. 28 Baeh- rens; R.O.L. ii. 56-57 Warmington. 'As though from balare ' to bleat.' § 54. "There is no etymology for Cermalus; the word began with C, but for etymological purposes V. begins it with G, relying on the fact that in older Latin C represented two sounds, c and g. 6 Apparently used both in the singular, Velia, and in the plural, Veliae; there is no ety- mology. e Page 7 Preibisch. Germalum a germanis Romulo et Remo, quod ad ficum ruminalem, et ii ibi inventi, quo aqua hiberna Tiberis eos detulerat in alveolo expositos. Veliae unde essent plures accepi causas, in quis quod ibi pastores Palatini ex ovibus 4 ante tonsuram inventam vellere lanam sint soliti, a quo vellera 5 dieuntur. IX. 55. Ager Romanus primum divisus in partis tris, a quo tribus appellata Tztiensium, 1 Ramnium, Lueerum. Nominatae, ut ait Ennius, Titienses ab Tatio, Ramnenses ab Romulo, Lueeres, ut Iunius, ab Lueumone; sed omnia haee voeabula Tusca, ut Volnius, qui tragoedias 2 Tuscas seripsit, dicebat. 56. Ab hoe partes 1 quoque quattuor urbis tribus dietae,ab loeis Suburana, Palatina, Esquilina, Collina; quinta, quod sub Roma, Romilia; sic reliquae 2 tri(gin)ta 3 ab his rebus quibus in Tribu(u)m Libro 4 scripsi. X. 57. Quod ad loca quaeque his coniuneta fuerunt, 4 Victorius, for quibus. 5 Laetvs, for uelleinera (uellaera Frag. Cass.). § 55. 1 Groth, for tatiensium. 2 For tragaedias. § 56. 1 For partis. 2 For reliqna, altered from re- liquae. 3 Turnebus, for trita. 4 Frag. Cass., L. Sp., for libros. d Page 118 Funaioli. § 55. ° Roman possessions in land, both state property and private estates; as opposed to ager peregrinus ' foreign land.' 6 None of the etymologies is probable, which is not surprising, as they were of non-Latin origin, whether or not they were Etruscan. e Ann. i. frag. lix. Vahlen 2; R.O.L. i. 38-39 Warmington. d Page 121 Funaioli; page 11 Huschke. e Page 126 Funaioli; Volnius is not mentioned elsewhere. § 56. ° The four vrbanae tribus ' city tribes.' 6 The , V. 5±-57 Germalus, they say, is from the germani ' brothers ' Romulus and Remus, because it is beside the Fig-tree of the Suckling, and they were found there, where the Tiber's winter flood had brought them when they had been put out in a basket. For the source of the name Veliae I have found several reasons/* among them, that there the shepherds of the Palatine, before the invention of shearing, used to vellere ' pluck ' the wool from the sheep, from which the vellera ' fleeces ' were named. IX. 55. The Roman field-land a was at first divided into tris ' three ' parts, from which they called the Titienses, the Ramnes, and the Luceres each a tribus ' tribe.' These tribes were named, 6 as Ennius says," the Titienses from Tatius, the Ramnenses from Romulus, the Luceres, according to Junius/* from Lucumo; but all these words are Etruscan, as Vol- nius, e who wrote tragedies in Etruscan, stated. 56. From this, four parts of the City also were used as names of tribes, the Suburan, the Palatine, the Esquiline, the Colline, a from the places; a fifth, because it was sub Roma ' beneath the walls of Rome,' M as called Romilian 6; so also the remaining thirty c from those causes which ris. 1 A qua vi natis dicta vita et illud a Lucilio : Vis est vita, vides, vis nos facere omnia cogit. 64. Quare quod caelum principium, ab satu est dictus Saturnus, et quod ignis, Saturnalibus cerei superioribus mittuntur. Terra Ops, quod hie omne opus et hac opus ad vivendum, et ideo dicitur Ops mater, quod terra mater. Haec enim Terris gentis omnis peperit et resumit denuo, quae Dat cibaria, 8 Sciop.,/or uiere est uincere. 4 Scaliger, for palmam. § 63. 1 L. Sp.; significantes Veneris Laetus; for signi- ficantes se ueris. ' Vincire is in fact derived from an extension of the root seen in viere. 3 25 Vahlen 2; R.O.L. i. 404-405 Warming- ton. h Palma and paria are etymologically separate. § 63. A Greek legend, invented to connect the name of Aphrodite with dpos ' foam '; cf. Hesiod, Theogony, 188- 198. The name Aphrodite is probably of Semitic origin. itself, from vinctura ' binding,' said vieri ' to be plaited,' that is, vinciri ' to be bound ' f; whence there is the line in Ennius's Sota 9 : The lustful pair were going, to plait the Love-god's garland. Palma ' palm ' is so named because, being naturally bound on both sides, it has paria ' equal * leaves.^ 63. The poets, in that they say that the fiery seed fell from the Sky into the sea and Venus was born "from the foam-masses," ° through the conjunction of fire and moisture, are indicating that the vis ' force' which they have is that of Venus. Those born of this vis have what is called vita 6 ' life,' and that was meant by Lucilius c : Life is force, you see; to do everything force doth compel us. 64. Wherefore because the Sky is the beginning, Saturn was named from satus a ' sowing '; and because fire is a beginning, waxlights are presented to patrons at the Saturnalia. 6 Ops c is the Earth, be- cause in it is every opus ' work ' and there is opus ' need ' of it for living, and therefore Ops is called mother, because the Earth is the. mother. For she d All men hath produced in all the lands, and takes them back again, she who Gives the rations, * Vis and vita are not connected etymological ly. e 1340 Marx. § 64. ° This etymology is unlikely. * Confirmed by Festus, 54. 16 M. e Ops and opus are connected ety- mologically. d Ennius, Varia, 48 Vahlen 2; R.O.L. i. 412- 413 Warmington. 61 V. ut ait Ennius, quae Quod gerit fruges, Ceres; antiquis enim quod nunc G C. 1 65. Idem hi dei Caelum et Terra Iupiter et Iuno, quod ut ait Ennius : Istic est is Iupiter quem dico, quern Grneci vocant Aerem, qui ventus est et nubes, imber postea, Atque ex imbre frigus, verities 1 post fit, aer denuo. Hacc(e) 2 propter Iupiter sunt ista quae dico tibi, Qui 3 mortalis, (arva) 4 atque urbes beluasque omnis iuvat. Quod hi(n)c 5 omnes et sub hoc, eundem appellans dicit : Divumque hominumque pater rex. Pater, quod patefacit semen : nam turn esse 8 con- ceptual (pat)et, 7 inde cum exit quod oritur. 66. Hoc idem magis ostendit antiquius Iovis nomen : nam olim Diovis et Di(e)spiter 1 dictus, id est dies pater; a quo dei dicti qui inde, et diws 2 et § 64. 1 Lachmann; C quod nunc G Mite.; for quod nunc et. § 65. 1 Laetus, for uentis. 2 Mor. Jlaupt; haecce Mae.; for haec. 3 Aug., with B, for qua. 4 Added by Schoell. 5 L. Sp., for hie. 6 Mue., for est. 7 Mue., for et. § 66. 1 Laetus, for dispiter. 2 Bentinus, for dies. 'Varia, 49-50 Vahlen 2; R.O.L. i. 412-413 Warmington; gerit and Ceres are not connected. / There was a time when C had its original value g (as in Greek, where the third letter is gamma) and had taken over also the value of K. The use of the symbol G for the sound g was later. C in the value g survived in C. = Gaius, Cn. = Gnaeus. § 65. Varia, 54-58 Vahlen 2; R.O.L. i. 414-415 Warm- ington. * Iupiter and iuvare are not related. c An- as Ennius says, e who Is Ceres, since she brings (gerit) the fruits. For with the ancients, what is now G, was written C/ 65. These same gods Sky and Earth are Jupiter and Juno, because, as Ennius says,° That one is the Jupiter of whom I speak, whom Grecians call Air; who is the windy blast and cloud, and after- wards the rain; After rain, the cold; he then becomes again the wind and air. This is why those things of which I speak to you are Jupiter : Help he gives * to men, to fields and cities, and to beasties all. Because all come from him and are under him, he addresses him with the words c : O father and king of the gods and the mortals. Pater ' father ' because he patefacit d ' makes evident ' the seed; for then it patet ' is evident ' that concep- tion has taken place, when that which is born comes out from it. 66. This same thing the more ancient name of J upiter a shows even better : for of old he was called Diovis and Diespiter, that is, dies pater ' Father Day " b; from which they who come from him are called dei ' deities,' and dius ' god ' and divum ' sky,' whence sub divo ' under the sky,' and Dius Fidius ' god of nates, 5S0 Vahlen 2; R.O.L. i. 168-169 Warmington. d Pater and patere are not related. § 66. ° Iu- in Iupiter, Diovis, Dies, deus, Dius, divum belong together by etymology. b K. O. Mueller thought that Yarro meant dies as the old genitive, ' father of the day,' instead of as a nominative in apposition; but this is hardly likely. 63 V. divum, unde sub divo, Dius Fidius. Itaque inde eius perforatum tectum, ut ea videatur divum, id est caelum. Quidam negant sub tecto per hunc deierare oportere. Aelius Dium Fid(i)um dicebat Diovis filium, ut Grceci Aiocr/vopoi' Castorem, et putabat 3 hunc esse Sancum 4 ab Safeina lingua et Herculem a Graeca. Idem hie Dis 5 pater dicitur infimus, qui est coniunctus terrae, ubi omnia (ut) 6 oriuntur ita? abori- untur; quorum quod finis ortu(u)m, Orcus 8 dictus. 67. Quod Iovis Iuno coniunx et is Caelum, haec Terra, quae eadem Tellus, et ca dicta, quod una iuvat cum love, Iuno, et Regina, quod huius omnia ter- restria. 68. Sol 1 vel quod ita Sa&ini, vel (quod) 2 solus 3 ita lucet, ut ex eo dco dies sit. Luna, vel quod sola lucet noctu. Itaque ea dicta Noctiluca in Palatio : nam i.bi noctu lucet templum. Hanc ut Solem Apollinem quidam Dianam vocant (Apollinis vocabulum Grae- cum alterum, altcrum Latinum), et hinc quod luna in altitudinem et latitudinem simul it, 4 Diviana appel- lata. Hinc Epicharmus Ennii Proserpinam quoque 3 Puccius, for putabant. 4 Scaliger, for sanctum. 6 Mm., for dies. 6 Added by Miie. 7 Mue., for ui. 8 Tnrnebus, for ortus. § 68. 1 Laetus, with M, for sola. 2 Added by Aug., with B. 3 Sclop., for solum. 4 L. Sp., for et. c Page 60 Funaioli. d Sabine Sancus and the Umbrian divine epithet Sangio- are connected with Latin sanclre ' to make sacred,' sacer 'sacred.' ' Dis is the short form of dives ' rich,' cf. the genitive divitis or ditis, and is not con- nected with dies; it is a translation of the Greek ITAoutoji' ' Pluto,' as 'the rich one,' from -ttXoCtos 'wealth.' f The Italic god of death, not connected with ortus, but perhaps with arcere ' to hem in,' as ' the one who restrains the dead.' § 67. a Not connected either with Iupiter or with iitvare. 64 OX THE LATIN LANGUAGE, V. 6&-68 faith.' Thus from this reason the roof of his temple is pierced with holes, that in this way the divum, which is the caelum ' sky,' may be seen. Some say that it is improper to take an oath by his name, when you are under a roof. Aelius c said that Dins Fidius was a son of Diovis, just as the Greeks call Castor the son of Zeus, and he thought that he was Sancus in the Sabine tongue, d and Hercules in Greek. He is like- wise called Dispater e in his lowest capacity, when he is joined to the earth, where all things vanish away even as they originate; and because he is the end of these ortus ' creations,' he is called OrcusJ 67. Because Juno is Jupiter's wife, and he is Sky, she Terra ' Earth,' the same as Tellus ' Earth,' she also, because she iuvat ' helps ' una ' along ' with Jupiter, is called Juno,° and Regina ' Queen,' because all earthly things are hers. 68. Sol a ' Sun ' is so named either because the Sabines called him thus, or because he solus ' alone ' shines in such a way that from this god there is the daylight. Luna ' Moon ' is so named certainly be- cause she alone ' lucet ' shines at night. Therefore she is called Noctiluca ' Night-Shiner ' on the Pala- tine; for there her temple noctu lucet ' shines by night.' 6 Certain persons call her Diana, just as they call the Sun Apollo (the one name, that of Apollo, is Greek, the other Latin); and from the fact that the Moon goes both high and widely, she is called Diviana. c From the fact that the Moon is wont to be under the § 6S. " Not connected with solus. * Either because the white marble gleams in the moonlight, or because a light was kept burning there all night. 'An artificially pro- longed form of Diana; V. seems to have had in mind deviare ' to go aside ' as its basis. vol. if appellat, quod solet esse sub terris. Dicta Proserpina, quod haec ut serpens modo in dexteram modo in sinisteram partem late movetur. Serpere et proser- pere idem dicebant, ut Plautus quod scribit : Quasi proserpens bestia. 69. Quae ideo quoque videtur ab Latinis Iuno Lucina dicta vel quod est e(t) 1 Terra, ut physici dicunt, et lucet; vel quod 2 ab luce eius qua quis conceptus est usque ad earn, qua partus quis in lucem, (l)una 3 iuvat, donee mensibus actis produxit in lucem, ficta ab iuvando et luce Iuno Lucina. A quo parientes earn invocant : luna enim nascentium dux quod menses huius. Hoc vidisse antiquas apparet, quod mulieres potissimum supercilia sua attribuerunt ei deae. Hie enim debuit maxime collocari Iuno Lucina, ubi ab diis lux datur oculis. 70. Ignis a (g)nascendo, 1 quod hinc nascitur et omne quod nascitur ignis s(uc)cendit 2; ideo calet, ut qui denascitur eum amittit ac frigescit. Ab ignis iam maiore vi ac violentia Volcanus dictus. Ab eo quod § 69. 1 L. Sp., for e . 2 For quod uel. 3 Sciop., for una. § 70. 1 Mue., for nascendo. 2 OS., for scindit. d Ennius, Varia, 59 Vahlen 2 . Proserpina is really borrowed from Greek Hepoe6vri, but transformed in popular speech into a word seemingly of Latin antecedents. e Poenulus 1034, Stichus 724; in both passages meaning a snake. § 69. ° Lucina, from lux ' light,' indicates Juno as goddess of child-birth. 6 Equal to ' full moon,' or ' month.' lands as -well as over them, Ennius's Epicharmus calls her Proserpina.* Proserpina received her name because she, like a serpens ' creeper,' moves widely now to the right, now to the left. Serpere ' to creep ' and proserpere ' to creep forward ' meant the same thing, as Plautus means in what he writes e : Like a forward-creeping beast. 69. She appears therefore to be called by the Latins also Juno Lucina, either because she is also the Earth, as the natural scientists say, and lucet ' shines '; or because from that light of hers 6 in which a conception takes place until that one in which there is a birth into the light, the Moon continues to help, until she has brought it forth into the light when the months are past, the name Juno Lucina was made from iuvare ' to help ' and lux ' light.' From this fact women in child-birth invoke her; for the Moon is the guide of those that are born, since the months belong to her. It is clear that the women of olden times observed this, because women have given this goddess credit notably for their eyebrows." For Juno Lucina ought especially to be established in places where the gods give light to our eyes. 70. Ignis ' fire ' is named from gnasci a 'to be born,' because from it there is birth, and everything which is born the fire enkindles; therefore it is hot, just as he who dies loses the fire and becomes cold. From the fire's vis ac violentia ' force and violence,' now in greater measure, Vulcan was named." From the fact that fire on account of its brightness fulget e Because the eyebrows protect the eyes by which we enjoy the light (Festus, 305 b 10 M.). § 70. a False etymologies. ignis propter splendoreni fulget, fulgwr 3 et fulmen, et fulgur(itum) 4 quod fulmine ictum. 71. (In) 1 contrariis diis, ab aquae lapsu lubrico lt/mpha. Lympha Iuturna quae iuvaret : itaque multi aegroti propter id nomen hinc aquam petere solent. A fontibus et fluminibus ac ceteris aqm's 2 dei, ut Tiberinus ab Tiberi, et ab lacu Velini Velinia, et Lymphae Com(m)otiZ(e)s 3 ad lacum Cutiliensem a commotu, quod ibi insula in aqua commovetur. 72. Neptunus, quod mare terras obnubit ut nubes caelum, ab nuptu, id est opertione, ut antiqui, a quo nuptiae, nuptus dictus. Salacia Neptuni ab salo. Vem'lia 1 a veniendo ac vento illo, quern Plautus dicit : Quod ille 2 dixit qui secundo vento vectus est Tranquillo mari, 3 ventum gaudeo. 73. Bellona ab bello nunc, quae Duellona a duello. 3 Canal, for fulgor. 4 Turnebus, for fulgur. § 71. 1 Added by Madvig, who began the sentence here instead of after diis. 2 V, p,for ceteras aquas. 3 GS„ for comitiis. § 72. 1 Aug., for uenelia. 2 mss. of Plautus, for ibi F. 3 mss. of Plautus have mare. 6 The three words are from fulgere ' to flash '; but the -Hum of fulguritum is suflixal only, and is not connected with ictum. § 71. ° Properly from the Greek vu^ij, with dissimilative change of the first consonant. 6 The first part may be the same element seen in Iupiter, but is certainly not connected with iuvare. e A lake in the Sabine country, formed by the spreading out of the Avens River a few miles southeast of Interamna. d A lake in the Sabine country, a few miles east of Reate, in which there was a floating island which drifted with the wind. § 72. ° Neptunus is not connected with the other words, though nubes may perhaps be related to nubere and its' flashes,' come fulgur ' lightning-flash ' and fulmen ' thunderbolt,' and what has been fulmine ictum ' hit by a thunderbolt ' is catted fulguritum. b 71. Among deities of an opposite kind, Lympha a ' water-nymph ' is derived from the water's lapsus lubricits ' slippery gliding.' Juturna 6 was a nymph whose function was ittvare ' to give help '; therefore many sick persons, on account of this name, are wont to seek water from her spring. From springs and rivers and the other waters gods are named, as Tiberinus from the river Tiber, and Yelinia from the lake of the Velinus, c and the Commotiles ' Restless ' Nymphs at the Cutilian Lake, d from the commotus ' motion,' because there an island commovetar ' moves about ' in the water. 72. Neptune, because the sea veils the lands as the clouds veil the sky, gets his name from nuptus ' veiling,' that is, opertio ' covering,' as the ancients said; from which nupiiae ' wedding,' nuptus ' wed- lock ' are derived. Salacia, 6 wife of Neptune, got her name from salum ' the surging sea.' Venilia c was named from venire ' to come ' and that ventus ' wind ' which Plautus mentions d : As that one said who with a favouring wind was borne Over a placid sea : I'm glad I went.* 73. Bellona ' Goddess of War ' is said now, from helium a ' war,' which formerly was Duellona, from derivatives. 6 Almost certainly an abstract substantive to salax ' fond of leaping, lustful, provoking lust *; though popularly associated with salum. c There is a Venilia in the Aeneid, x. 76, a sea-nymph who is the mother of Turnns. d Cistellaria, 14-15. * Punning on ventum. : the last phrase may mean also " I'm glad there was a wind." § 73. ' Correct. 69 V. Mars ab eo quod maribus in bello praeest, aut quod Sabinis acceptus ibi est Mamers. Quirinus a Quiri- tibus. Virtus ut viri^us 1 a virilitate. Honos ab 2 onere : itaque honestum dicitur quod oneratum, et dictum : Onus est honos qui sustinet rem publicam. Castoris nomen Graecum, Pollucis a Graecis; in Latinis litteris veteribus nomen quod est, inscribitur ut IloXvSevK-qs 3 Polluces, non ut nunc 4 Pollux. Con- cordia a corde congruente. 74. Feronia, Minerva, Novensides a Sa&inis. Paulo aliter ab eisdem dicimus haec : Palem, 1 Vestam, Salutem, Fortunam, Fontem, Fidem. E(t> arae 2 Sabinum linguam olent, quae Tati regis voto sunt Romae dedicatae : nam, ut annales dicunt, vovit Opi, Florae, Vediovi 3 Saturnoque, Soli, Lunae, Volcano ct Summano, itemque Larundae, Termino, Quirino, Vortumno, Laribus, Dianae Lucinaeque; e quis non- nulla nomina in utraque lingua habent radices, ut arbores quae in confinio natae in utroque agro ser- § 73. 1 Scaliger, for uiri ius. 2 After ab, Woelfflin deleted honesto. 3 For pollideuces. 4 For nuns. § 74. 1 Scaliger, for hecralem. 2 Mue., for ea re. 3 Mue., for floreue dioioui. 6 Mars and Mamers go together, but mares ' males ' is quite distinct. c Virtus is in fact from vir. d Honos and onus are quite distinct. * Com. Rom. Frag., page 147 Ribbeck 3 . 'As in inscriptions, where such spellings are found. 9 Essentially correct. § 74. ° An old Italian goddess, later identified with Juno. 6 Apparently ' new settlers,' from novus and insidere, used of the gods brought from elsewhere as distinct from the indigetes or native gods. c It is unlikely that all the deities of the duellum. Mars is named from the fact that he com- mands the mares ' males ' in war, or that he is called Mamers 6 among the Sabines, with whom he is a favourite. Quirinus is from Quirites. Virtus ' valour,' as viritus, is from virilitas ' manhood.' e Honos ' honour, office ' is said from onus d ' burden '; therefore hones- turn ' honourable ' is said of that which is oneratum ' loaded with burdens,' and it has been said : Full onerous is the honour which maintains the state/ The name of Castor is Greek, that of Pollux likewise from the Greeks; the form of the name which is found in old Latin literature 1 is Polluces, like Greek lloXvSevKijs, not Pollux as it is now. Concordia ' Con- cord ' is from the cor congruens ' harmonious heart.' 9 74. Feronia, a Minerva, the Novensides 6 are from the Sabines. With slight changes, we say the follow- ing, also from the same people c : Pales, d Vesta, Salus, Fortune, Fons, e Fides ' Faith.' There is scent of the speech of the Sabines about the altars also, which by the vow of King Tatius were dedicated at Rome : for, as the Annals tell, he vowed altars to Ops, Flora, Vediovis and Saturn, Sun, Moon, Vulcan and Summa- nus, f &nd likewise to Larunda, 9 Terminus, Quirinus, V er- tumnus, the Lares, Diana and Lucina; some of these names have roots in both languages,* like trees which have sprung up on the boundary line and creep about next two lists were brought in from elsewhere; many of the names are perfectly Roman. d Goddess of the shepherds, who protected them and their flocks. ' God of Springs; cf. vi. 22. 1 A mysterious deity who was considered responsible for lightning at night. * Called also Lara, a tale-bearing nymph whom Jupiter deprived of the power of speech. * Quite possible, but very unlikely in the cases of Saturn and Diana. pwnt* : potest enim Saturnus hie de alia causa esse dictus atque in Sabinis, et sic Diana, 5 de quibus supra dictum est. XL 75. Quod ad immortalis attinet, haec; de- inceps quod ad mortalis attinet videamus. De his animalia in tribus locis quod sunt, in aere, in aqua, in terra, a summa parte (ad) 1 infimam descendam. Primum nomm(a) omm'wm 2 : alites (ab) alis, 3 volucres a volatu. Deinde generatim : de his pleraeque ab suis vocibus ut haec : upupa, cuculus, corvus, Airundo, ulula,bubo; item haec : pavo, anser,gallina,columba. 76. Sunt quae aliis de causis appellatae, ut noctua, quod noctu canit et vigilat, lusci(ni)ola, 1 quod luctuose canere existimatur atque esse ex Attica Progne in luctu facta avis. Sic galeritfus 2 et motacilla, altera quod in capite habet plumam elatam, altera quod semper movet caudam. Merula, quod mera, id est sola, volitat; contra ab eo graguli, quod gregatim, * For serpent. 5 Aldus, for dianae. §75. 1 Added by O, II. 2 Fay; nomen omnium Mite.; for nomen nominem. 3 Aug., for alii. §76. 1 Victorius, for lusciola. 2 Aug., with B, for galericus. * Saturn in § 64, Diana in § 68. §75. "The first six, except hirvndo (of unknown ety- mology), are onomatopoeic. Of the last four, pavo is borrowed from an Oriental language; anser is an old Indo- European word; gallina is ' the Gallic bird '; cohimba is named from its colour. §76. "Perhaps correct, if from luges-cania 'sorrow- singer.' * Procne, daughter of Pandion king of Athens and wife of Tereus king of Thrace, killed her son Itys and served him to his father for food, in revenge for his ill-treat- ment and infidelity; see Ovid, Metamorphoses, vi. 424-674. c Literally ' hooded,' wearing a galerum or hood-like helmet. d If not correct, then a very reasonable popular etymology. in both fields : for Saturn might be used as the god's name from one source here, and from another among the Sabines, and so also Diana; these names I have discussed above.* XL 75. This is what has to do with the immortals; next let us look at that which has to do with mortal creatures. Amongst these are the animals, and because they abide in three places — in the air, in the water, and on the land — I shall start from the highest place and come down to the lowest. First the names of them all, collectively : alites ' winged birds ' from their alae ' wings,' volucres ' fliers ' from volaius ' flight.' Next by kinds : of these, very many are named from their cries, as are these : upupa ' hoopoe,' cuculus ' cuckoo,' corvus ' raven,' hirundo ' swallow,' ulula ' screech-owl,' bubo ' horned owl '; likewise these : pavo ' peacock,' anser ' goose,' gallina ' hen,' columba ' dove.' ° 76. Some got their names from other reasons, such as the noctua ' night-owl,' because it stays awake and hoots noctu ' by night,' and the lusciniola ' night- ingale,' because it is thought to canere ' sing ' luctuose ' sorrowfully ' ° and to have been transformed from the Athenian Procne 6 in her luctus ' sorrow,' into a bird. Likewise the galeritus c ' crested lark ' and the motacilla ' wagtail,' the one because it has a feather standing up on its head, the other because it is always moving its tail."* The merula ' blackbird ' is so named because it flies mera ' unmixed,' that is, alone e; on the other hand, the graguli f 'jackdaws ' got their names because they fly gregatim ' in flocks,' as certain e That is, without other birds, like wine without water : an absurd etymology. f Properly graculi; not connected with greges. ut quidam Graeci greges yepyepa. Ficedula(e) 3 et miliariae a cibo, quod alterae fico, alterae milio fiunt pingues. XII. 77. Aquatilium vocabula animalium partim sunt vernacula, partim peregrina. Foris muraena, quod p.vpa.iva Gracce, cybium 1 et thynnus, cuius item partes Graecis vocabulis omnes, ut melander atque uraeon. Vocabula piscium pleraque translata a ter- restribus ex aliqua parte similibus rebus, ut anguilla, lingulaca, sudis 2; alia a coloribus, ut haec : asellus, umbra, turdus; alia a vi quadam, ut haec : lupus, canicula, torpedo. Item in conchyliis aliqua ex Graecis, ut peloris, ostrea, echinus. Vernacula ad similitudinem, ut surenae, 3 pectunculi, ungues. XIII. 78. Sunt etiam animalia in aqua, quae in terram interdum exeant : alia Graecis vocabulis, ut pohypus, hzppo(s) potamios, 1 crocodilos, 3 alia Latinis, 3 Ed. Veneta, for ficedula. §77. 1 Aldus, for cytybium. 2 Aldus, for lingula casudis. 3 For syrenae. § 78. 1 L. Sp., for yppo potamios. 2 For crocodillos. 9 Correct; V., De Re Rustica, iii. 5. 2, speaks of miliariae as prized delicacies, raised and fattened for the table. § 77. The identification of many animals and fishes is quite uncertain, and the translation is therefore tentative. But the etymological views in § 77 and § 78 are approximately correct. 6 More precisely, the flesh of the young tunny salted in cubes. " Seemingly a variant form for melan- dryon, Greek fie\dv8pvoi> ' slice of the large tunny called He\dv8pvs or black-oak.' d From Greek ovpatos 'pertain- ing to the tail (oi)pa).' 'Diminutive of anguis 'snake.' / Because flat like a lingua ' tongue '; lingulaca means also Greeks call greges ' flocks ' yepytpa. Ficedulae ' fig- peckers ' and miliariae ' ortolans ' are named from their food, 9 because the ones become fat on the Jicus ' fig,' the others on milium ' millet.' XII. 77. The names of water animals are some native, some foreign." From abroad come muraena ' moray,' because it is pvpaiva in Greek, cybium ' young tunny ' 6 and thunnus ' tunny,' all whose parts likewise go by Greek names, as melander ' black-oak-piece ' and uraeon d ' tail-piece.' Very many names of fishes are transferred from land objects which are like them in some respect, as anguilla e ' eel,' lingulaca f ' sole,' sudis 9 ' pike.' Others come from their colours, like these : asellus ' cod,' umbra ' grayling,' turdus ' sea- carp.' h Others come from some physical power, like these : lupus ' wolf-fish,' canicula ' dogfish,' torpedo 1 electric ray.' * Likewise among the shellfish there are some from Greek, as peloris ' mussel,' ostrea ' oyster,' echinus ' sea-urchin '; and also native words that point out a likeness, as surenaej pectunculi k ' scallops,' ungues 1 ' razor-clams.' XIII. 78. There are also animals in the water, which at times come out on the land : some with Greek names, like the octopus, the hippopotamus, the crocodile; others with Latin names, like rana ' frog,' ' chatter-box, talkative woman.* ' On land, a ' stake.' * On land, respectively ' little ass,' ' shadow,' * thrush.' ' On land, respectively ' wolf,' ' little dog,' ' numbness.' 1 Of unknown meaning, and perhaps a corrupt reading; Groth, De Codice Florentino, 27 (105), suggests pernae from Pliny, Nat. Hist, xxxii. 11. 54. 154, who mentions the perna as a sea-mussel standing on a high foot or stalk, like a haunch of ham with the leg. * On land, ' little combs,' diminutive of pecten. 1 ' Finger-nails '; perhaps not the razor-clam, but a small clam shaped like the finger-nail. 75 V. ut rana, (anas), 3 mergus; a quo Graeci ea quae in aqua et terra possunt vivere vocant dfufiifiia. E quis rana ab sua dicta voce, anas a nando, mergus quod mergendo in aquam captat escam. 79. Item alia 1 in hoc genere a Graecis, ut quer- quedula, (quod) 2 K€pK?yS?;s, 3 alcedo, 4 quod ea (xAkcwv; Latina, ut testudo, quod testa tectum hoc animal, lolligo, quod subvolat, littera commutata, primo vol- ligo. Ut ^4egypti in flumine quadrupes sic in Latio, nominati lw(t)ra 5 et fiber. Lw(t)ra, 5 quod succidere dicitur arborum radices in ripa atque eas dissolvere : ab (luere) ktra. 6 Fiber, ab extrema ora fluminis dextra et sinistra maxime quod solet videri, et antiqui februm dicebant extremum, a quo in sagis fimbr(i)ae ct in iecore extremum fibra, fiber dictus. XIV. 80. De animalibus in locis terrestribus quae sunt hominum propria primum, deinde de pecore, tertio de feris scribam. Incipiam ab honore publico. 3 Added by Aug. § 79. 1 L. Sp., with B, for aliae. 2 Added by Kent. 3 OS., for cerceris. 4 Groth; halcedo Laettis; for algedo. 5 GS.; lytra Turnebus; for lira. 6 Stroux; ab luere Scaliger; for ab litra. § 78. Of. § 77, note a. § 79. Conjectural purely. * An absurd etymology. c Originally udra ' water-animal,' with I from association with lutum ' mud ' or lutor ' washer.' V. attributes to the otter the tree-felling habit of the beaver. d Properly ' the brown animal.' e Fiber, fimbriae, fibra have no etymologi- cal connexion. anas ' duck,' mergus ' diver.' Whence the Greeks give the name amphibia to those which can live both in the water and on the land. Of these, the rana is named from its voice, the anas from nare ' to swim,' the mergus because it catches its food by mergendo ' diving ' into the water. 79. Likewise there are other names in this class, that are from the Greeks, as querquedula ' teal,' because it is Ke/DK/}S?;?,° and alcedo ' kingfisher,' because this is olXkvcjv : and Latin names, such as testudo ' tortoise,' because this animal is covered with a testa ' shell,' and lolligo ' cuttle-fish,' because it volat ' flies ' up from under, 6 originally volligo, but now with one letter changed. Just as in Egypt there is a quadruped living in the river, so there are river quadrupeds in Latium, named Intra ' otter ' and fiber ' beaver.' The lutra c is so named because it is said to cut off the roots of trees on the bank and set the trees loose : from luere ' to loose,' lutra. The beaver d was called fiber because it is usually seen very far off on the bank of the river to right or to left, and the ancients called a thing that was very far off afebrum; from which in blankets the last part is called fimbriae ' fringe ' and the last part in the liver is the fibra ' fibre.' 6 XIV. 80. Among the living beings on the land, I shall speak first of terms which apply to human beings, then of domestic animals, third of wild beasts. I shall start from the offices of the state. The Consul was § 80. Properly, consulere is derived from consul. Of consul, at least four reasonable etymologies are proposed, the simplest being that it is from com+sed ' those who sit to- gether,' as there were two consuls from the beginning; the I for d being a peculiarity taken from the dialect of the Sabines (cf. lingua for older dingua). Consu Jnominatus qui consuleret populum et senatum, nisi illinc potius uiide Accius 1 ait in Bruto : Qui recte consulat, consul /iat. 2 Praetor dictus qui praeiret iure et exercitu; a quo id Lucilius : Ergo praetorum est ante et praeire. 81. Censor ad cuius censionem, id est arbitrium, censeretur populus. Aedilis qui aedis sacras et privatas procuraret. Quaestores a quaerendo, qui conquirerent publicas pecunias et maleficia, quae triumviri capitales nunc conquirunt; ab his postea qui quaestionum iudicia exercent quaes^tores 1 dicti. Tribuni militum, quod terni tribus tribubus Ramnium, Lucerum, Titium olim ad exercitum mitte- bantur. Tribuni plebei, quod ex tribunis militum primum tribuni plebei facti, qui plebem defenderent, in secessione Crustumerina. 82. Dictator, quod a consule dicebatur, cui dicto audientes omnes essent. Magister equitum, quod § 80. 1 Later codices, for tatius F 1, p*, taccius F 2, V, a. 2 Laetus, for consulciat. § 81. 1 Mommsen, for quaestores. * Trag. Rom. Frag. 39 Ribbeck 3; R.O.L. ii. 561-565 War- mington. c lure is dative. d 1160 Marx. § 81. ° The tribunus was by etymology merely the ' man of the tribus or tribe,' and therefore did not derive his name from the word for ' three,' except indirectly; cf. § 55. 6 That is, elected by the plebeians from among their military tribunes whom they had chosen to lead them in their Seces- sion to the Sacred Mount (which may have lain in the terri- tory of Crustumerium), in 494 B.C. Their persons were so named as the one who should consulere ' ask the advice of ' people and senate, unless rather from this fact whence Accius takes it when he says in the Brutus b : Let him who counsels right, become the Consul. The Praetor was so named as the one who should praeire ' go before ' the law c and the army; whence Lucilius said this d : Then to go out in front and before is the duty of praetors. 81. The Censor was so named as the one at whose censio ' rating,' that is, arbitrium ' judgement,' the people should be rated. The Aedile, as the one who was to look after aedes ' buildings ' sacred and private. The Quaestors, from quaerere' to seek,' who conquirerent ' should seek into ' the public moneys and illegal doings, which the triumviri capitales ' the prison board ' now investigate; from these, afterwards, those who pronounce judgement on the matters of investigation were named quaesitores ' inquisitors.' The Tribuni a Militum ' tribunes of the soldiers,' because of old there were sent to the army three each on behalf of the three tribes of Ramnes, Luceres, and Tities. The Tribuni Plebei ' tribunes of the plebs,' because from among the tribunes of the soldiers tribunes of the plebs were first created, 6 in the Secession to Crustumerium, for the purpose of defending the plebs ' populace.' 82. The Dictator, because he was named by the consul as the one to whose dictum ' order * all should be obedient. The Magister Equitum ' master of the sacrosanct, enabling them to carry out their duty of protect- ing the plebeians against the injustice of the patrician officials. § 82. ° Rather, because he dictat ' gives orders.' summa potestas huius in equites et acccnsos, ut est summa populi dictator, a quo is quoque magister populi appellatus. Reliqui, quod minorcs quam hi magistri, dicti magistratus, ut ab albo albatus. XV. 83. Sacerdotes universi a sacris dicti. Pontu- fices, ut 1 Scaevola Quintus pontufex maximus dicebat, a posse et facere, ut po(te)ntifices. 2 Ego a ponte arbitror : nam ab his Sublicius est factus primum ut restitutus saepe, cum ideo sacra et uls 3 et cis Tiberim non mediocri ritu fiant. Curiones dicti a curiis, qui fiunt ut in his sacra faciant. 84. Flamines, quod in Latio capite velato erant semper ac caput cinctum habebant filo, flamines 1 dicti. Horum singuli cognomina habent ab eo deo cui sacra faciunt; sed partim sunt aperta, partim obscura : aperta ut Martialis, Volcanalis; obscura Dialis et Furinalis, cum Dialis ab love sit (Diovis enim), Furi(n)alis a Furriwa, 2 cuius etiam in fastis §83. 1 After ut, Ed. Veneta deleted a. 2 OS., for pontifices, cf. v. 4. 3 For uis. § 84. 1 Canal, for flamines, cf. Festus, 87. 15 M. 2 L. Sp.; Furina Aldus; for furrida. 6 Not quite; for magistratus is a fourth declension sub- stantive, ' office of magister,' then ' holder of such an office,' while albatus is a second declension adjective. § 83. ° Q. Mucius Scaevola, consul 95 b.c, and subse- quently Pontifex Maximus; proscribed and killed by the Marian party in 82. He was a man of the highest character and abilities, and made the first systematic compilation of the ius civile; see i. 1 9 Huschke. 6 V. may be right, though perhaps it was the ' bridges ' between this world and the next which originally the pontifices were to keep in repair; cf. Class. Philol. viii. 317-326 (1913). "The wooden bridge on piles, traditionally built by Ancns Marcius. d The curia cavalry,' because he has supreme power over the cavalry and the replacement troops, just as the dictator is the highest authority over the people, from which he also is called magister, but of the people and not of the cavalry. The remaining officials, because they are inferior to these magistri ' masters,' are called magistratus ' magistrates,' derived just as albatus ' whitened, white-clad ' is derived from albus ' white.' 6 XV. 83. The sacerdotes ' priests ' collectively were named from the sacra ' sacred rites.' The pontifices ' high-priests,' Quintus Scaevola a the Pontifex Maxi- mus said, were 'named from posse ' to be able ' and facet e ' to do,' as though potentifices. For my part I think that the name comes from pons ' bridge ' 6; for by them the Bridge-on-Piles c was made in the first place, and it was likewise repeatedly repaired by them, since in that connexion rites are performed on both sides of the Tiber with no small ceremony. The curiones were named from the curiae; they are created for conducting sacred rites in the curiae.* 84. The jiamines a ' flamens,' because in Latium they always kept their heads covered and had their hair girt with a woollen filum ' band,' were originally called Jilamines. Individually they have distinguish- ing epithets from that god whose rites they perform; but some are obvious, others obscure : obvious, like Martialis and Volcanalis; obscure are Dialis and Furinalis, since Dialis is from Jove, for he is called also Diovis, and Furinalis from Furrina, 6 who even has a was the fundamental political unit in the early Roman state; it was an organization of yentes, originally ten to the curia, and ten curiae to each of the three tribes. § 84. ° Of uncertain etymology, but not from filamen. b A goddess, practically unknown. feriae Furinales sunt. Sic flamen Falacer a divo patre Falacre. 85. Salii ab salitando, quod facere in comitiis in sacris quotannis et solent et debent. Luperci, quod Lupercalibus in Lupercali sacra faciunt. Fratres Arvales dicti qui sacra publica faciunt propterea ut fruges ferant arva : a ferendo et arvis Fratres Arvales dicti. Sunt qui a fratria dixerunt : fratria est Groe- cum vocabulum partis 1 hominum, ut (Ne)apoli 2 etiam nunc. Sodales Titii pdrrjp ' clan brother '; any reference to it is here out of place. f Ac- cording to Tacitus, Ann. i. 54, they were established by Titus Tatius for the preservation of certain Sabine religious practices. § 86. Perhaps from an old word meaning ' law,' from the root seen in feci ' I made, established '; but without connexion with the words in the text. Foedus, fides, fidus are closely connected with one another. 6 In the early Furinal Festival in the calendar. So also the Flamen Falacer from the divine father Falacer. 6 85. The Salii were named ° from salitare ' to dance,' because they had the custom and the duty of dancing yearly in the assembly-places, in their cere- monies. The Luperci 6 were so named because they make offerings in the Lupercal at the festival of the Lupercalia. Fratres Arvales 1 Arval Brothers ' was the name given to those who perform public rites to the end that the ploughlands may bearfruits : from ferre ' to bear ' and arva ' ploughlands ' they are called Fratres Arvales'. But some have said d that they were named from fratria ' brotherhood ' : fratria is the Greek name of a part of the people, e as at Naples even now. The Sodales Titii ' Titian Comrades ' are so named from the titiantes ' twittering ' birds which they are accustomed to watch in some of their augural observations/ 86. The Fetiales a ' herald-priests,' because they were in charge of the state's word of honour in matters between peoples; for by them it was brought about that a war that was declared should be a just war, and by them the war was stopped, that by a foedus ' treaty ' thejides ' honesty ' of the peace might be established. Some of them were sent before war should be declared, to demand restitution of the stolen property, 6 and by them even now is made the foedus ' treaty,' which Ennius writes c was pronounced Jidus. days wars started chiefly as the result of raids in which property, cattle, and persons had been carried off. e Page 23S Vahlen*; R.O.L. i. 5&4 Warmington; Ennius probably wished by a pun to indicate a relation between foedus and the adjective Jidus which, in his opinion, did not really exist (though it did). In re militari praetor dictus qui praeiret exercitui. Imperator, ab imperio populi qui eos, qui id attemptasse(n)t, oppressi(t) 1 hostis. Legati qui lecti publice, quorum opera consilioque uteretur peregre magistratus, quive nuntii senatus aut populi essent. Exercitus, quod exercitando fit melior. Legio, quod leguntur milites in delectu. 88. Cohors, quod ut in villa ex pluribus tectis coniungitur ac quiddam fit unum, sic hie 1 ex manipulis pluribus copulatur 2 : cohors quae in villa, quod circa eum locum pecus cooreretur, tametsi cohortem in villa /fypsicrates 3 dicit esse Graece X!°P T0V * apud poetas dictam. Manipuhuo 4 canit, ut turn cum classes comitiis ad comit(i)atum 5 vocant. XVII. 92. Quae a fortuna vocabula, in his quae- dam minus aperta ut pauper, dives, miser, beatus, sic alia. Pauper a paulo lare. Mendicus a minus, cui cum opus est minus nullo est. Dives a divo qui ut deus nihil 1 indigere videtur. Opulentus ab ope, cui eae opimae; ab eadem inops qui eius indiget, et ab eodem fonte copis 2 ac copiosus. Pecuniosus a pecunia magna, pecunia a pecu : a pastoribus enim horum vocabulorum origo. XVIII. 93. Artificibus maxima causa ars, id est, ab arte medicina ut sit medicus dictus, a sutrina sutor, non a medendo ac suendo, quae omnino ultima huic rei : (hae enim) 1 earum rerum radices, ut in proxumo §91. 1 For caepti. 2 IihoL, for litigines. 3 A. Sp., for classicos. 4 A. Sp., for cornu no. 5 Ver- tranius, for comitatum. § 92. 1 For nichil. 2 Turnebiis, for copiis. § 93. 1 Added by Reitzenstein. 6 That is, from lituus ' cornet ' and canere. § 92. " Pau-per has the same first element as pau-lus. b Derivative of mend um ' error, defect.' c Quite possibly, since the gods were thought of as conferring wealth; dives is derived from divus as caeles is from caelum. d From co- opts. * The earliest unit of value was a domestic animal; cf. English fee and German Viek ' cattle,' both cognate to Latin pecu. § 93. " Properly medicina from medicus, which is from mederi, etc. assistants, were at the start called optiones ' choices '; but now the tribunes, to increase their influence, do the appointing of them. Tubicines ' trumpeters,' from tuba ' trumpet ' and canere ' to sing or play '; in like fashion liticines b ' cornetists.' The classicus ' class- musician ' is named from the classis ' class of citi- zens '; he likewise plays on the horn or the cornet, for example when they call the classes to gather for an assembly. XVII. 92. Among the words which have to do with personal fortune, some are not very clear, such as pauper ' poor,' dives ' rich,' miser ' wretched,' beatus ' blest,' and others as well. Pauper a is from paulus lar ' scantily equipped home.' Mendicus b ' beggar ' is from minus ' less,' said of one who, when there is a need, has minus ' less ' than nothing. Dives ' rich ' is from divus 6 ' godlike person,' who, as being a deus ' god,' seems to lack nothing. Opulentus ' wealthy ' is from ops ' property,' said of one who has it in abun- dance; from the same, mops ' destitute ' is said of him who lacks ops, and from the same source copis d ' well supplied ' and copiosus ' abundantly furnished.' Pecuniosus ' moneyed ' is from a large amount of pecunia ' money '; pecunia is from peca ' flock ' : for it was among keepers of flocks that these words originated.' XVIII. 93. For artisans the chief cause of the names is the art itself, that is, that from the ars viedi- cina ' medical art ' the medicus ' physician ' should be named, and from the ars sutrina ' shoemaker's art ' the sutor ' shoemaker,' and not directly from mederi ' to cure ' and suere ' to sew,' though these are the absolutely final sources for such names. For these are the roots of these things, as will be shown in the libro aperietur. Quare quod ab arte artifex dicitur nec multa in eo obscura, relinquam. 94. Similis causa quae ab scientia voca 3 coactum in publicum, si erat aversum. 96. Ex quo 1 fructus maior, hie 2 est qui Graecis usus : (sus), quod vs, bos, quod j3ovs, taurus, quod (Tavpos), item ovis, quod ots : ita enim antiqui dicebant, non ut nunc -n-pofSarov. Possunt in Latio quoque ut in Graecia ab suis vocibus haec eadem ficta. Armenta, quod boves ideo maxime parabant, ut inde eligerent ad arandum; inde arimenta dicta, postea 1 tertia littera extrita. Vitulus, quod Greece anti- quitus iVaAos, aut quod plerique vegeti, vegitulus. 3 Iuvencus, iuvare qui iam ad agrum colendum posset. 97. Capra carpa, a quo scriptum Omnicarpae caprae. //ircus, 1 quod Sa&ini fircus; quod illic fedus, 2 in Latio rure hedus, qui in urbc ut in multis A addito Aaedus. 3 Porcus, quod Saoini dicww^ 4 aprun«(m) porra(m) 5; proi(n)de 6 porcus, nisi si a Graecis, quod Athenis in libris sacrorum scripta est iropK-q e(t> 7to/3ko(s). 7 2 Fay, for ut. 3 Aug., for esse. § 96. 1 Mue., for qua. 2 Mue., for hinc. 3 Laetus, for uigitulus. § 97. 1 Aug., for ircus. 2 For faedus. 3 Aug., for aedus. 4 Laetus, for dicto. 5 Kent; aprinum porcum L. Sp.; aprum porcum Scaliger; for apruno porco. 6 Turnebus, for poride. 7 Kent, for porcae porco. § 96. Correct equations; but the Latin words are not derived from the Greek : the four pairs are from the ancestral language, and only sus is likely to be onomatopoeic. 6 The Greek word is not the source of the Latin word, but is borrowed from it; there is no satisfactory etymology of vitulus. c Really ' youthful,' a derivative of invents ' young man,' and not from iuvare. §97. "Wrong. 6 An old inherited word. c Iden- a fine was imposed in pecus ' cattle ' and there was a collection into the state treasury, of what had been diverted. 96. Regarding cattle from which there is larger profit, there is the same use of names here as among the Greeks : sus ' swine,' the same as vs; bos ' cow,' the same as (3ov$; taurus ' bull,' the same as ravpos; likewise ovis ' sheep,' the same as 6is a : for thus the ancients used to say, not irpoparov as they do now. This identity of the names in Latium and in Greece may be the result of invention after the natural utter- ances of the animals. Armenta ' plough-oxen,' because they raised oxen especially that they might select some of them for arandum ' ploughing '; thence they were called arimenta, from which the third letter I was afterwards squeezed out. Vitulus ' calf,' because in Greek it was anciently Itu\6 3 an's 4; veteres nostri ariuga, hinc ariug?. 5 104. Vernacula : lact(u)c 1 a lacte, quod Aolus id habet lact; brassica 2 ut p(r)aesica, 3 quod ex eius scapo minutatim praesicatur; asparagi, quod ex asperis virgultis leguntur et ipsi scapi asperi sunt, non leves; nisi Graecum : illic quoque enim dicitur dcnrdpayos.* Cucumeres dicuntur a curvore, ut curvi- meres dicti. Fructus a ferundo, res eae quas 5 fundus et eae (quas) quae 6 in fundo ferunt ut fruamur. §103. 1 For raphanum. 2 For malachen. 3 For lirio. 4 For malache. 6 A. Sp.,/or sysimbrio. § 104. 1 M, Laetus, for lacte. 2 Laetus, for blassica. 3 Turnebus; praeseca Aldus; for passica. 4 For aspara- gus. 5 A. Sp., for ea cquas. 6 Mue., for ea eque. * Optima et maxima suggests Jupiter Optimus Maximus. e The juice of the walnut-hull does make a very dark stain. § 103. "All the examples in this section have come into Latin from Greek, except radix, rosa, malva. Radix is native Latin, and its Greek equivalent had a different mean- ing. Rosa and malva, and their Greek equivalents, were separately derived from an earlier language native in the being best and biggest, 6 is called ia-glans from 7«-piter and glans ' acorn.' The same word nux ' nut ' is so called because its juice makes a person's skin black, just as nox ' night ' makes the air black. 103. ° Of those which are grown in gardens, some are called by foreign names, as, by Greek names, ocimuvi ' basil,' menta ' mint,' rata ' rue,' which they now call -rffavov; likewise caulis ' cabbage,' lapathium ' sorrel,' radix ' radish ' : for thus the ancient Greeks called what they now call pdfavos; likewise these from Greek names : serpyllum 6 ' thyme,' rosa ' rose,' each with one letter changed; likewise Latin names from these Greek names : KoXiavhpov c ' coriander,' fj.aXdxrj, nvfiivov ' cummin '; likewise lilium ' lily ' from Xeipiov and malva ' mallow ' from p.a\d%i] and sisym- brium ' thyme ' from cricrvpfipiov. 104. ° Native words : lactuca ' lettuce ' from lact ' milk,' because this herb contains milk; brassica ' cabbage ' as though praesica, because from its stalk praesicatur ' leaves are cut off ' one by one; asparagi ' asparagus shoots,' because they are gathered from aspera ' rough ' bushes and the stems themselves are rough, not smooth : unless it is a Greek name, for in Greece also they say da-Trdpayos. Cucumeres ' cucum- bers ' are named from their curvor ' curvature,' as though curvimeres. Fructus ' fruits ' are named from ferre b ' to bear,' namely those things which the farm and those things which are on the farm bear, that Mediterranean region. * With initial * rather than h, by assimilation to Latin serpere. c Usually KopiavSpov, but here with dissimilative change of the prior r to I. § 104. " Correct on lactuca, fructus, mola; wrong on brassica, cucumeres, itva; asparagus Is from Greek. * Cf. v. 37, and note e. V. I line declinatae fruges et frumentuni, sed ea c terra; etiam frumentum, quod rum (m)acerare 3 cruda Solera. E quis ad coquendum quod e terra eru(itu)r, 4 ruapa, unde rapa. Olea ab eAcua 5; olea grandis orchitis, quod earn Attid 6 opxw /xopa.' 109. Hinc ad pecudis carnem perventum est. \bv Zvrepov appellasse. Ab eadem fartura farcimina (in) 6 extis appellata, a quo (farticulum) 8 : in eo quod tenuissimum intestinum fartum, hila ab hilo dicta i(l)lo 7 quod ait Ennius : Neque dispendi 8 facit hilum. Quod in hoc farcimine summo quiddam eminet, ab eo quod ut in capite apex, apexabo dicta. Tertium fartum est longavo, quod longius quam duo ilia. 3 Added by GS.; cf. Festus, 225. 15 M. 4 Laetus,for eo. 5 A. Sp.,for ad. §111. 1 Added by Mve. 2 Laetus, for lucanam. 3 Added by Aldus. 4 Fay, for partes. 5 Added by Aug., with B. 6 Added by GS. 7 Lackmann, for hilo. 8 For dispendii. e Perna has no connexion with pes; but the remaining etymologies of this section seem to be correct. d The precise meaning of this word is unknown; perhaps ' pork- chop,' cf. W. Heraeus, Archiv f. ImL Lex. 14. 124-125. e Meaning assured by offulam cum duobus costis, V., De Re Rustica, ii. 4." 11. 1 Page 345 Maurenbrecher; page 3 Morel. §111. °The preceding etymologies in this section are correct, but hila is properly hilla, diminutive of hira ' empty Perna c ' ham,' from pes ' foot.' Sueris, d from the animal's name. Offula ' rib-roast,' e from offa, a very small sueris. Insicia ' minced meat ' from this, that the meat is insecta ' cut up,' just as in the Song of the Salii f the word prosicium ' slice ' is used, for which, in the offering of the vitals, the word prosectum is now used. Murtatum ' myrtle-pudding,' from murta ' myrtle-berry,' because this berry is added plentifully to its stuffings. 111. An intestine of the thick sort that was stuffed, they call a Lucanica ' Lucanian,' because the soldiers got acquainted with it from the Lucanians, just as what they found at Falerii they call a Faliscan haggis; and they say fundolus ' bag-sausage ' from fundus ' bottom,' because this is not like the other intestines, but is open at only one end : from this, I think, the Greeks called it the blind intestine. From the same fartura ' stuffing ' were called the farcimina ' stuffies ' in the case of the vital organs for the sacrifice, whence also farticulum ' stufflet '; in this case, because it is the most slender intestine that is stuffed, it is called hila a from that hilum ' whit ' which Ennius 6 uses : And of loss not a whit does she suffer. Because at the top of this stuffy there is a little projec- tion, it is called an apexabo, c because the projection is like the apex ' pointed cap ' on a human head. The third kind of sausage is the longavo, e because it is longer than those two others. intestine '; cf. Festus, 101. 6 M. 6 Annales, 14 Yahlen 2; li.O.L. i. 6-7 Warmington; quoted also v. 60 and ix. 54. Apexabo and longavo doubtless have the same suffix, differ- ing only through the late Latin confusion of 6 and v; unless indeed both words are further corrupt. Augmentum, quod ex immolata hostia dc- sectum in iecore (imponitur) 1 in por(ric)iendo 2 a(u)gendi 3 causa. Magraentum 4 a magis, quod ad religionem magis pertinet : itaque propter hoc (mag)mentana 5 fana constituta locis certis quo id imponeretur. Mattea 6 ab eo quod ea Graece /larrm]. Item (a) 7 Graecis . . . singillatim haec 8 : . . . 9 ovum, bulbum. XXIII. 113. Lana Graecum, ut Polt/bius et Calli- machus scribunt. Purpura a purpurae maritumae colore, wt 1 P(o)enicum, quod a Poenis primum dicitur allata. Stamen a stando, quod eo stat omne in tela velamentum. Subtemen, quod subit stamini. Trama, quod tram(e)at 2 frigus id genus vestimenti. Densum a dentibus pectinis quibus feritur. Filum, quod minimum est hilum : id enim minimum est in vesti- mento. § 112. 1 Added by A. Sp. 2 L. Sp., for im poriendo. 3 Turnebus, for agendi. 4 B, M, Aug., for magnentum. 6 Tumebus, for mentarea. 6 Popma, for mattae. 7 Added by L. Sp. 8 For heae. 9 The lacuna was noted by Scaliger; the exact arrangement is by Kent, after Mue.'s indication of the probable contents. §113. 1 Lachmann; colore G, Laetus; for colerent. 2 Aug. {quoting a friend), for tramat. § 112. ° Correct, unless the purpose was to increase, that is, glorify the god. 6 Properly connected with mactare ' to sacrifice,' though popular association with magis affected its meaning. e A highly seasoned dish of hashed meat, poultry, and herbs, served cold as a dessert. The augme/itum a ' increase-cake ' is so called because a piece of it is cut out and put on the liver of the sacrificed victim at the presentation to the deity, for the sake of augendi ' increasing ' it. Magmentum b ' added offering,' from viagis ' more,' because it attaches viagis ' more ' closely to the worshipper's piety : for this reason magmentaria fana ' sanctuaries for the offering of magmenta ' have been established in certain places, that the added offering may there be laid on the original and offered with it. Mattea c ' cold meat-pie ' is so named because in Greek it is /larrvij. Likewise from the Greeks is another meat- dish called . . ., which contains item by item the following : . . ., an egg, a truffle. XXIII. 113. Lana a 'wool' is a Greek word, as Polybius 6 and Callimachus c write. Purpura d ' purple,' from the colour of the purpura ' purple-fish ' of the sea : a Punic word, because it is said to have been first brought to Italy by the Phoenicians. Stamen 1 warp,' from stare ' to stand,' because by this the whole fabric on the loom stat ' stands ' up. Sub- temen e ' woof,' because it subit ' goes under ' the stamen ' warp.' Trama * ' wide-meshed cloth,' be- cause the cold trameat ' goes through ' this kind of garment. Densum B ' close-woven cloth,' from the denies ' dents ' of the sley with which it is beaten. Filum 9 ' thread,' because it is the smallest hilum ' shred '; for this is the smallest thing in a garment. § 1 13. ° An old Italic word cognate to English wool; cf. v. 130. b Frag. inc. 99 (101) Hultsch. e Fray. 408 Schneider. 4 Quite possibly a Phoenician w ord, but transmitted to Italj' by the Greeks (irop^vpa). « From subtexere ' to weave underneath.' ' From trahere ' to pull.' " Wrong. Pannus Graecuw, 1 ubi E A 2 fecit. Panu- vellium dictum a pano et volvendo filo. Tunica ab tuendo corpore, tunica ut (tu)endica. 3 Toga a tegendo. Cinctus et cingillum a cingendo, alterum viris, alterum mulieribus attributum. XXIV. 115. Anna ab arcendo, quod his arcemus hostem. Parma, quod e medio in omnis partis par. Conum, quod cogitur in cacumen versus. Hasta, quod astans solet 1 ferri. Iaculum, quod ut iaciatur fit. Tragula a traiciendo. Scutum (a) 2 sectura ut secutum, quod a minute consectts 3 fit tabellis. Urn- bones 4 a Graeco, quod a/x/Swves. 5 116. Gladiu/M 1 C in G 2 commutato a clade, quod fit ad hostium cladem gladium; similiter ab omine 3 pilum, qui host«s periret, 4 ut perilum. Lorica, quod e loris de corio crudo pectoralia faciebant; postea subcidit galli(ca) 5 e ferro sub id vocabulum, ex anulis § 1 14. 1 Aug., with B, for greens. 2 Fay, for ea. 3 GS., for indica. §115. 1 For sollet. 2 Added by Laetus. 3 Aug., for consectum. 4 For umbonis. 5 Turnebus, for ambonis. § 1 16. 1 L. Sp., for gladius. 2 For G in C. 3 Aug., for homine. 4 Aug. (hostis B), for hostem feriret. 6 Mue.,for galli. § 1 14. ° Not pannus ' cloth,' but pannus ' bobbin,' in view of what follows; there is a Greek -nfjvos ' web,' and its diminutive irqvlov ' bobbin,' which in the Doric form would have A and not E. 6 Possibly right, if, as A. Spengel thinks, the word is really panuvollium. e From Semitic, either directly or through Etruscan. §115. ° Arma, parma, conum, hasta, tragula, scutum, umbones : all wrong etymologies. 6 Not from traicere, but from trahere ' to pull, drag '; perhaps because the thong wound round it for throwing (like the string used in starting a peg-top) ' pulls ' the javelin. 114. Pannus ° ' bobbin,' is a Greek word, where E has become A. Panuvelliuin 6 ' bobbin with thread ' was said from panus 4 bobbin ' and volvere 4 to wind ' the thread. Tunica c ' shirt,' from tuendo 4 protect- ing ' the body : tunica as though it were tuendica. Toga 4 toga ' from tegere 4 to cover.' Cincius ' belt ' and cingillum 4 girdle,' from cingere 4 to gird,' the one assigned to men and the other to women. XXIV. 115. Arma ° ' arms,' from arcere 4 to ward off,' because with them we arcemus 4 ward off' the enemy. Parma ' cavalry shield,' because from the centre it is par * even ' in every direction. Conum 4 pointed helmet,' because it cogitur 4 is narrowed ' toward the top. Hasta 4 spear,' because it is usually carried astajis' standing up.' Iaculum' javelin,' because it is made that it may iaci ' be thrown.' Tragula 6 ' thong-javelin,' from traicere 4 to pierce.' Scutum 4 shield,' from sectura 4 cutting,' as though secutum, because it is made of wood cut into small pieces. Umbones 4 bosses ' from a Greek word, namely 116.° Gladium 4 sword,' from clades 4 slaughter,' with change of C to G, because the gladium 6 is made for a slaughter of the enemy; likewise from its omen was said pilum, by which the enemy periret ' might perish,' as though perilum. Lorica ' corselet,' because they made chest-protectors from lora 4 thongs ' of rawhide; afterwards the Gallic corselet of iron was § 1 16. ° All etymologies wrong except those of lorica and (with reserves) of galea. b V. prefers {cf. viii. 45, ix. 81, Be Re Rust. i. 48. 3) the unfamiliar neuter form, which may be due to the influence of the associated words scutum, pilum, telum. The word is of Celtic origin, but may have an ulti- mate connexion with the root of clades. ferrea tunica. 6 Balteum, quod cingulum e corio habebant bullatum, balteum dictum. Ocrea, quod opponebatur ob crus. Galea ab galero, quod multi usi antiqui. 117. Tubae ab tubis, quos etiam nunc ita appellant tubicines sacrorum. Cornua, quod ea quae nunc sunt ex aere, tunc fiebant bubulo e cornu. Vallum vel quod ea varicare nemo posset vel quod singula ibi extrema 6acilla furcillata habent figuram litterae V. Cervi ab similitudine cornuum cervi; item reliqua fere ab similitudine ut vineae, testudo, aries. XXV. 118. Mensam escariam cillibam appella- bant; ea erat 1 quadrata ut etiam nunc in castris est; a cibo cilliba dicta; postea rutunda facta, et quod a nobis media et a Graecis fxecra, mensa dic^(a) 2 potest; nisi etiam quod ponebant pleraque in cibo mensa. Trulla a similitudine truae, quae quod magna et haec 6 Turnebus, for ferream tunicam. § 1 18. 1 For erant. 2 Mue.,for dici. e Rather galerum from galea, which looks like a borrowing from Greek yaAe'r; ' weasel '; the objection is that caps of weasel-skin are nowhere attested. §117. ° Wrong etymology. 6 Thrust into the embank- ment, to increase its defensive strength; can they be the stakes, pali or valli, forming a fence along its top ? But these are not elsewhere spoken of as forked. e Used by Caesar, who inserted such forked branches into the face of his wall at Alesia, Bell. Gall. vii. 72. 4, 73. 2. d Otherwise ' grape-arbours '; in military use, sheds under the protection of which soldiers could advance up to the enemy's fortifica- tions. " A close formation of overlapping shields. §118. "Borrowed from Greek KiXAlfias 'three-legged table,' a derivative of kIXXos ' ass.' 6 Or perhaps mesa, since n was weak before s; Priscian, i. 58. 17 Keil, states that V. used both spellings. Mensa seems to be the included under this name, an iron shirt made of links. Balteum ' sword-belt,' because they used to wear a leather belt bullatum ' with an amulet attached,' was called balteum. Ocrea ' shin-guard' was so called because it was set in the way ob crus ' before the shin.' Galea c ' leather helmet,' from galerum ' leather bonnet,' because many of the ancients used them. 117. Tubae ' trumpets,' from tubi ' tubes,' a name by which even now the trumpeters of the sacrifices call them. Cornua ' horns,' because these, which are now of bronze, were then made from the cornu ' horn ' of an ox. Vallum a ' camp wall,' either because no one could varicare ' straddle ' over it, or because the ends of the forked sticks 6 used there had individually the shape of the letter V. Cervi c ' chevaux-de-frise,' from the likeness to the horns of a cervus ' stag '; so the rest of the terms in general, from a likeness, as vineae ' mantlets,' d testudo ' tortoise,' e aries ' ram.' XXV. 118. The eating-table they used to call a cilliba °; it was square, as even now it is in the camp; the name cilliba came from cibus ' victuals.' After- wards it M'as made round, and the fact that it was media ' central ' with us and p-ka-a ' central ' with the Greeks, is the probable reason for its being called a mensa 6 ' table '; unless indeed they used to put on, amongst the victuals, many that were mensa ' measured out.' Trulla e ' ladle,' from its likeness to a trua ' gutter,' but because this is big and the other is small, they named it as if it were truella ' small triia '; this feminine of mensus ' measured '; perhaps from tabula mensa ' measured board.' e Trulta is of uncertain origin, and yielded trua by back-formation; Greek rpinJAij seems to have been borrowed from Latin, as V. states. pusilla, ut tr«e 3 enim et navovv* d(i)c(untur) 5 Graece. 6 Reliqua quod aperta sunt unde sint relinquo. XXVI. 121. Mensa vinaria rotunda nominabatur ci(l)liba (a)nte, 1 ut etiam nunc in castris. Id videtur declinatum a Graeco kvAikcuo, 2 (id) 3 a poculo cylice qui (in) 3 ilia. Capk?(es) 4 et minores capulae a capiendo, quod ansatae ut prehendi possent, id est capi. Harum figuras in vasis sacris ligneas ac fictiles antiquas etiam nunc videmus. 122. Praeterea in poculis erant paterae, ab eo quod late (pate)nZ 1 ita 2 dictae. Hisce etiam nunc in publico convivio antiquitatis retinendae causa, cum magistri fiunt, potio circumfertur, et in sacrificando deis hoc poculo magistratus dat deo vinum. Pocula a potione, unde potatio et etiam posca. 3 Haec possunt a 7roTa», 4 quod ttotos potio Graece. 2 Aug., with B, for triplia. 3 Aug., with B, for triplion. 4 L. Sp.,for canunun Fv. 5 GS.,forde. 6 Canal, for greca. § 121. 1 GS., for cilibantiim. 2 Turnebus, for culiceo. 3 Added by Mue. 4 L. Sp.; capis Turnebus; for capit. § 122. 1 GS.; patent L. Sp.; pateant latine Aldus; for latini. 2 After ita, Aldus deleted dicunt. 3 Turnebus, for postea. 4 Mue., for poto. 6 From Greek fiayLs ' a round pan.' " Better lancula, diminutive of lanx ' platter.' d Correct, except that canis- trum is from Greek Kaviorpov 4 bread-basket,' made of K&wai 'reeds '; page 117 Funaioli. § 121. ° Of. § 118, where a different etymology is given. § 122. Not from Greek, but from an Indo-European root inherited by Latin as well as by Greek. 6 The Greek- word means properly not a ' draught,' but a ' drinking-bout.' The magida 6 and the languid, both meaning ' platter,' they named from the magnitudo ' size ' of the one and the latitudo ' width ' of the other. Patenae ' plates ' they called from patulum ' spreading,' and the little plates, with which they offered the gods a preliminary sample of the dinner, they called patellae ' saucers.' Tryblia ' bowls ' and canistra ' bread-baskets,' though people think that they are Latin, are really Greek A : for rpvBkiov and Kavovv are said in Greek. The remaining terms I pass by, since their sources are obvious. XXVI. 121.' A round table for wine was formerly called a cilliba, a as even now it is in the camp. This seems to be derived from the Greek kvXikcIov ' buffet,' from the cup cylix which stands on it. The capides ' bowls ' and smaller capulae ' cups ' were named from capere ' to seize,' because they have handles to make it possible for them prehendi ' to be grasped,' that is, capi ' to be seized.' Their shapes we even now see among the sacred vessels, old-fashioned shapes in wood and earthenware. 122. In addition there were among the drinking- cups the paterae ' libation-saucers,' named from this, that they patent ' are open ' wide. For the sake of preserving the ancient practice, they use cups of this kind even now for passing around the potio ' draught ' at the public banquet, when the magistrates enter into their office; and it is this kind of cup that the magistrate uses in sacrificing to the gods, when he gives the wine to the god. Pocula ' drinking-cups,' from potio ' draught,' whence potatio ' drinking bout ' and also posca ' sour wine.' ° These may however come from ttotos, because ttotos is the Greek for potio. b 117 V. 123. Origo potionis aqua, quod oequa summa. Fons unde funditur e terra aqua viva, ut fistula a qua fusus aquae. Vas vinarium grandius sinum ab sinu, quod sinum maiorem cavtur 2 urnarium, quod urnas cum aqua positas ibi potissimum habebant in culina. Ab eo etiam nunc ante balineum locus ubi poni solebat urnarium vocatur. Urnae dictae, quod urinant in aqua Aaurienda ut smnator. C/rinare 3 est mergi in aquam. 127. .^m&un^m} 1 fictum ab uruo, 2 quod ita flexum ut redeat sursum versus tit 3 in aratro quod est wrvum. 4 Calix a caldo, quod in eo calda puis 5 appone- batur et caldum eo bibebant. Vas ubi coquebant cibum, ab eo caccabum appellarunt. Vera 6 a ver- sando. XXVIII. 128. Ab sedendo appellatae sedes, sedile, so/ium, 1 sellae, siliquastrum; deinde ab his subsellium : ut subsipere quod non plane sapit, sic quod non plane erat sella, subsellium. Ubi in eius- modi duo, bisellium dictum. Area, quod arcebantur § 126. 1 GS., for et. 2 uocabatur, tcith ba expunged, V; nocatur other mss. 3 Bent huts, for orinator orinare. §127. 1 Kent; imburvom Mue.; imburum Aldus, with B; for impurro. 2 Mue., for urbo. 3 Aldus, for est. 4 B, for aruum. 6 Laetus, for plus. 6 Aldus, for uera. § 128. 1 Aug., for souum. Wrong etymology. 6 Derivative of vrina at an early date when itrina still meant merely 4 water,' and not specifically ' urine.' § 127. ° ' Bent about,' a vessel shaped like a gravy-boat; if my conjecture as to the spelling of the word is right, there is basis for V.'s etymology. 6 Of uncertain etymology, but popularly derived by the Romans from Greek icvXii; ' cup,' the normal meaning also of Latin calix, but not the meaning in this passage. c From Greek KaKKaftos, a pot with three legs, to stand over the fire. d Wrong. Besides there was a third kind of table for vessels, rectangular like the second kind; it was called an urnarium, because it was the piece of furniture in the kitchen on which by preference they set and kept the urnae ' urns ' filled with water. From this even now the place in front of the bath where the urn-table is wont to be placed, is called an urnarium. Urnae ' urns ' got their name a from the fact that they urinant b ' dive ' in the drawing of water, like an urinator ' diver.' Urinate means to be plunged into water. 127. Amburvum, a a pot whose name is made from urvum ' curved,' because it is so bent that it turns up again like the part of the plough which is named the urvum ' beam.' Calix b ' cooking-pot,' from caldum ' hot,' because hot porridge was served up in it, and they drank hot liquid from it. The vessel in which they coquebant ' cooked ' their food, from that they called a caccabus. Feru ' spit,' from versare ' to turn.' d XXVIII. 128. From sedere ' to sit ' were named sedes ' seat,' sedile ' chair,' solium ' throne,' sellae a ' stools,' siliquastrum 6 ' wicker chair '; then from these subsellium ' bench ' : as subsipere is said a thing does not sapit ' taste ' clearly, so subsellium because it was not clearly c a sella ' stool.' Where two had room on a seat of this sort, it was called a bisellium ' double seat.' An area ' strong-chest,' because thieves arcebantur ' were kept away ' from it when it § 128. ° With M from dl. b Probably seliquastrum (or selli-), as in Festus, 340 b 10, 341. 5; Fay suggests ' seat- basket ' (sella + qualum + suffix), citing certain types of Mexi- can chairs. e Rather ' under-seat,' that is, a seat under the sitter. fures ab ea clausa. Armarium et armamentarium ab cadem origine, sed declinata aliter. XXIX. 129. Mundus (ornatus) 1 muliebris dictus a munditia. Ornatus quasi ab ore natus : hinc enim maxime sumitur quod earn deceat, itaque id paratur speculo. 2 Calamistrum, quod his calfactis in cinere capfillus ornatur. Qui ea ministrabat, a cinere cinera- rius est appellatus. Discerniculum, quo discernitur capillus. Pecten, quod per euro explicatur capillus. Speculum a speciendo, 3 quod ibi (s)e spectant.* 130. Vestis a vellis vel 1 ab eo quod vellus lana tonsa universa ovis : id dictum, quod vellebant.2 Lan(e)a, 3 ex lana facta. Quod capillum contineret, dictum a rete reticulum; rete ab raritudine; item texta fasciola,qua capillum in capitealligarent, dictum capital a capite, quod sacerdotulae in capite etiam nunc solent habere. Sic rica ab ritu, quod Romano ritu sacrificium feminae cum faciunt, capita velant. § 129. 1 Added by GS.; cf. Festus, 143. 1 M, 2 A. Sp., for speculum. 3 Laetus, for spiciendo. 4 a, b, Turnebus, for espeetant. § 130. 1 Ixietus, for uela. 2 B, Laetus, for uellabant. 3 Turnebus, for lana. d Both area and arcere are derived from arx ' stronghold.' * Not connected with area; but belonging together. § 129. Munditia is derived from mundus. 6 Wrong etymologies. § 130. Both etymological suggestions for vestis arc wrong; for the meaning, see A. Spengel, Bemerkungen. was locked.** Armarium ' closet ' and armamentarium ' warehouse,' from the same source,' but with different suffixes. XXIX. 129. Mundus is a woman's toilet set, named a from munditia ' neatness.' Ornatus ' toilet set,' as if natus ' born ' from the os ' face ' 6 : for from this especially is taken that which is to beautify a woman, and therefore this is handled with the help of a mirror. Calamistrum ' curling- iron,' because the hair is arranged with irons when they have been calfacta ' heated ' in the embers. 6 The one who attended to them was called a cinerarius ' ember-man,' from cinis ' embers.' Discerniculum ' bodkin,' with which the hair discernitur ' is parted.' Pecten ' comb,' because by it the hair explicatur ' is spread out.' b Speculum ' mirror,' from specere ' to look at,' because in it they spectant ' look at ' them- selves. 130. Festis ' garment ' " from velli 6 ' shaggy hair,' or from the fact that the shorn wool of a sheep, taken as a whole, is a vellus ' fleece ' : this was said because they formerly vellebant ' plucked ' it. Lanea ' woollen headband,' c because made from lana ' wool.' That which was to hold the hair, was called a reticulum ' net- cap,' from rete ' net '; rete, from raritudo ' looseness of mesh.' d Likewise the woven band with which they were to fasten the hair on the head, was called a capital ' headband,' from caput ' head '; and this the sub-priestesses are accustomed to wear on their heads even now. So rica ' veil,' from ritus ' fashion,' d because according to the Roman ritus, when women make a sacrifice, they veil their heads. The mitra 6 Yellis, dialectal for villis. e For meaning, see A. Spen- gel, Bemerkungen, 264. d Wrong etymologies. 123 V. Mitra et reliqua fere in capite postea addita cum vocabulis Graecis. XXX. 131. Prius deinde (ind)utui, 1 turn amictui quae sunt tangam. Capitium ab eo quod capit pec- tus, id est, ut antiqui dicebant, comprehendit. In- dutui alterum quod subtus, a quo subucula; alterum quod supra, a quo supparus, nisi id quod item dicunt Osce. Alterius generis item duo, unum quod foris ac palam, palla; alterum quod intus, a quo (indusium, ut) 2 intusium, id quod Plautus dicit : Indusiatam 3 patagiatam caltulam* ac crocotulam. Multa post luxuria attulit, quorum vocabula apparet esse Graeca, ut asbest(in)on. 5 132. Amictui dictum quod abiectum 1 est, id est circumiectum, 2 a quo etiam quo 3 vestitas se invol- vunt, circumiectui appellant, et quod amictui habet purpuram circum, vocant circumtextum. Antiquis- simi amictui ricinium; id quod eo utebantur duplici, § 131. 1 B, Turnebus, for deinde utui Fv, f. 2 Added by GS. 3 GS., for intusiatam; after the text of Plautus. * Laetus, for caltulum/ after the text of Plautus. 6 GS., for asbeston; cf. Pliny, jVat. Hist. xix. 4. 20. §132. 1 Mue., for abiectum. 2 ^w#.,/o?-circumlectum. 3 G, Aug., for quod. § 131 . The datives indutui, amictui, and circumiectui, are used in § 131 and § 132 as indeclinables, like frugi ' thrifty,' cordi ' pleasant,' original datives of purpose that have become stereotyped. 6 From caput ' head,' because it was put on over the head like a sweater. c From sub and the verb in ind-tiere, ' to put on,' ex-uere ' to take off.' d Probably Oscan. * Of unknown etymology. ' From induere 'to put on.' 9 Epidicus, 231. h The Latin words are adjectives modifying tunicam in the preceding line. ' Made of a mineral substance called aofieoTos. ' turban ' and in general the other things that go on the head, -were later importations, along -with their Greek names. XXX. 131. Next I shall first touch upon those things which are for putting on,° then those which are for wrapping about the person. Capitium 6 ' vest,' from the fact that it capii ' holds ' the chest, that is, as the ancients said, it comprehendit ' includes ' it. One kind of put-on goes subtus ' below,' from which it is called subucula c ' underskirt '; a second kind goes supra 1 above,' from which it is called supparus d ' dress,' unless, this is so called because they say it in the same way in Oscan. Of the second sort there are likewise two varieties, one called palla e ' outer dress,' because it is outside and palam ' openly ' visible; the other is intus ' inside,' from which it is called indusium * ' under-dress,' as though intusium, of which Plautus speaks 9 : Under-dress, a bordered dress, of marigold and saffron hue.* There are many garments which extravagance brought at later times, whose names are clearly Greek, such as asbestinon i ' fire-proof.' 132. Atnictui ' wrap ' is thus named because it is ambiectum ' thrown about,' that is, circumiectum ' thrown around,' from which moreover they gave the name of circumiectui ' throw-around ' to that with which women envelop themselves after they are dressed; and any wrap that has a purple edge around it, they call circumtextum ' edge-weave.' Those of very long ago called a wrap a ricinium ' mantilla '; it was called ricinium from reicere ' to throw back,' ° because they § 133. ° Properly from rica (§ 130); it was a square piece of cloth worn folded over the head in sign of mourning. ab eo quod dimidiam partem retrorsum zaciebant, 4 ab reiciendo ricinium dictum. 133. (Pallia) 1 hinc, quod facta duo simplicia paria, parilia primo dicta, R exclusum 2 propter levitatem. Parapechia, 3 cAlarmydes, 4 sic multa, Graeca. Loena, 5 quod de lana multa, duarum etiam togarum instar; ut antiquissimum mulierum ricinium, sic hoc duplex virorum. Instrumenta rustica quae serendi aut colendi fructus causa facta. Sarculum ab serendo ae sanendo. 1 Ligo, quod eo propter latitudinem quod sub terra facilius legitur. Pala a pangendo, 2 GL quod fuit. Rutrum ruitrum a ruendo. 135. Aratrum, quod aruit 1 terram. Eius fer- rum vomer, quod vomit eo plus terram. Dens, quod eo mordetur terra; super id regula quae stat, stiva ab stando, et in ea transversa regula manicula, quod manu bubulci tenetur. Qui quasi temo est inter 4 Ixietus, for faciebant. § 133. 1 Added by Canal. 2 Mue.; R esclusum Turnebus; for resclusum /, resculum Fv. 3 For para- pecchia Fv. 4 Ed. Veneta, for clamides. 5 Aldus, for lena. § 134. 1 Aldus, for sarcendo. 2 Added by Ellis. § 135. 1 Turnebus, for aruit; cf. V., De Re Rustica, i. 35, terra adruenda. § 133. ° Probably of Greek origin. 6 Greek irapam)xvs ' beside the elbow,' also ' woman's garment with purple border on each side.' The Latin word seems to come from the diminutive irapaTrrjxtov ' radius, small bone below the elbow,' which however may also have denoted the woman's garment, though this is not attested. c Probably from Greek ^Acum, perhaps with an Etruscan intermediary. wore it doubled, throwing back one half of it over the other. 133. Pallia ° ' cloaks ' from this, that they con- sisted of two single paria ' equal ' pieces of cloth, called parilia at first, from which R was eliminated for smoothness of sound. Parapechia b ' elbow-stripes,' chlamydes ' mantles,' and many others, are Greek. Laena 6 ' overcoat,' because they contained much lana ' wool,' even like two togas : as the ricinium was the most ancient garment of the women, so this double garment is the most ancient garment of the men. XXXI. 134. Farming tools which were made for planting or cultivating the crops. Sarculum ° ' hoe,' from serere ' to plant ' and sarire ' to weed.' Ligo 6 ' mattock,' because with this, on account of its width, what is under the ground legitur ' is gathered ' more easily. Pala c ' spade ' from pangere ' to fix in the earth '; the L was originally GL. Rutrum ' shovel,' previously ruitrum, from mere ' to fall in a heap.' 135.° Aratrum ' plough,' because it arruit b ' piles up ' the earth. Its iron part is called vomer ' plough- share,' because with its help it the more vomit ' spews up ' the earth. The dens ' colter,' because by this the earth is bit; the straight piece of wood which stands above this is called the stiva ' handle,' from stare ' to stand,' and the wooden cross-piece on it is the mani- cula ' hand-grip,' because it is held by the manns ' hand ' of the ploughman. That which is so to speak a wagon-tongue between the oxen, is called a bura § 134. From sarire. b Of uncertain origin. c Cor- rect; but from pag+ sla, with loss of the extra consonants in the group. § 135. ° Wrong on aratrum, vomer, stiva, bura, urvum. b Really from arat ' it ploughs.' boves, bura a bubus; alii hoc a curvo urvum 2 appel- lant. Sub iugo medio cavum, quod bura extrema addita oppilatur, vocatur coum 3 a cavo. 4 Iugum et iumentum ab iunctu. 136. Irpices regula compluribus dentibus, quam item ut plaustrum boves trahunt, ut eruant quae in terra ser(p>unt 1; sirpices, postea (irpices) 2 S detrito.. a quibusdam dicti. Rastelli ut irpices serrae leves; itaque 3 homo in pratis per fenisecza 4 eo festucas corradit, quo ab rasu rastelli dicti. Rastri, quibus dentaiis 5 penitus eradunt terram atque cruunt, a quo rutu n*a(s)tri 6 dicti. 137. Falces a farre littera 1 commutata; hae in Campania seculae a secando; a quadam similitudine harum aliae, ut quod apertum unde, falces fenariae et arbor(ar)iae 2 et, quod non apertum unde, falces lumaria(e) 3 et sirpiculae. Lumariae sunt quibus secant lumecta, id est cum in agris serpunt spinae; quas quod ab terra agricolae solvunt, id est luunt, lumecta. Falces sirpiculae vocatae ab sirpando, id 2 Turnebus, for curuum. 3 Aug., with B, for cous Fv. 4 Rhol., for couo. § 136. 1 Turnebus, for serunt. 2 Added by Mue. 3 Aug., with B, for ita qua. 4 Aug., for fenisecta. 6 Turnebus, for dentalis. 6 Kent; rutu rastri Scaliger : erutu rastri Turnebus; for ruturbatri Fv. § 137. 1 For litera in Fv, as often. 2 Georges, for arboriae; cf. V., Be Re Rust. i. 22. 5, and Cato, De Agric. 10. 3. 3 For lumaria. " The earlier form of cavus ' hollow ' was in fact covos. § 136. ° Properly hirpices, from hirpus, the Samnite word for ' wolf.' b Roots of weeds and grasses. " Diminu- tive of rostrum; therefore ultimately from radere. d Mas- culine plural of neuter singular rastrum, from radere ' to scrape.' ' beam,' from botes ' oxen '; others call this an urvum, from the curvuvi ' curve.' The hole under the middle of the yoke, which is stopped up by inserting the end of the beam, is called coum, from cavum ' hole.' Iugum ' yoke ' and iumentum ' yoke-animal/ from iunctus ' joining or yoking.' 136. Irpices a 'harrows' are a straight piece of wood with many teeth, which oxen draw just like a wagon, that they may pull up the things 6 that serpunt ' creep ' in the earth; they were called sir- pices and afterwards, by some persons, irpices, with the S worn off. Rastelli c ' hay-rakes,' like harrows, are saw-toothed instruments, but light in weight ; therefore a man in the meadows at haying time corradit ' scrapes together ' with this the stalks, from which rasns ' scraping ' they are called rastelli. Rastri d ' rakes ' are sharp-toothed instruments by which they scratch the earth deep, and eruunt ' dig it up,' from which rutus ' digging ' they are called ruastri. 137. Falces ' sickles,' from far ' spelt,' a with the change of a letter ; in Campania, these are called seculae, from secare ' to cut ' ; from a certain likeness to these are named others, the falces fenariae ' hay scythes ' and arborariae ' tree pruning-hooks,' of obvious origin, and falces lumariae and sirpiculae, whose source is obscure. Lumariae 6 are those with which lumecta are cut, that is when thorns grow up in the fields ; because the farmers solvunt ' loosen,' that is, luunt ' loose,' them from the earth, they are called lumecta ' thorn-thickets.' Falces sirpiculae c are named §137. "Wrong. 6 Possibly for dumariae and dumecta, with Sabine I for d ; cf. Festiis, 67. 10 M. 'Apparently from sirpus ' rush,' collateral form of scirpus. est ab alligando ; sic sirpata 4 dolia quassa, cum alligata his, dicta. Utuntur in vinea alligando fasces, incisos fustes, faculas. Has xranclas 5 Cherso(ne)sice. 6 138. Pilum, quod eo far pisunt, a quo ubi id fit dictum pistrinum (L 1 et S inter se saepe locum corn- mutant), inde post in Urbe Lucili pistrina et pistrix. Trapetes 2 molae oleariae ; vocant trapetes a terendo, nisi Graecum est ; ac molae a mol(l)iendo 3 : harum enim motu eo coniecta mol(l)iuntur. 4 Vallum a volatu, quod cum id iactant volant inde levia. Ven- tilabrum, quod ventilatur in aere frumentum. 139- Quibus conportatur fructus ac necessariae res : de his fiscina a ferendo dicta. Corbes ab eo quod eo spicas aliudve quid corruebant ; hinc minores corbulae dictae. De his quae iumenta ducunt, tragula, quod ab eo trahitur per terram ; sirpea, quae virgis sirpatur, id est colligando implicatur, in qua stercus aliudve quid vehitur. 4 Aug., with B, for sirpita. 5 Mue., for phanclas /, G, fanclas H, V, p. 6 Aug., with B, for chermosie /, chermosioe G, a. § 138. 1 Aug., for R. 2 For trapetas Fv. 3 Scaliger, for moliendo. 4 Scaliger, for moliuntnr. d Cf. the fiaschi vestiti or ' clothed wine-flasks ' of modern Italy. * Messana in Sicily was before the Greek coloniza- tion named Zancle ' sickle,' from the shape of the cape on which it stood. There is no other evidence that this cape was called a Chersonesus, but as over twenty peninsulas are referred to by this name, it is possible that the name was applied here also. § 138. a V.'s basis for this statement is not apparent. 6 Cf. 521 and 1250 Marx ; one must assume that one of the Satires of Lucilius was entitled Urbs. c From Greek. d From molere ' to grind.' e Diminutive of vannvs ' fan.' §139. "Wrong on fiscina and corbes. from sirpare ' to plait of rushes,' that is, alligare ' to fasten ' ; thus broken jars are said to have been sirpata ' rush-covered,' when they are fastened to- gether with rushes.* 1 They use rushes in the vine- yard for tying up bundles of fuel, cut stakes, and kindling. These sickles they call zanclae in the peninsular dialect." 138. The pi lum ' pestle ' is so named because with it they pisunt ' pound ' the spelt, from which the place where this is done is called a pistrinum ' mill ' — L and S often change places with each other" — and from that afterwards pistrina ' bakery ' and pistrix ' woman baker,' words used in Lucilius's Cityfi Trapetes c are the mill-stones of the olive-mill : they call them trapetes from terere ' to rub to pieces,' unless the word is Greek ; and molae d from mollire ' to soften,' for what is thrown in there is softened by their motion. Vallum * ' small win no wing-fan,' from volatus ' flight,' because when they swing this to and fro the light particles volant ' fly ' away from there. Ventilabrum ' winnowing-fork,' because with this the grain venti- latur ' is tossed ' in the air. 139. Those means with which field produce and necessary things are transported. Of these, fiscina a rush-basket ' was named from ferre ' to carry ' ; corbes ' baskets,' from the fact that into them they corrue- bant ' piled up ' corn-ears or something else ; from this the smaller ones were called corbulae. Of those which animals draw, the tragula ' sledge,' because it trahitur ' is dragged ' along the ground by the animal ; sirpea 6 ' wicker wagon,' which sirpatur ' is plaited ' of osiers, that is, is woven by binding them together, in which dung or something else is conveyed. Vehiculum, in quo faba aliudve quid vehitur, quod e 1 viminibus vietur 2 aut eo vehitur. Breviws 3 vehiculum dictum est aliis ut* arcera, quae etiam in Duodecim Tabulis appellatur ; quod ex tabulis vehiculum erat factum ut area, 5 arcera dictum. Plaus- trum ab eo quod non ut in his quae supra dixi (ex quadam parte), 6 sed ex omni parte palam est, quae in eo vehuntur quod perluce(n)t, 7 ut lapides, asseres, tignum. Aedificia nominata a parte ut multa : ab aedibus et faciendo maxime aedificium. Et oppidum ab opi dictum, quod munitur opis causa ubi sint et quod opus est ad vitam gerendam ubi habeant tuto. Oppida quod opere 1 muniebant, moenia ; quo moenitius esset quod exaggerabant, aggeres dicti, et qui aggerem contineret, moerus. 2 Quod muniendi causa portabatur, mwnus 3 ; quod sepiebant oppidum co moenere, 4 momis. 5 142. Eius summa pinnae ab his quas insigniti §140. 1 GS. ; ex Laetus ; for est. 2 Tvrnebus, for utetur. 3 A. Sp., for breui est. 4 A. Sp., for uel. 5 Laetus, for arcar Fv. 6 Added by L. Sp. 7 Aug., for perlucet. §141. 1 Aug., for operi. 2 Sciop., for moerum Fv. 3 Laetus, for manus. 4 Turnebus, for eae omoenere Fv. 5 Sciop., for murus. From vehere ' to carry.' 6 Page 116 Schoell. c From plaudere ' to creak.' § 141. ° Whence ' temple ' in the singular, ' house ' in the plural. * From prefix ob + pedom ' place ' ; cf. irihov, San- skrit padam. c Munire, moenia, murus, munus all belong together ; oe is the older spelling, preserved in moenia in classical Latin. It is a question how far we ought to restore moe- for mu- in this passage ; possibly in all the Vehiculum ° ' wagon,' in which beans or some- thing else is conveyed, because it vietur ' is plaited ' or because vehitur ' carrying is done ' by it. A shorter kind of wagon is called by others, as it were, an arcera ' covered wagon,' which is named even in the Twelve Tables b ; because the wagon was made of boards like an area ' strong box,' it was called an arcera. Plaus- trum e ' cart,' from the fact that unlike those which I have mentioned above it is palam ' open ' not to a certain degree but everywhere, for the objects which are conveyed in it perlucent ' shine forth to view,' such as stone slabs, wooden beams, and building material. XXXII. 141. Aedificia ' buildings ' are, like many things, named from a part : from aedes a ' hearths ' andjacere ' to make ' comes certainly aedificium. Op- pidum 6 ' town ' also is named from ops ' strength,' because it is fortified for ops ' strength,' as a place where the people may be, and because for spending their lives there is opus ' need ' of place where they may be in safety. Moenia c ' walls ' were so named because they muniebant ' fortified ' the towns with opus ' work.' What they exaggerabant ' heaped up ' that it might be moenitius ' better fortified,' was called aggeres d ' dikes,' and that which was to support the dike was called a moerus ' wall.' Because carrying was done for the sake of muniendi ' fortifying,' the work was a munus ' duty ' ; because they enclosed the town by this moenus, it was a moerus ' wall.' 142. Its top was called pinnae a ' pinnacles,' from those feathers which distinguished soldiers are accus- words, since V. had a fondness for archaic spellings. d Exaggerare is from agger, which is from ad ' to ' and gerere ' to carry.' § 142. ° Literally, ' feathers.' 133 V. milites in galeis habere solent et in gladiatoribus Samnites. Turres a torvis, quod eae proiciunt ante alios. Qua viam relinquebant in muro, qua in op- pidum portarent, portas. 143. Oppida condebant in Latio Etrusco ritu multi, id est iunctis bobus, tauro ct vacca interiore, aratro circumagebant sulcum (hoc faciebant religionis causa die auspicato), ut fossa et muro essent muniti. Terram unde exculpserant, fossam vocabant et intror- sum i'actam 1 murum. Post ea 2 qui fiebat orbis, urbis principium ; qui quod erat post murum, postmoerium dictum, eo usque 3 auspicia urbana finiuntur. Cippi pomeri stant et circum Arcciam et 4 circum 5 Romam. Quare et oppida quae prius erant circumducta aratro ab orbe 6 et urvo urb 2 postilionem postulare, id est civem fortissimum eo demitti. 3 Turn quendam Curtium virum fortem armatum ascendisse in equum et a Con- cordia versum cum equo eo 4 praecipitatum ; eo facto 2 macella Scaliger, for macelli. 3 Jordan, for iunium. 4 Added by 08., from Plautus, Cure. 474. 5 Added by GS. 6 Laetus, for quern. 7 For cuppedinis. Stowasser, for fuerit; cf. Festus, 125. 7 M. § 148. 1 After Cornelius, Mue. deleted Stilo. 2 Laetus, for manio. 3 Turnebus, for eodem mitti. 4 A. Sp., with II, for eum. 6 Curculio, 474. c Page 115 Funaioli. § 147. "Page 116 Funaioli. 6 Seemingly only an aetiological story ; the cognomen is not otherwise known. Could it here be a corruption of Marcellus ? § 148. a A writer on historical topics, possibly the Pro- cilius who was tribune of the plebs in 56 u.c. 6 L. Cal- purnius Piso Frugi, consul 133 B.C., adversary of the Gracchi ; small fortified villages. Along the Tiber, at the sanctuary of Portunus, they call it the Forum Pis- carium ' Fish Market ' ; therefore Plautus says 6 : Down at the Market that sells the fish. Where things of various kinds are sold, at the Cornel- Cherry . Groves, is the Forum Cuppedinis ' Luxury Market,' from cuppedium ' delicacy,' that is, from fastidium ' fastidiousness ' ; many c call it the Forum Cupidinis ' Greed Market,' from cupiditas ' greed.' 147. After all these things which pertain to human sustenance had been brought into one place, and the place had been built upon, it was called a Macellum, as certain writers say, a because there was a garden there ; others say that it was because there had been there a house of a thief with the cognomen Macellus, 6 which had been demolished by the state, and from which this building has been constructed which is called from him a Macellum. 148. In the Forum is the Lacus Curtius ' Pool of Curtius ' ; it is quite certain that it is named from Curtius, but the story about it has three versions : for Procilius a does not tell the same story as Piso, 6 nor did Cornelius c follow the story given by Procilius. Procilius states d that in this place the earth yawned open, and the matter was by decree of the senate referred to the haruspices ; they gave the answer that the God of the Dead demanded the fulfilment of a forgotten vow, namely that the bravest citizen be sent down to him. Then a certain Curtius, a brave man, put on his war-gear, mounted his horse, and turning away from the Temple of Concord, plunged into the author of a work on Roman history. e Identity quite uncertain. 6 Hist. Rom. Frag., page 198 Peter. locum coisse atque eius corpus divinitus humasse ac reliquisse genti suae monumentum. 149- Piso in Annalibus scribit Sabino bello, quod fuit Romulo et Tatio, virum fortissimum Met(t)ium Curiium 1 Sabinum, cum Romulus cum suis ex su- periore parte impressionem fecisset, 2 in locum 3 palus- trem, qui turn fuit in Foro antequam cloacae sunt factae, secessisse atque ad suos in Capitolium re- cepisse ; ab eo lacum (Curtium) 4 invenisse nomen. 150. Cornelius et Lutatius 1 scribunt eum locum esse fulguritum et ex S. C. septum esse : id quod factum es(se)t 2 a Curtio consule, cui M. Genucius 3 fuit collega, Curtium appellatum. 151. Arx ab arcendo, quod is locus munitissimus Urbis, a quo facillime possit hostis prohiberi. Career a coercendo, quod exire prohibentur. In hoc pars quae sub terra Tullianum, ideo quod additum a Tullio rege. Quod Syracusis, ubi de(licti) 1 causa custodiuntur, vocantur latomiae, (in)de 2 lautumia § 149. 1 For curcium Fv. 2 After fecisset, Popma de- leted curtium. 3 Laetus, for lacum. 4 Added by GS. § 150. 1 Aug., with B, for luctatius. 2 Mue., for est. 3 For genutius. § 151. 1 Bergmann, for de. 2 Mue. ; exinde Turnebus ; for et de. § 149. Hist. Rom. Frag., page 79 Peter. 6 Tradition- ally built by the first Tarquin ; cf. Livv, i. 38. 6. c Cf. Livy, i. 10-13, especially i. 12. 9-10 and! 13. 5. § 150. Q. Lutatius Catulus, 152-87 b.c, consul 102 as colleague of Marius in the victory over the Cimbri at Ver- cellae ; a writer on etymology and antiquities. b Hist. Rom. Frag., page 126 Peter ; Gram. Rom. Frag., page 105 Funaioli. c C. Curtius Chilo and M. Genucius Augurinus were colleagues in the consulship in 445 b.c. gap, horse and all ; upon which the place closed up and gave his body a burial divinely approved, and left to his clan a lasting memorial. 149. Piso in his Annals writes that in the Sabine War between Romulus and Tatius, a Sabine hero named Mettius Curtius, when Romulus with his men had charged down from higher ground and driven in the Sabines, got away into a swampy spot which at that time was in the Forum, before the sewers b had been made, and escaped from there to his own men on the Capitoline c ; and from this the pool found its name. 150. Cornelius and Lutatius a write b that this place was struck by lightning, and by decree of the senate was fenced in : because this was done by the consul Curtius, 6 who had M. Genucius as his colleague, it was called the Lacus Curtius. 151. The arx ' citadel,' from arcere ' to keep off,' because this is the most strongly fortified place in the City, from which the enemy can most easily be kept away. The career 6 ' prison,' from coercere ' to con- fine,' because those who are in it are prevented from going out. In this prison, the part which is under the ground is called the Tullianum, because it was added by King Tullius. Because at Syracuse the place where men are kept under guard on account of transgressions is called the Latomiae c ' quarries,' from § 151. "The northern summit of the Capitoline, on which stood the temple of Juno Moneta. * Beneath the Arx, at the corner of the Forum ; etymology wrong. e Greek XoLTOfuai, contracted from XaoTOfuai, which gave the Latin word ; there were old tufa-quarries on the slopes of the Capitoline, and the excavation which formed the dungeon was probably a part of the quarry. translatum, quod hie quoque in eo loco lapidicinae fuerunt. 152. In (Aventi)no 1 Lauretum ab eo quod ibi sepultus est Tatius rex, qui ab Laurentibus inter- fectus est, (aut) 2 ab silva laurea, quod ea ibi excisa et aedificatus vicus : ut inter Sacram Viam et Macellum editum Corneta (a cornis), 3 quae abscisae loco re- liquerunt nomen, ut ^esculetum ab aesculo 4 dictum et Fagutal a fago, unde etiam Iovis Fagutalis, quod ibi saeellum. 153. Armilustr(i)um 1 ab ambitu lustri : locus idem Circus Maximus 2 dictus, quod circum spectaculis aedificatus wbi 3 ludi fiunt, et quod ibi circum metas fertur pompa et equi currunt. Itaque dictum in Cornicula(ria) 4 militi's 5 adventu, quern circumeunt ludentes : Quid cessamus ludos facere ? Circus noster ecce adest. §152. 1 Groth, for in eo. 2 Added by Sciop. 3 Added by Aug., with B. 4 Laetus, for escula. § 153. 1 For armilustrum. 2 Laetus, for mecinus. 3 Aug., with B, for ibi. 4 Vertranius, for cornicula. 6 Tumebas, for milites. § 152. There is here a lacuna, or else the in eo of the manuscripts stands for in Aventino ; for the Lauretum was on the Aventine. § 153. The word denotes both the ceremony, held on October 19, and the place where it was performed, which seems originally to have been on the Aventine ; according to V., it was later held in the Circus, in the valley between the Aventine and the Palatine. According to Servius, in Aen. i. 283, the name was ambilustrum, so called because the ceremony was not legal unless performed by both (ambo) censors jointly ; it is possible that the word should be so emended here and at vi. 22. " Circum is merely the ac- that the word was taken over as lautumia, because here also in this place there were formerly stone- quarries. 1 52. On the Aventine a is the Lauretum ' Laurel- Grove,' called from the fact that King Tatius was buried there, who was killed by the Laurentes ' Lauren- tines,' or else from the laurea ' laurel ' wood, because there was one there which was cut down and a street run through with houses on both sides : just as between the Sacred Way and I lie higher part of the Macellum are the Corneta ' Cornel-Cherry Groves,' from corni 'cornel-cherry trees,' which though cut away left their name to the place ; just as the Aescu- letum ' Oak-Grove' is named from aesculus ' oak-tree,' and the Fagutal ' Beech-tree Shrine ' from fagus ' beech-tree,' whence also Jupiter Fagutalis ' of the Beech-tree,' because his shrine is there. 153. Armilustrium a ' purification of the arms,' from the going around of the lustrum ' purificatory offering'; and the same place is called the Circus Maximus, because, being the place where the games arc performed, it is built up circum 6 ' round about ' for the shows, and because there the procession goes and the horses race circum ' around ' the turning-posts. Thus in The Story of the Helmet-Horn c the following is said at the coming of the soldier, whom they en- circle and make fun of : Why do we refrain from making sport ? See, here's our circus-ring. cusative of circus. e Frag. I of Plautus's Cornicularia, which may be taken as the Story of the Corniculum, a horn- shaped ornament on the helmet, bestowed for bravery ; here apparently assumed by a braggart soldier, the miles of the text. V. In circo primum unde mittuntur equi, nunc dicuntur carceres, Naevius oppidum appellat. Carceres dicti, quod coercentur 6 equi, ne inde exeant antequam magistratus signum misit. Quod a(d) muri spm'em' pmnis 8 turribusque 9 carceres olim fuerunt, scripsit poeta : Dictator ubi currum insidit, pervehitur usque ad oppidum. 154. Intumus circus ad Murcice 1 vocatur, 4 ut Procilius aiebat, ab urceis, quod is locus esset inter figulos ; alii dicunt a murteto declinatum, quod ibi id fuerit ; cuius vestigium manet, quod ibi est sacellum etiam nunc Murteae Veneris. Item simili de causa Circus Flaminius dicitur, qui circum aedificatus est Flaminium Campum, et quod ibi quoque Ludis Tauriis equi circum metas currunt. 155. Comitium ab eo quod coibant eo comitiis curiatis et litium causa. 1 Curiae duorum generum : nam et ubi curarent sacerdotes res divinas, ut 2 curiae 6 p, Ed. Veneta (cohercentur Laetus), for coercuntur. 7 Mue., for a muris partem. 8 Laetus, for pennis. 9 Aug., for turribus qui. § 154. 1 L. Sp.,for murcim Fv. 2 Sciop.,/or uocatum. § 155. 1 Mue. ; caussa Aug., with B ; causae Fv. 2 For et. Merely the plural of career ' prison ' ; not related to coercere. e Naevius, Comic. Rom. Frag., inc. fab. II Rib- beck 3 ; R.O.L. ii. 148-149 Warmington. § 154. ° Hist. Rom. Frag., page 3 Peter. " Page 116 Funaioli. c In the level ground of the Campus Martius, through which C. Flaminius Nepos as censor in 220 b.c. built the Via Flaminia, the great highway from Rome to the north, and near it the Circus Flaminius ; he was consul in 217 and was killed in the battle with Hannibal at Lake In the Circus, the place from which the horses are let go at the start, is now called the Carceres ' Prison- stalls,' but Naevius called it the Town. Carceres d was said, because the horses coercentur ' are held in check,' that they may not go out from there before the official has given the sign. Because the Stalls were formerly adorned with pinnacles and towers like a wall, the poet wrote e : When the Dictator mounts his car, he rides the whole way to the Town. 1 54. The very centre of the Circus is called ad Murciae ' at Murcia's,' as Procilius ° said, from the urcei ' pitchers,' because this spot was in the potters' quarter ; others 6 say that it is derived from murtetum ' myrtle-grove,' because that was there : of which a trace remains in that the chapel of Venus Muriea 4 of the Myrtle ' is there even to this day. Likewise for a similar reason the Circus Flaminius ' Flaminian Circus ' got its name, for it is built c circum ' around ' the Flaminian Plain, and there also the horses race circum ' around ' the turning-posts at the Taurian Games. d 155. The Comitium ' Assembly-Place ' was named from this, that to it they coibant ' came together ' for the comitia curiata a ' curiate meetings ' and for law- suits. The curiae 6 ' meeting-houses ' are of two kinds : for there are those where the priests were to attend to affairs of the gods, like the old meeting- Trasumennus. d Games in honour of the deities of the netherworld. § 155. ° Long before V.'s time, practically replaced by the comitia centuriata. * Curia denoted first a group of gentes ; then a meeting-place for such groups ; then any meeting-place. vol. i L 145 V. veteres, et ubi senatus humanas, ut Curia Hostilia, quod primus aedificavit Hostilius rex. Ante hanc Rostra ; cuius id vocabulum, ex hostibus capta fixa sunt rostra ; sub dextra huius a Comitio locus sub- structus, ubi nationum subsisterent legati qui ad senatum essent missi ; is Graecostasis appellatus a parte, ut multa. 156. Senaculum supra Graecostasim, ubi Aedis Concordiae et Basilica Opimia ; Senaculum vocatum, ubi senatus aut ubi seniores consisterent, dictum ut yepoverta 1 apud Graecos. Lautolae ab lavando, quod ibi ad Ianum Geminum aquae caldae fuerunt. Ab his palus fuit in Minore Velabro, a quo, quod ibi vehebantur lintribus, 2 velabrum, ut illud de quo supra dictum est. 157. Aequimaelium,quod a€p€Tpoi>. 167. Posteaquam transierunt ad culcitas, quod in eas acus 1 aut tomentum aliudve quid calcabant, ab inculcando culcita dicta. Hoc quicquid insternebant ab sternendo stragulum appellabant. Pulvinar vel a plumbs vel a pellulis 2 declinarunt. Quibus operiban- tur, operimenta, et pallia opercula dixerunt. In his multa peregrina, ut sagum, reno Gallica, ut 3 gaunaca 4 et amphimallum Graeca ; contra Latinum toral, 5 ante torum, et torus a torto, 6 quod is in promptu. 2 Aug., for terras. 3 Ed. Veneta, for quam. 4 L. Sp., for ubi. 5 Added by L. Sp. §167. 1 Turnebus, for ea sagus. 2 Aldus, for a pluribus uel a pollulis. 3 GS. ; gallica Turnebus ; for galli quid. 4 GS. ; gaunacum Scaliger, for gaunacuma. 5 A. Sp. ; toral quod Aug.; torale quod Aldus ; for tore uel. 6 Meursius, for toruo. 6 That is, on additional straw and grass (if the text be correct). e From the Greek, with dissimilative loss of the prior t. d The standing grain ; then, the stems of the grain-plants, not merely of wheat. * From the Greek word, which is from epa> ' I bear.' §167. "Wrong. 6 Hoc = hue 'into this.' c From ' gathered ' the straw-coverings and the grass with which to make them, as even now is done in camp ; these couches, that they might not be on the earth, they raised up on these materials 6 ; — unless rather from the fact that the ancient Greeks called a bed a \tK-pov. Those who covered up a couch, called the coverings segestria, c because the coverings in general were made from the seges d ' wheat-stalks,' as even now is done in the camp ; unless the word is from the Greeks, for there it is o-rkyao-rpov. Because the bed of a dead man fertur ' is carried,' our ancestors called it a feretrum e ' bier,' and the Greeks called it a 3 quod olim v(i)num 4 dicebant multa?« 5 : itaque cum (in) 8 dolium aut culleum vinum addunt rustici, prima urna addita dicunt etiam nunc. Poena a poeniendo aut quod post peccatum sequitur. Pretium, quod emptionis aesti- mationisve causa constituitur, dictum a peritis, quod hi soli facere possunt recte id. § 175. 1 Bergk,for issedonion. § 176. 1 L. Sp., for ceptum. 2 A. Sp., for ab eadem mente. 3 Bentinus, for intrigo (intrigo dicta et intertrigo B and Aug.). § 177. 1 Groth, for a. 2 Aug., for multas. 3Added by Mue. 4 B, Laetus, for unum. 5 Goeschen, for multae. 6 Added by Aug., with B. §176. "Wrong. § 177. ° Multa 'fine,' possibly taken from Sabine, but probably from the root in mulcare ' to beat.' V. seems to identify it with multae ' many,' supply perhaps pecuniae : the magistrate imposed one multa after another, just as the countrymen poured one multa of wine after another into is Sdi'ciov with the Aeolians, and 86p.a as others say it, and ooo-is of the Athenians. Arrabo ' earnest-money,' when money is given on this stipulation, that a balance is to be paid : this word likewise is from the Greek, where it is dppafiwv. Reliquum ' balance,' because it is the reliquum ' remainder ' of what is owed. 176. Damnum ' loss,' from demptio ' taking away,' a when less is brought in by the sale of the object than it cost. Lucrum ' profit ' from luere ' to set free,' if more is taken in than will exsolvere ' release ' the price at which it was acquired. Detrimenium ' damage,' from detritus ' rubbing off,' because those things which are trita ' rubbed ' are of less value. From the same trimentum comes intertrimentum ' loss by attrition,' because two things which have been trita ' rubbed ' inter se ' against each other ' are also diminished ; from which moreover intertrigo ' chafing of the skin ' is said. 177. A multa ' fine ' is that money named by a magistrate, that it might be exacted on account of a transgression ; because the fines are named one at a time, they are called midtae as though ' many,' and because of old they called wine multa : thus when the countrymen put wine into a large jar or wine-skin, they even now call it a multa after the first pitcherful has been put in. a Poena ' penalty,' from poenire 6 ' to punish ' or because it follows post ' after ' a transgres- sion. Pretium ' price ' is that which is fixed for the purpose of purchase or of evaluation ; it is named from the periti d ' experts,' because these alone can set a price correctly. the storage jars or skins. 6 Poena from Greek : poenire (classical punire) from poena. * As though from pone ' behind,' =post. d Wrong etymology. Si quid datum pro opera aut opere, merces, a merendo. Quod manu factum erat et datum pro eo, manupretium, a manibus et pretio. Corollarium, si additum praeter quam quod debitum ; eius voca- bulum fictum a corollis, quod eae, cum placuerant actores, in scaena dari solitae. Praeda est ab hosti- bus capta, quod manu parta, ut parida praeda. Prae- mium a praeda, quod ob recte quid factum concessum. 179- Si datum quod reddatur, mutuum, quod Siculi [xoItov : itaque scribit Sophron Moitov arri/xo. 1 Et munus quod mutuo animo qui sunt dant officii causa ; alterum munus, quod muniendi causa impera- tum, a quo etiam municipes, qui una munus fungi debent, dicti. 180. Si es{ty ea pecunia quae in h/dicium 2 venit in litibus, sacramentum a sacro ; qui 3 petebat et qui infiiiabatur, 4 de aliis rebus ut(e)rque 5 quingenos aeris ad ponte Re liustica, iii. 5. 3, who says that the entrance to a bird-cote is called a coclia ' snail-shell,' being intended to admit air and some light, but not to permit direct vision from the interior to the outside. ' V. had a friend Q. Lucienn% a Roman senator, well versed in Greek; he appears as a speaker in V.'s De Re Rustica, ii. (5. 1, in turdarium ' thrush-cote ' and turdelix e ' spiral en- trance for thrushes.' Thus the Greeks, in adapting our names, make Aeivuqi'ds of Lucienns * and Koii'-ios of Quinctius, and we make Aristarcfius of their'Aptcr-ap- Xos and Z)/o of their Attov. In just this way, I say, our practice has altered many from the old form, as solum 9 ' soil ' from solu, hiberum h ' God of Wine ' from hoe- besom, hares i ' Hearth-Gods ' from hases : these words, covered up as they are by lapse of time, I shall try to dig out as best I can. II. 3. First we shall speak of the time-names, then of those things which take place through them, but in such a way that first Ave shall speak of their essential nature : for nature was man's guide to the imposition of names. Time, they say, is an interval in the motion of the world. This is divided into a number of parts, especially from the course of the sun and the moon. Therefore from their temperatus ' moderated ' career, tempus ' time ' is named," and from this comes tempestiva ' timely things ' ; and from their motus ' motion,' the mundus b ' world,' which is joined with the sky as a whole. 4. There are two motions of the sun : one with the sky, in that the moving is impelled by Jupiter as ruler, who in Greek is called ii'a, when it comes from east to west ° ; wherefore this time is from this god called a etc). ' With change from the fourth declension to the second (if the text is correct). * With change of the vowel as well as rhotacism ; the accusative form must be kept in the translation, to show this clearly. * With rhotacism (change of intervocalic s to r). The converse is true: temperare is from tempus. b Wrong. § 4. ° This insertion in the text gives the needed sense : the second motus is in § 8. ab hoc deo dies appellatur. Meridies ab eo quod mcdius dies. D antiqui, non R in hoc dicebant, ut Praeneste incisum in solario vidi. Solarium dictum id, in quo horae in sole inspiciebantur, (vel horologium ex aqua), 2 quod Cornelius in Basilica Aemilia et Fulvia inumbravit. Diei principium mane, quod turn 3 manat dies ab oriente, nisi potius quod bonum antiqui dicebant manum, ad cuiusmodi religionem Graeci quoque cum lumen affcrtur, solent dicere dyudov. 5. Suprema summum diei, id ab superrimo. Hoc tempus XII Tabulae dicunt occasum esse solis ; sed postea lex P/aetoria 1 id quoque tempus esse iubet supremum quo praetor in Comitio supremam pronun- tiavit populo. Secundum hoc dicitur crepusculum a crepero : id vocabulum sumpserunt a Safiinis, unde veniunt Crepusci nominati Amiterno, qui eo tempore erant nati, ut Luci(i) 2 prima luce in Reatino 3 ; cre- pusculum significat dubium ; ab eo res dictae dubiae creperae, quod crepusculum dies etiam nunc sit an iam nox multis dubium. 2 Added by GS. 3 For cum. §5. 1 Aug., for praetoria. 2 Laehis,for luci. 3 Mue., for reatione or creatione. * Dies is cognate with Greek Ala, but not derived from it. " P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica Corculum, when censor in 159 b.c. with M. Popilius Laenas, setup the first water-clock in Rome in this Basilica, which was erected in 179 on the north side of the Forum by the censors M. Aemilius Lepidus and M. Fulvius Nobilior, from whom it was named. d Both etymologies wrong. §5. "Approximately correct. * Page 119 Schoell. dies ' day.' 6 Meridies ' noon,' from the fact that it is the medius ' middle ' of the dies ' day.' The ancients said D in this word, and not R, as I have seen at Prae- neste, cut on a sun-dial. Solarium ' sun-dial ' was the name used for that on which the hours were seen in the sol ' sunlight ' ; or also there is the water-clock, which Cornelius* set up in the shade in the Basilica of Aemilius and Fulvius. The beginning of the day is mane ' early morning,' because then the day manat ' trickles ' from the east, unless rather because the ancients called the good manum d : from a supersti- tious belief of the same kind as influences the Greeks, who, when a light is brought, make a practice of saying, " Goodly light ! " 5. Suprema means the last part of the day ; it is from superrimum. a This time, the Twelve Tables say, 6 is sunset ; but afterwards the Plaetorian Law c de- clares that this time also should be ' last ' at which the praetor in the Comitium has announced to the people the suprema ' end of the session.' In line with this, crepusculum ' dusk ' is said from creperum ' obscure ' ; this word they took from the Sabines, from whom come those who were named Crepusci, from Amiter- num, who had been born at that time of day, just like the Lucii, who were those born at dawn (prima luce) in the Reatine country. Crepusculum means doubtful : from this doubtful matters are called creperae ' ob- scure,' d because dusk is a time when to many it is doubtful whether it is even yet day or is already night. e A law for the protection of minors, named from Plaetorius, a tribune of the people. d All etymologically sound, but a meaning 4 doubtful ' must have proceeded from a word crepus ' dusk.' VOL. I X 177 V. 6. Nox, quod, ut Pacm'us 1 ait, Omnia nisi interveniat sol pruina obriguerint, quod nocet, nox, nisi quod Graecc vv^ nox. Cum Stella prima exorta (eum Graeci vocant ea-irepov, nostri Vesperuginem ut Plautus : Neqne Vesperugo neque Vergiliae occidunt), id tempus dictum a Graecis kcnrkpa, Latine vesper ; ut ante solem ortum quod eadem Stella vocatur iubar, quod iubata, Pacui dicit pastor : Exorto iubare, noctis decurso itinere ; Enni* Aiax : Lumen — iubarne ? — in caelo cerno. 7. Inter vesperuginem et iubar dicta nox intem- pesta, ut in Bruto Cassii quod dicit Lucretia : Nocte intempesta nostram devenit domum. Intempestam Aelius dicebat cum tempus agendi est nullum, quod alii concubium 1 appellarunt, quod omnes fere tunc cubarent ; alii ab eo quod sileretur § 6. 1 Ribbeck ; Pacuvius Scaliger ; for catulus. 2 GS. ; Ennii Laetus ; for ennius. § 7. 1 Laetus, for inconcubium. §6. ° Antiopa, Trag. Rom. Frag. 14 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. ii. 170-171 Warmington; cf. Funaioli, page 123. Ribbeck 's nocti ni for nisi is probably Pacuvius's wording; V., as often, paraphrases the quotation. * Nox and vv£ come from the same source; connexion with nocere is dubious. e Amphitruo,275. d Correct etymologies. " Iubar and tuba ' mane ' are not related, despite vii. 76. f Trag. Rom. Frag. 347 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. ii. 320-321 Warmington. » Trag. Rom. Frag. 336 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. i. 226-227 Warmington; cf. vi. 81 and vii. 76. § 7 ° A writer of praetextae, otherwise unknown : the name recurs at vii. 72 ; possibly Victorius's emendation to Nox ' night ' is called nox, because, as Pacuvius says," All will be stiff with frost unless the sun break in, because it nocet ' harms ' ; unless it is because in Greek night is vv£. b When the first star has come out (the Greeks call it Hesperus, and our people call it Vesperugo, as Plautus does c : The evening star sets not, nor yet the Pleiades), this time is by the Greeks called lter (ac> caeli, 1 quod movetur a bruma ad solstitium. Dicta bruma, quod brevissimus tunc dies est ; solstitium, quod sol eo die sistere videbatur, quo 2 ad nos versum proximus est. Sol 3 cum venit in medium spatium inter brumam et solstitium, quod dies aequus fit ac nox, aequinoctium dictum. Tempus a bruma ad brumam dum sol redit, vocatur annus, quod ut parvi circuli anuli, sic magni dicebantur circites ani, unde annus. 9- Huius temporis pars prima hiems, quod turn multi imbres ; hinc hibernacula, hibernum ; vel, quod turn anima quae flatur omnium apparet, ab hiatu hiems. Tempus secundum ver, quod turn virere 1 incipiunt virgulta ac vertere se tempus anni ; nisi quod Iones dicunt r;p 2 ver. Tertium ab aestu aestas ; hinc aestivum ; nisi forte a Graeco aWecr9ai. Quar- tum autumnus, (ab augendis hominum opibus dictus frugibusque coactis, quasi auctumnus). 3 2 For conticinnium /. 3 uidebitur Plautus. 4 redito hue Plautus. 6 For conticinnio /. § 8. 1 Mue.,for alter caeli. 2 quo A. Sp. ; quod Mue. ; for aut quod. 3 A. Sp. ; proximus est sol, solstitium L. Sp. ; for proximum est solstitium. § 9. 1 Aldus, for uiuere. 2 L. Sp. ; eap Victorius ; for et. 3 Added by GS., after Krieg shammer, and Fest. 23. 11 If. d Asinaria, 685. § 8. For the first motion, see § 4. 6 The winter and the summer solstices. e Annus is not connected with anus or anulus ' ring.' § 9. Wrong. * Cognate with the Greek, not derived from it. the time which Plautus likewise calls the conticinium ' general silence ' : for he writes d : We'll see, I want it done. At general-silence time come back. 8. There is a second motion of the suri, a differing from that of the sky, in that the motion is from bruma ' winter's day ' to sohtitium ' solstice.' 6 Bruma is so named, because then the day is brevissimus ' shortest ' : the sohtitium, because on that day the sol ' sun ' seems sister e ' to halt,' on which it is nearest to us. When the sun has arrived midway between the bruma and the sohtitium, it is called the aequinoctium ' equinox,' because the day becomes aequus ' equal ' to the nox ' night.' The time from the bruma until the sun re- turns to the bruma, is called an annus ' year,' because just as little circles are anuli ' rings,' so big circuits were called ani, whence comes annus ' year.' c 9. The first part of this time is the hiems ' winter,' so called because then there are many imbres ' showers ' a ; hence hibernacula ' winter encamp- ment,' hibernum ' winter time ' ; or because then everybody's breath which is breathed out is visible, hiems is from hiatus ' open mouth.' a The second season is the ver b * spring,' so called because then the virgulta ' bushes ' begin virere ' to become green ' and the time of year begins vertere ' to turn or change ' itself" ; unless it is because the Ionians say rjp for spring. The third season is the aestas ' summer,' from aestus ' heat ' ; from this, aestivum ' summer pas- ture ' ; unless perhaps it is from the Greek aWetrdai ' to blaze.' 6 The fourth is the autumnus ' autumn,' named from augere ' to increase ' the possessions of men and the gathered fruits, as if auctumnus. a 181 V. 10. endo 5 sub/iga&ulum. 6 Vo/turnalia 7 a deo Vo/turno, 8 cuius feriae turn. Octo- bri mense Meditrinalia dies dictus a medendo, quod Flaccus flamen Martialis dicebat hoc die solitum vinum (novum) 1 et vetus libari et degustari medica- menti causa ; quod facere solent etiam nunc multi cum dicttnt 10 : Novum vetus vinum bibo : novo veteri 11 morbo medeor. 22. Fontanalia a Fonte, quod is dies feriae eius ; ab eo turn et in fontes coronas iaciunt et puteos coronant. Armilustrium ab eo quod in Armilustrio armati sacra faciunt, nisi locus potius dictus ab his ; sed quod de his prius, id ab luendo 1 aut lustro, id est quod circumibant ludentes ancilibus armati. 3 L. Sp., for aut. 4 Aldus, for diciturne. 6 Skutsch, for suffiendo. * Kent, for subligaculum. 7 For uor- turnalia ; cf. volturn. in the Fasti. 8 For uorturno / cf. preceding note. 9 Added by Laetus. 10 L. Sp., for dicant. 11 After veteri, G, V,f, Aldus deleted uino; cf. Festus, 123. 16 M. § 22. 1 Vertranius, for luendo. c An oblong piece of white cloth with a coloured border, which the Vestal Virgins fastened over their heads with a fibula ' clasp ' when they offered sacrifice ; cf. Festus, 348 a 25 and 3*9. 8 M. d On August 27; the god Volturnus cannot be identified unless he is identical with Vortumnus (Vertumnus), since he can hardly be the deity of the river Volturnus in Campania or of the mountain Voltur, in Apulia, near Horace's birthplace. « On October 3 ; Meditrina, may enter it except the Vestal Virgins and the state priest. " When he goes there, let him wear a white veil," is the direction ; this suffibuluni e ' white veil ' is named as if sub-Jigabulum from sujfigere ' to fasten down.' The Volturnalia ' Festival of Volturnus,' from the god Volturnus, 41 whose feast takes place then. In the month of October, the MeditrinaUa e ' Festival of Meditrina ' was named from mederi ' to be healed,' because Flaccus the special priest of Mars used to say that on this day it was the practice to pour an offering of new and old wine to the god, and to taste of the same/ for the purpose of being healed ; which many are accustomed to do even now, when they say : Wine new and old I drink, of illness new and old I'm cured.* 22. The Fontanalia ' Festival of the Springs,' from Fons ' God of Springs,' because that day ° is his holi- day ; on his account they then throw garlands into the springs and place them on the well- tops. The Armilustrium 6 ' Purification of the Arms,' from the fact that armed men perform the ceremony in the Armilustrium, unless the place c is rather named from the men ; but as I said of them previously, this word comes from ludere ' to play ' or from lustrum ' puri- fication,' that is, because armed men went around ludentes ' making sport ' with the sacred shields. d Goddess of Healing. 'The ceremonial first drinking of the new wine. ' Frag. Poet. Lat., page 31 Morel. § 22. » October 13. » October 13. e The place was named from the ceremony ; cf. v. 153. d The first ancile is said to have fallen from heaven in the reign of Numa, who had eleven others made exactly like it, to prevent its loss or to prevent knowledge of its loss ; for the safety of the City depended on the preservation of that shield which fell from heaven. 195 V. Saturnalia dicta ab Saturno, quod eo die feriae eius, ut post diem tertium Opalia Opis. 23. Angeronalia ab Angerona, cui sacrificium fit in Curia Acculeia et cuius feriae publicae is dies. Larentinae, quem diem quidam in scribendo Laren- talia appellant, ab Acca Larentia nominatus, cui sacerdotes nostri publice parentant e sexto die, 1 qui a& ea* dicitur die* 3 Parent(ali)um 4 Accas Larentinas. 5 24. Hoc sacrificium fit in Velabro, qua 1 in Novam Viam exitur, ut aiunt quidam ad sepulcrum Accae, ut quod ibi prope faciunt diis Manibus servilibus sacer- dotes ; qui uterque locus extra urbem antiquam fuit non longe a Porta Romanula, de qua in priore libro dixi. Dies Septimontium nominatus ab his septem montibus, in quis sita Urbs est ; feriae non populi, sed montanorum modo, ut Paganalibus, qui sunt alicuius pagi. 25. De statutis diebus dixi ; de anrialibus nec § 23. 1 parentant Aug., e sexto die Fay, for parent ante sexto die. 2 Mue., for atra. 3 L. Sp., for diem. 4 Mommsen, for tarentum. 6 L. Sp., for tarentinas. § 24. 1 Laetus, for quia. ' December 17, and the following days. ' December 19. § 23. ° On December 21. * Goddess of Suffering and Silence. c On December 23 ; supply feriae with Laren- tinae. d Wife of Faustulus ; she nursed and brought up the twins Romulus and Remus. e " Sixth " is wrong if the Saturnalia began on December 17, unless in this instance both ends are counted, or the allusion is to an earlier practice by which the Saturnalia began one day later. On the phrase e sexto die, cf. Fay, Amer. Jmtrn. Phil. xxxv. 246. f Archaic genitive singular ending in -as. The Saturnalia ' Festival of Saturn ' was named from Saturn, because on this day * was his festival, as on the second dav thereafter the Opalia/ the festival of Ops. 23. The Angeronalia," from Angerona, 6 to whom a sacrifice is made in the Acculeian Curia and of whom this day is a state festival. The Larentine Festival, 6 which certain writers call the Larentalia, was named from Acca Larentia, d to whom our priests officially perform ancestor-worship on the sixth day after the Saturnalia,' which day is from her called the Day of the Parentalia of Larentine Acca/ 24. This sacrifice is made in the Velabrum, where it ends in New Street, as certain authorities say, at the tomb of Acca, because near there the priests make offering to the departed spirits of the slaves ° : both these places b were outside the ancient city, not far from the Little Roman Gate, of which I spoke in the preceding book." Septimontium Day d was named from these septem viontes ' seven hills,' ' on which the City is set ; it is a holiday not of the people generally, but only of those who live on the hills, as only those who are of some pagus ' country district ' have a holi- day 1 at the Paganalia 3 ' Festival of the Country Districts.' 25. The fixed days are those of which I have spoken ; now I shall speak of the annual festivals § 24. ° Faustulus and Acca were, of course, slaves of the king. * The tomb of Acca and the place of sacrifice to the Manes serciles. e v. 164. d On December 11. * Not the usual later seven; Festus, 348 M., lists Capitoline with Velia and Cermalus, three spurs of the Esquiline — Oppius, Fagutal, Cispius — and the Subura valley between. ' Supply feriantur. ' Early in January, but not on a fixed date. 197 V. de 1 statutis dicam. Compitalia dies attributus Laribus viaUhus 2 : ideo ubi viae competunt turn in competis sacrificatur. Quotannis is dies concipitur. Similiter Latinae Feriae dies conceptivus 3 dictus a Latinis populis, quibus ex Albano Monte ex sacris carnem 4 petere fuit ius cum Romanis, a quibus Latinis Latinae dictae. 26. Sementivae 1 Feriae dies is, qui a pontificibus dictus, appellatus a semente, quod sationis causa sus- cepta(e). 2 Paganicae eiusdem agriculturae causa susceptae, ut haberent in agris omn/s 3 pagus, unde Paganicae dictae. Sunt praeterea feriae conceptivae quae non sunt annales, ut hae quae dicuntur sine proprio vocabulo aut cum perspic?/o, 4 ut Novendiales 5 sunt. IV. 27. De his diebus (satis) 1 ; nunc iam, qui hominum causa constituti, videamus. Primi dies mensium nominati ivalendae, 2 quod his diebus calan- § 25. 1 Mommsen, for de. 2 Bongars, for ut alibi. 3 Laetus, for conseptivus. 4 Victorius, for carmen. § 26. Vertranius, for sementinae. 2 Aldus, for suscepta. 3 Aldus, for omnes. 4 Aug., for perspicio. 6 For novendialis. § 27. 1 Added by Sciop. 2 Aug., with B, for caK § 25. ° That is, set by special proclamation, and not always falling on the same date. b By the praetor, not far from January 1. e Written competa in the text, to make the association with competunt. d The festival of the league of the Latin cities; its date was set by the Roman consuls (or by a consul) as soon as convenient after entry into office. § 26. ° In January, on two days separated by a space of seven days ; as they were days of sowing, the choice depended upon the weather. * Collective singular with which are not fixed on a special day.° The Compitalia is a day assigned 6 to the Lares of the highways ; therefore where the highways competunt ' meet,' sacrifice is then made at the compita c ' crossroads.' This day is appointed every year. Likewise the Latinae Feriae ' Latin Holiday ' d is an appointed day, named from the peoples of Latium, who had equal right with the Romans to get a share of the meat at the sacrifices on the Alban Mount : from these Latin peoples it was called the Latin Holiday. 26. The Sementivae Feriae ' Seed-time Holiday ' is that day which is set by the pontiffs ; it was named from the sementis ' seeding,' because it is entered upon for the sake of the sowing. The Paganicae ' Country-District Holiday ' was entered upon for the sake of this same agriculture, that the whole pagus 6 ' country-district ' might hold it in the fields, whence it was called Paganicae. There are also appointive holidays which are not annual, such as those which are set without a special name of their own, c or with an obvious one, such as is the Novendialis ' Ceremony of the Ninth Day.' d IV. 27. About these days this is enough ° ; now let us see to the days which are instituted for the interests of men. The first days of the months are named the Kalendae, b because on these days the plural verb. e Such as the supplicat tones voted for Caesar's victories in Gaul ; cf. Bell. Gall. ii. 35. 4, iv. 38. 5, vii. 90. 8. d The offerings and feasts for the dead on the ninth day after the funeral ; also, a festival of nine days proclaimed for the purpose of averting misfortunes whose approach was indicated by omens and prodigies. The insertion of satis makes the chapter beginning conform to those at v. 57, 75, 95, 184, vi. 35, etc. * The K in Kalendae and halo, before A, is well attested. 199 V. tur eius menszs 3 Nonae a pontificibus, quintanae an septimanae sint futurae, in Capitolio in Curia Calabra sic : " Die te quin/z 4 ka\o 5 Iuno Covella " (aut) 8 " Sep- tim(i) die te 7 ka\o 5 Iuno Covella." 28. Nonae appellatae aut quod ante diem nonum Idus semper, aut quod, ut novus annus Kalendae 1 Ianuariae ab novo sole appellatae, novus mensis (ab) a nova luna Nonce 3 ; eodem die 4 in Urbe(m) 5 (qui) 6 in agris ad regem conveniebat populus. Harum rerum vestigia apparent in sacris Nonalibus in Arce, quod tunc ferias primas menstruas, quae futurae sint eo mense, rex edicit populo. Idus ab eo quod Tusci Itus, vel potius quod Sabini Idus dicunt. 29. Dies postridie Kalendas, Nonas, Idus appellati atri, quod per eos dies (nihil) 1 novi inciperent. Dies fasti, per quos praetoribus omnia verba sine piaculo licet fari ; comitiales dicti, quod turn ut (in Comitio) 2 3 Aug., with B, for menses. 4 Mommsen ; die te V Christ ; for dictae quinque. 5 See note 2, § 27. 6 Added by Zander. 7 Mommsen ; VII die te Christ ; for septem dictae. § 28. 1 Aug., with B,for calendae. 2 a added by Sciop. 3 Sciop., for nonis. 4 After die, Mue. deleted enim. 8 Laetus,for urbe. 6 Added by L. Sp. §29. 1 Added by Turnebus. 2 Added by Bergk. e See v. 13. d The statement of Macrobius, Sat. i. 15. 10, that kalo Iuno Covella was repeated five or seven times re- spectively, may rest merely on a corrupted form of this passage which was in the copy used by Macrobius. ' ' Juno of the New Moon ' ; Covella, diminutive from covus ' hollow,' earlier form of cavus (cf. v. 19) — unless it be corrupt for Novella, as Scaliger thought. For the New Moon has a concave shape. § 28. The north-eastern summit of the Capitoline. 6 Origin uncertain ; perhaps from Etruscan, as V. says. Nones of this month calantur ' are announced ' by the pontiffs on the Capitoline in Announcement Hall, c whether they will be on the fifth or on the seventh, in this way d : " Juno Covella, e I announce thee on the fifth day " or " Juno Covella, I announce thee on the seventh day." 28. The Nones are so called either because they are always the nonus ' ninth ' day before the Ides, or because the Nones are called the novus ' new ' month from the new moon, just as the Kalends of January are called the new year from the new sun ; on the same day the people who were in the fields used to flock into the City to the King. Traces of this status are seen in the ceremonies held on the Nones, on the Citadel," because at that time the high-priest announces to the people the first monthly holidays which are to take place in that month. The Idus b ' Ides,' from the fact that the Etruscans called them the Itus, or rather because the Sabines call them the Idus. 29. The days next after the Kalends, the Nones, and the Ides, were called atri ' black,' because on these days they might not start anything new. Dies fasti b ' righteous days, court days,' on which the praetors c are permitted fart ' to say ' any and all words without sin. Comitiales ' assembly days ' are so called because then it is the established law that the § 29. a Gf. Macrobius, Sat. i. 15. 22 ; the use of ater was appropriate after the Ides, when the moon was not visible in the day nor in the early evening, nor was it visible immedi- ately after the Kalends. 6 That is, when it was fas to hold court and make legal decisions; V. connects with fari ' to say,' with which the Romans associated fas etymologi- cally, but the connexion has recently been questioned. e Who functioned as judges. 201 V. esset populus constitutum est ad suffragium ferun- dum, nisi si quae feriae conceptae essent, propter quas non liceret, (ut) 3 Compitalia et Latinae. 30. Contrarii horum vocantur dies nefasti, per quos dies nefas fari praetorem " do," " dico," " ad- dico " ; itaque non potest agi : necesse est aliquo (eorum) 1 uti verbo, cum lege qui(d) 2 peragitur. Quod si turn imprudens id verbum emisit ac quem manu- misit, ille nihilo minus est liber, sed vitio, ut magi- stratus vitio creatus nihilo setf us 3 magistratus. Praetor qui turn fatus 4 est, si imprudens fecit, piaculari hostia facta piatur ; si prudens dixit, Quintus Mucius aiebat 5 eum expiari ut impium non posse. 31. Interctsi 1 dies sunt per quos mane et vesperi est nefas, medio tempore inter hostiam caesam e t exta porrecta 2 fas ; a quo quod fas turn intercedit aut eo 3 intercisum nefas, intercis?. 4 Dies qui vocatur sic " Quando 5 rex comitiavit fas," is 6 dictus ab eo quod 3 Added by Laetus. § 30. 1 Added by Laetus, with B. 2 Laetus, for qui. 3 A. Sp. ; secius Victorius ; for sed ius. 4 Turnebus, for factus. 8 L. Sp., for abigebat. § 31. 1 Laetus, for intercensi. 2 Aug., with B, for proiecta. 3 L. Sp. ; eo est Mue. ; for eos. 4 A. Sp., for intercisum. 5 Before quando, B inserts Q R C F, the abbreviation found in the Fasti. 6 fas is Victorius, for fassis. § 30. ° For the meaning of vitio, see Dorothy M. Paschall, " The Origin and Semantic Development of Latin Vitium," Trans. Amer. Philol. Assn. lxvii. 219-231. * i. 19 Huschke. § 31. ° March 24 and May 24. * The caedere ' to cut ' in intercidere and the cedere ' to go on ' in intercedere are not etymologically connected. people should be in the Comitium to cast their votes — unless some holidays should have been proclaimed on account of which this is not permissible, such as the Compitalia and the Latin Holiday. 30. The opposite of these are called dies nefasti ' unrighteous days,' on which it is nefas ' unrighteous- ness ' for the praetor to say do ' I give,' dico ' I pro- nounce,' addico ' I assign ' ; therefore no action can be taken, for it is necessary to use some one of these words, when anything is settled in due legal form. But if at that time he has inadvert- ently uttered such a word and set somebody free, the person is none the less free, but with a bad omen" in the proceeding, just as a magistrate elected in spite of an unfavourable omen is a magistrate just the same. The praetor who has made a legal decision at such a time, is freed of his sin by the sacrifice of an atonement victim, if he did it unintentionally ; but if he made the pro- nouncement with a realization of what he was doing, Quintus Mucius 6 said that he could not in any way atone for his sin, as one who had failed in his duty to God and country. 31. The intercisi dies ' divided days ' are those a on which legal business is wrong in the morning and in the evening, but right in the time between the slaying of the sacrificial victim and the offering of the vital organs ; whence they are intercisi because the fas ' right ' intercedit 6 ' comes in between ' at that time, or because the nefas ' wrong ' is intercisum ' cut into * by the fas. The day which is called thus : " When the high-priest has officiated in the Comitium, Right," is named from the fact that on this day the high-priest pronounces the proper formulas for the sacrifice in the 203 V. eo die rex sacrificio ius' dicat ad Comitium, ad quod tempus est nefas, ab eo fas : itaque post id tempus lege actum saepe. 32. Dies qui vocatur " Quando stercum delatum fas," 1 ab eo appellatus, quod eo die ex Aede Vestae stercus everritur et per Capitolinum Clivum in locum defertur certum. Dies Alliensis ab Allia 2 fluvio dictus : nam ibi exercitu nostro fugato Galli obse- derunt Romam. 33. Quod ad singulorum dicrum vocabula pertinet dixi. Mensium nomina fere sunt aperta, si a Martio, ut antiqui constituerunt, numeres : nam primus a Marte. Secundus, ut Fulvius scribit et Iunius, a Venere, quod ea sit ApArodite 1 ; cuius nomen ego antiquis litteris quod nusquam inveni, magis puto dictum, quod ver omnia aperit, Aprilem. Tertius a maioribus Maius, quartus a iunioribus dictus Iunius. 34. Dehinc quintus Quintilis et sic deinceps usque ad Decembrem a numero. Ad hos qui additi, prior a principe deo Ianuarius appellatus ; posterior, ut idem dicunt scriptores, ab diis inferis Februarius appellatus, 7 Other codices, for sacrificiolus Fv. § 32. 1 Before quando, B inserts Q S D F, the abbrevia- tion found in the Fasti. 2 B, Laetus,for allio (auio/). § 33. 1 For afrodite. § 32. a June 15. 6 July 18 ; anniversary of the battle of 390 b.c, at the place where the Allia flows into the Tiber, eleven miles above Rome. § 33. ° Probably from an adjective apero- ' second,' not otherwise found in Latin. 6 Servius Fulvius Flaccus, consul 135 b.c, skilled in law, literature, and ancient history. "Page 121 Funaioli ; page 11 Huschke. d From Maia, mother of Mercury. * From the goddess Juno ; page 121 Funaioli. § 34. a V. wrote before Quintilis was renamed Iulius presence of the assembly, up to which time legal business is wrong, and from that time on it is right : therefore after this time of day actions are often taken under the law. 32. The day a which is called " When the dung has been carried out, Right," is named from this, that on this day the dung is swept out of the Temple of Vesta and is carried away along the Capitoline Incline to a certain spot. The Dies Alliensis b ' Day of the Allia ' is called from the Allia River ; for there our army was put to flight by the Gauls just before they besieged Rome. 33. With this I have finished my account of what pertains to the names of individual days. The names of the months are in general obvious, if you count from March, as the ancients arranged them ; for the first month, Martius, is from Mars. The second, Aprilis, a as Fulvius 6 writes and Junius also, 6 is from Venus, because she is Aphrodite ; but I have nowhere found her name in the old writings about the month, and so think that it was called April rather because spring aperit ' opens ' everything. The third was called Maius d ' May ' from the maiores ' elders,' the fourth Iunius e ' June ' from the iuniores ' younger men.' 34. Thence the fifth is Quintilis a ' July ' and so in succession to December, named from the numeral. Of those which were added to these, the prior was called Ianuarius ' January ' from the god b who is first in order ; the latter, as the same writers say, 6 was called Februarius* ' February ' from the di inferi ' gods and Sextilis was renamed Augustus. * Janus. 'Page 16 Funaioli ; page 11 Huschke. d From a lost word feber ' sorrow.' V. quod turn his paren(te)tur x ; ego magis arbitror Februarium a die februato, quod turn februatur populus, id est Lupercis nudis lustratur antiquum oppidum Palatinum gregibus humanis cinctum. V. 35. Quod ad temporum vocabula Latina attinet, hactenus sit satis dictum ; nunc quod ad eas res attinet quae in tempore aliquo fieri animadver- terentur, dicam, ut haec sunt : legisti, cumis, 1 ludens ; de quis duo praedicere volo, quanta sit multitudo eorum et quae sint obscuriora quam alia. 36. Cum verborum declinatuum 1 genera sint quat- tuor, unum quod tempora adsignificat neque habet casus, ut ab lego leges, lege 2 ; alterum quod casus habet neque tempora adsignificat, ut ab lego lectio et lector ; tertium quod habet utrunque et tempora et casus, ut ab lego legens, lecturus ; quartum quod neutrum habet, ut ab lego lecte ac lectissime : horum verborum si primigenia sunt ad mi/fe, 3 ut Cosconius scribit, ex eorum declinationibus verborum discrimina quingenta milia esse possunt ideo, quod a* singulis verbis primigenii(s) 5 circiter quingentae species de- clinationibus fiunt. § 34. 1 Aug. ; parentent Laetus ; for parent. § 35. 1 Mue., with G, II, for currus. § 36. 1 B, Laetus, for declinatiuum. 2 V, b, for lego Fv. 3 Victorius, for admitte. 4 L. Sp., for quia. 5 Aug., for primigenii. Three different ceremonies are confounded here : one of purification, one of expiation to the gods of the Lower World, one of fertility ; cf. vi. 13, note a. § 35. That is, all verbal forms, and the derivatives from the verbal roots. § 36. The verb has both meanings ; some of the deriva- tives have only one or the other. 6 Q. Cosconius, orator of the Lower World,' because at that time expiatory sacrifices are made to them ; but I think that it was called February rather from the dies februalus ' Puri- fication Day,' because then the people februatur ' is purified,' that is, the old Palatine town girt with flocks of people is passed around by the naked Luperci.' V. 35. As to what pertains to Latin names of time ideas, let that which has been said up to this point be enough. Now I shall speak of what concerns those things which might be observed as taking place at some special time a — such as the following : legisti ' thou didst read,' cursus ' act of running,' ludens ' playing.' With regard to these there are two things which I wish to say in advance : how great then- number is, and what features are less perspicuous than others. 36. The inflections of words are of four kinds : one which indicates the time and does not have case, as leges ' thou wilt gather or read,' a lege ' read thou,' from lego 1 I gather or read ' ; a second, which has case and does not indicate time, as from lego lectio ' collection, act of reading,' lector ' reader'; the third, which has both, time and case, as from lego legens ' reading,' ledums ' being about to read ' ; the third, which has neither, as from lego lecte 'choicely,' lectis- sime ' most choicely.' Therefore if the primitives of these words amount to one thousand, as Cosconius 6 writes, then from the inflections of these words the different forms can be five hundred thousand in number for the reason that from each and every primitive word about five hundred forms are made by derivation and inflection. and authority on grammar and literature, who flourished about 100 b.c. ; page 109 Funaioli. 207 V. 37. Primigenia dicuntur verba ut lego, scribo, sto, sedeo et cetera, quae non sunt ab ali(o) quo 1 verbo, sed suas habent radices. Contra verba declinata sunt, quae ab ali(o) quo 2 oriuntur, ut ab lego legis, legit, legam et sic 3 indidem hinc permulta. Quare si quis primigeniorum verborum origines ostenderit, si ea mille sunt, quingentum milium simplicium verborum causas aperuerit una ; sin 4 nullius, tamen qui ab his reliqua orta ostenderit, satis dixerit de originibus verborum, cum unde nata sint, principia erunt pauca, quae inde nata sint, innumerabilia. 38. A quibus iisdem principiis antepositis prae- verbiis paucis immanis verborum accedit numerus, quod praeverbiis (in)mutatis 1 additis atque commu- tatis aliud atque aliud fit : ut enim (pro)cessit 2 et recessit, sic accessit et abscessit ; item incessit et ex- cessit,sic successit et decessit, (discessit) 3 et concessit. Quod si haec decern sola praeverbia essent, quoniam ab uno verbo declinationum quingenta discrimina fierent, his decemplicatis coniuncto praeverbio ex uno quinque milia numero efficerent(ur), 4 ex mille ad quinquagies centum milia discrimina fieri possunt. §37. 1 Mue. ; alio Aug., G ; for aliquo. 2 Mue., for aliquo. 3 After sic, Laetus deleted in. 4 Turnebus, for unas in. § 38. 1 GS., for mutatis. 2 Fritzsche, for cessit. 3 Added by GS (et discessit added by Vertranius). 4 Aldus, for efficerent. § 37. " That is, cannot be referred to a simpler radical element. Primitive is the name applied to words like lego ' I gather,' scribo ' I write,' sto ' I stand,' sedeo ' I sit,' and the rest which are not from some other word, a but have their own roots. On the other hand deriva- tive words are those which do develop from some other word, as from lego come legis ' thou gatherest,' legit ' he gathers,' legam ' I shall gather,' and in this fashion from this same word come a great number of words. Therefore, if one has shown the origins of the primi- tive words, and if these are one thousand in number, he will have revealed at the same time the sources of five hundred thousand separate words ; but if without showing the origin of a single primitive word he has shown how the rest have developed from the primi- tives, he will have said quite enough about the origins of words, since the original elements from which the words are sprung are few and the words which have sprung from them are countless. 38. There are besides an enormous number of words derived from these same original elements by the addition of a few prefixes, because by the addition of prefixes with or without change a word is repeatedly transformed ; for as there is processit ' he marched forward ' and recessit-' drew back,' so there is accessit ' approached ' and abscessit ' went off,' likewise incessit ' advanced ' and excessit ' withdrew,' so also successit ' went up ' and decessit ' went away,' discessit ' de- parted ' and concessit ' gave way.' But if there were only these ten prefixes, from the thousand primitives five million different forms can be made inasmuch as from one word there are five hundred derivational forms and when these are multiplied by ten through union with a prefix five thousand different forms are produced out of one primitive. Democritus, Ecurus, 1 item alii qui infinita principia dixerunt, quae unde sint non dicunt, sed cuiusmodi sint, tamen faciunt magnum : quae ex his constant in mundo, ostendunt. Quare si etymologws 2 principia verborum postulet mille, de quibus ratio ab se non poscatur, et reliqua ostendat, quod non pos- tulat, tamen immanem verborum expediat numerum. 40. De multitudine quoniam quod satis esset admonui, 1 de obscuritate pauca dicam. Verborum quae tempora adsignificant ideo locus 2 difficillimus (TVfj.a, 3 quod neque his fere societas cum Graeca lingua, neque vernacula ea quorum in partum memoria adfuerit nostra ; e 4 quibus, ut dixi, 5 quae poterimus. VI. 41. Incipiam hinc primura 1 quod dicitur ago. Actio ab agitatu facta. Hinc dicimus " agit gestum tragoedus," 2 et " agitantur quadrigae " ; hinc " agi- tur pecus pastum." Qua 3 vix agi potest, hinc angi- portum ; qua nil potest agi, hinc angulus, (vel) 4 quod in eo locus angustissimus, cuius loci is angulus. 42. Actionum trium primus agitatus mentis, quod § 39. 1 Turnebus, for secutus Fv, securus G, II. 2 ety- mologos B, Rhol., for ethimologos Fv, ethimologus G. § 40. 1 Laetus, for admonuit. 2 f, Aldus, for locutus. 3 est Irv/xa Sciop. (L. Sp. deleted est), for est TTMa Fv. 4 A. Sp.,for nostrae. 6 M, Laetus, for dixit. §41. 1 Laetus, for primus. 2 For tragaedus. 3 Al- dus, for quia. 4 Added by Mue., whose punctuation is here followed. § 39. Of Abdera (about 460-373 b.c), originator of the atomic theory. * Of Athens (341-270 b.c), founder of the Epicurean school of philosophy; Epic. 201. 33 Usener. e That is, that he should be excused from interpreting them (quod for quot). § 40. For adfuerit with the goal construction, cf. Vergil, Eel. 2. 45 hue ades, etc. 6 v. 10. Democritus, a Epicurus, 6 and likewise others who have pronounced the original elements to be unlimited in number, though they do not tell us whence the elements are, but only of what sort they are, still perform a great service : they show us the things which in the world consist of these elements. Therefore if the etymologist should postulate one thousand original elements of words, about which an interpretation is not to be asked of him, and show the nature of the rest, about which he does not make the postulation, c the number of words which he would explain would still be enormous. 40. Since I have given a sufficient reminder of the number of existing words, I shall speak briefly about their obscurity. Of the words which also indicate time the most difficult feature is their radicals, for the reason that these have in general no communion with the Greek language, and those to whose birth a our memory reaches are not native Latin ; yet of these, as I have said, 6 we shall say what we can. VI. 41. I shall start first from the word ago ' I drive, effect, do.' Actio ' action ' is made from agitatus 1 motion.' a From this we say " The tragic actor agit ' makes ' a gesture," and " The chariot-team agitantur ' is driven ' " ; from this, " The flock agitur ' is driven ' to pasture." Where it is hardly possible for anything agi ' to be driven,' from this it is called an angiportum 6 1 alley ' ; where nothing can agi ' be driven,' from this it is an angulus ' corner,' or else because in it is a very narrow (angustus) place to which this corner belongs. 42. There are three actiones ' actions,' and of these § 41. All these words are derivatives of agere, except angiportum and angulus ; but actio does not develop by loss of the »' in agitatus. b Cf. v. 145. 211 V. primum ea quae sumus acturi cogitare debemus, deinde turn dicere et facere. De his tribus minime putat volgus esse actionem cogitationem ; tertium, in quo quid facimus, id maximum. Sed et cum cogi- tamus 1 quid et earn rem ogitamus 2 in mente, agimus, et cum pronuntiamus, agimus. Itaque ab eo orator agere dicitur causam et augures augurium agere dicuntur, quom in eo plura dicant quam faciant. 43. Cogitare a cogendo dictum : mens plura in unum cogit, unde eligere 1 possit. Sic e lacte coacto caseus nominatus ; sic ex hominibus contio dicta, sic coemptio, sic compitum nominatum. A cogitatione concilium, inde consilium ; quod ut vestimentum apud fullonem cum cogitur, conciliari 2 dictum. 44. Sic reminisci, cum ea quae tenuit mens ac memoria, cogitando repetuntur. Hinc etiam com- minisci dictum, a con et mente, cum finguntur in mente quae non sunt ; et ab hoc illud quod dicitur eminisci, 1 cum commentum pronuntiatur. Ab eadem § 42. 1 Sciop., for hos agitamus Fv. 2 L. Sp., for cogitamus. § 43. 1 a, p, RhoL, for elicere. 2 Aug., for consiliari. § 44. 1 Heusinger, for reminisci. § 42. a Page 16 Regell. § 43. a Here V. gives a parenthetic list of words with the prefix co- or com- ; though he is wrong in including caseus. b Cogitatio, concilium, consilium have nothing in common except the prefix. 212 ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 42-44 the first is the agitatus ' motion ' of the mind, because we must first cogitare ' consider ' those things which we are acturi ' going to do,' and then thereafter say them and do them. Of these three, the common folk practically never thinks that cogitatio ' consideration ' is an action ; but it thinks that the third, in which we do something, is the most important. But also when we cogitamus ' consider ' something and agitamus ' turn it over ' in mind, we agimus ' are acting,' and when we make an utterance, we agimus ' are acting.' Therefore from this the orator is said agere ' to plead ' the case, and the augurs are said a agere ' to practice ' augury, although in it there is more saying than doing. 43. Cogitare ' to consider ' is said from cogere ' to bring together ' : the mind cogit ' brings together ' several things into one place, from which it can choose. Thus a from milk that is coactum ' pressed,' caseus ' cheese ' was named ; thus from men brought together was the contio ' mass meeting ' called, thus coemptio ' marriage by mutual sale,' thus compitum ' cross-roads.' From cogitatio ' consideration ' came concilium ' council,' and from that came consilium ' counsel ' ; 6 and the concilium is said conciliari ' to be brought into unity ' like a garment when it cogitur ' is pressed ' at the cleaner's. 44. Thus reminisci ' to recall,' when those things which have been held by mind and memory are fetched back again by considering (cogitando). From this also comminisci ' to fabricate a story ' is said, from con ' to- gether ' and mens ' mind,' when things which are not, are devised in the mind ; and from that comes the word eminisci ' to use the imagination,' when the commentum ' fabrication ' is uttered. From the same 213 V. mente meminisse dictum et amens, qui a mente sua cU'scedit. 2 45. Hinc etiam metus 1 (a) mente quodam modo mota, 2 ut 3 metuisti (te> 4 amovisti ; sic, quod frigidus timor, tremuisti timuisti. Tremo dictum a simili- tudine vocis, quae tunc cum valde tremunt apparet, cum etiam in corpore pili, ut arista in spica ^ordei, horrent. 46. Curare a cura dictum. Cura, quod cor urat ; curiosus, quod hac praeter modum utitur. Recor- dan, 1 rursus in cor revocare. Curiae, ubi senatus rempublicam curat, et ilia ubi cura sacrorum publica ; ab his curiones. 47. Volo a voluntate dictum et a volatu, quod animus ita est, ut puncto temporis pervolet quo volt. Lwbere 1 ab labendo dictum, quod lubrica mens ac prolabitur, ut dicebant olim. Ab lubendo libido, libidinosus ac Venus Libentina et Libitina, sic alia. 2 Aug., for descendit. § 45. 1 GS., for metuo. 2 Canal, for mentem quodam modo motam. 3 L. Sp., for uel. 4 Added by Kent, after Fay. § 46. 1 Aug., with B, for recordare. § 47. 1 L. Sp., for libere. § 45. ° According to Mueller, the sequence of the topics indicates that this section and § 49 have been interchanged in the manuscripts. All etymologies in this section are wrong. § 46. ° Three etymologically distinct sets of words are here united : cura, curare, curiosus ; cor, recordari ; curia, curio. § 47. ° Volo ' I wish ' is distinct from volo 1 I fly.' 6 Ijubet, later libet, is distinct from labi and from lubricus. e Either as a euphemism, or from the fact that the funeral apparatus was kept in the storerooms of the Temple of Venus, which caused the epithet to acquire a new meaning. 214 ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 44-47 word mens ' mind ' come meminisse ' to remember ' and amens ' mad,' said of one who has departed a mente ' from his mind.' 45. ° From this moreover metus ' fear,' from the mens ' mind ' somehow mota ' moved,' as metuisti ' you feared,' equal to te amouisti ' you removed yourself.' So, because timor ' fear ' is cold, tremuisti ' you shivered ' is equal to timuisti ' you feared.' Tremo ' I shiver ' is said from the similarity to the behaviour of the voice, which is evident then when people shiver very much, when even the hairs on the body bristle up like the beard on an ear of barley. 46. " Curare ' to care for, look after ' is said from cur a ' care, attention.' Cura, because it cor urat ' burns the heart ' ; curiosus ' inquisitive,' because such a person indulges in cura beyond the proper measure. Recordari ' to recall to mind,' is revocare ' to call back ' again into the cor ' heart.' The curiae ' halls,' where the senate curat ' looks after ' the interests of the state, and also there where there is the cura ' care ' of the state sacrifices ; from these, the curiones ' priests of the curiae.' 47. Volo ' I wish ' is said from voluntas ' free-will ' and from volatus ' flight,' because the spirit is such that in an instant it pervolat ' flies through ' to any place whither it volt ' wishes.' a Lubere 6 'to be pleasing ' is said from labi ' to slip,' because the mind is lubrica ' slippery ' and prolabitur ' slips forward,' as of old they used to say. From lubere 1 to be pleasing ' come libido ' lust,' libidinosus ' lustful,' and Venus Libentina ' goddess of sensual pleasure ' and Libitina c ' goddess of the funeral equipment,' so also other words. 215 V. 48. Metuere a quodam motu animi, cum id quod malum casurum putat refugit mens. Cum vehe- mentius in movendo ut ab se abeat foras fertur, formido ; cum (parum movetur) 1 pavet, et ab eo pavor. 49. Meminisse a memoria, cum (in) id quod remansit in mente 1 rursus movetur ; quae a manendo 2 ut manimoria 3 potest esse dicta. Itaque Salii quod cantant : Mamuri Vetwn', 4 significant memoriam veterem. 5 Ab eodem monere, 6 quod is qui monet, proinde sit ac memoria ; sic monimenta quae in sepulcris, et ideo secundum viam, quo praetereuntis admoneant 7 et se fuisse et illos esse mortalis. Ab eo cetera quae scripta ac facta memoriae causa monimenta dieta. 50. Maerere a marcere, quod etiam corpus mar- cescere(t) 1 ; hinc etiam macri dicti. Laetari ab eo § 48. 1 Added by L. Sp. § 49. 1 A. Sp., for id quod remansit in mente in id quod/ the omission, with Sciop. 2 Rhol., for manando. 3 Other codices, for maniomoria Fv. 4 Turnebus, for memurii ueterum or ueteri. 5 Maurenbrecher ; veterem memoriam Aug., with B ; where, according to Victorius, F had memoriam followed by an illegible word. 6 For mo- nerem. 7 For admoueant Fv, admoneat B. § 50. 1 L. Sp.,for marcescere. § 48. All etymologies in the section are wrong. § 49. See note on § 45. Meminisse, mens, monere, monimentum (or monumentum) are from the same root ; memoria is perhaps remotely connected with them ; but manere is to be kept apart. 6 Frag. 8, page 339 Mauren- brecher; page 4 Morel. c The traditional smith who made the best of the duplicate ancilia (see vi. 22, note d), and at his request was rewarded by the insertion of his name in the Hymns of the Salii (Festus, 131. 11 M.). But V. seems 216 ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 48-50 48. ° Metuere ' to fear,' from a certain motus ' emotion ' of the spirit, when the mind shrinks back from that misfortune which it thinks will fall upon it. When from excessive violence of the emotion it is borne foras ' forth ' so as to go out of itself, there is formido ' terror ' ; when parum movetur ' the emotion is not very strong,' it pavet ' dreads,' and from this comes pavor ' dread.' 49. ° Meminisse ' to remember,' from memoria ' memory,' when there is again a motion toward that which remansit 1 has remained ' in the mens ' mind ' : and this may have been said from manere ' to remain,' as though manimoria. Therefore the Salii, 6 when they sing O Mamurius Veturius,' indicate a memoria vetus ' memory of olden times.' From the same is monere ' to remind,' because he who monet ' reminds,' is just like a memory. So also the monimenta ' memorials ' which are on tombs, and in fact alongside the highway, that they may admonere ' admonish ' the passers-by that they themselves were mortal and that the readers are too. From this, the other things that are written and done to preserve their memoria ' memory ' are called monimenta ' monu- ments.' 50. ° Maerere ' to grieve,' was named from marcere ' to wither away,' because the body too would marces- cere ' waste away ' ; from this moreover the inacri ' lean ' were named. Laetari ' to be happy,' from this, to feel an etymological connexion between Mamuri Veturi and memoriam veterem. § 50. All etymologies wrong, except the association of laetari, laetitia, laeta. 217 V. quod latius gaudium propter magni boni opinionem diffusum. Itaque Iuventius ait : Gaudia Sua si omnes homines conferant unum in locum, Tamen mea exsuperet laetitia. Sic cum se habent, laeta. VII. 51. Narro, cum alterum facio narum, 1 a quo narratio, per quam cognoscimus rem gesta(m). 2 Quae pars agendi est ab dicendo 3 ac sunt aut con- iuncta cum temporibus aut ab his : eorum 4 hoc genus videntur ervfia. 52. Fatur is qui primum homo significabilem ore mittit vocem. Ab eo, ante quam ita faciant, pueri dicuntur infantes ; cum id faciunt, iam fari ; cum hoc vocabulum, 1 (turn) a similitudine vocis pueri (fario- lus) ac fatuus dictum. 2 Ab hoc tempora 3 quod turn pueris constituant Parcae fando, dictum fatum et res fatales. Ab hac eadem voce 4 qui facile fantur facundi dicti, et qui futura praedivinando soleant fari fatidici ; dicti idem vaticinari, quod vesana mente faciunt : §51. 1 Victorius, for narrum. 2 For gesta Fv. 3 L. Sp. ; a dicendo Ursinus ; for ab adiacendo Fv. * Aug., for earum. § 52. 1 Aug., for uocabulorum. 2 OS., for a simili- tudine uocis pueri ac fatuus fari id dictum. 3 Popma, for tempore. 4 Canal, for ad haec eandem uocem. 6 Com. Rom. Frag., verses 2-4 Ribbeck 3 . Juventius was a writer of comedies from the Greek, in the second century b.c. § 51. ° V. wrote naro, with one R, according to Cas- siodorus, vii. 159. 8 Keil ; the etymology is correct. 6 Cf. vi. 42. § 52. ° The etymologies in this section are correct, except those of fariolus and vaticinari. 6 Dialectal form, prob- 218 OX THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 50-52 that joy is spread latius 'more widely' because of the idea that it is a great blessing. Therefore Juventius says 6 : Should all men bring their joys into a single spot, My happiness would yet surpass the total lot. When things are of this nature, they are said to be laeta ' happy.' VII. 51. Narro a 'I narrate,' when I make a second person narus ' acquainted with ' something ; from which comes narratio ' narration,' by which we make acquaintance with an occurrence. This part of acting is in the section of saying, 6 and the words are united with time-ideas or are from them : those of this sort seem to be radicals. 52.° That man fatur ' speaks ' who first emits from his mouth an utterance which may convey a meaning. From this, before they can do so, children are called infantes ' non-speakers, infants ' ; when they do this, they are said now fan ' to speak ' ; not only this word, but also, from likeness to the utterance of a child, fariolus 6 ' soothsayer ' and fatuus ' prophetic speaker ' are said. From the fact that the Birth-Goddesses by fando ' speaking ' then set the life-periods for the children, fatum ' fate ' is named, and the things that are fatales ' fateful.' From this same word, those who fantur ' speak ' easily are called facundi ' eloquent,' and those who are accustomed fari ' to speak ' the future through presentiment, are called fatidici ' sayers of the fates ' ; they likewise are said vaticinari ' to prophesy,' because they do this with frenzied ably Faliscan, for hariolus, which is connected with haruspex. * As though fati- ; but properly from the stems of rates ' bard ' and canere ' to sing.' 219 V. sed de hoc post erit usurpandum, cum de poetis dicemus. 53. Hinc fasti dies, quibus verba certa legitima sine piaculo praetoribus licet fari ; ab hoc nefasti, quibus diebus ea fari ius non est et, si fati sunt, pia- culum faciunt. Hinc efFata dicuntur, qui augures finem auspiciorum caelcstum extra urbem agri(s) 1 sunt effati ut esset ; hinc effari templa dicuntur : ab auguribus efFantur qui in his fines sunt. 54. Hinc fana nominata, quod 1 pontifices in sac- rando fati sint finem ; hinc profanum, quod est ante fanum coniunctum fano ; hinc profanatum quid in sacrificio aique 2 Herculi decuma appellata ab eo est quod sacrificio quodam fanatur, id est ut fani lege^it. 3 Id dicitur pollu(c)tum, 4 quod a porriciendo est fictum: cum enim ex mercibus libamenta porrecta 5 sunt Herculi in aram, turn pollu(c)tum 4 est, ut cum pro- fan(at)um 6 dicitur, id est proinde ut sit fani factum : itaque ibi 7 olim (in) 8 fano consumebatur omne quod § 53. 1 Laetus, for agri. § 54. 1 Laetus, for quae. 2 M, V, Laetus, for ad quae Fv. 3 Canal, for sit. 4 Aug. {quoting a friend), for pollutum. 5 Aug., with B, for proiecta. 6 Turnebus, for profanum. 7 Vertranius, for ubi. 8 Added by Vertranius. d Cf. vii. 36. § 53. ° Fastus and nefastus, from fas and nefas ; but whether fas and nefas are from the root of fari, is question- able. 6 Cf. vi. 29-30. c Page 19 Regell. d Effari is used both with active and with passive meaning. § 54. Fanum (whence adj. profanus), from fas, not from fari. b Profanus was used also of persons who remained ' before the sanctuary ' because they were not entitled to go inside, or because admission was refused ; therefore ' un- initiated ' or ' unholy,' respectively. " Wrong etymology. d Any edibles or drinkables were appropriate offerings to 220 ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 52-54 mind : but this will have to be taken up later, when we speak about the poets. d 53. From this the dies fasti a ' righteous days, court days,' on which the praetors are permitted fori ' to speak ' without sin certain words of legal force ; from this the nefasti ' unrighteous days,' on which it is not right for them to speak them, and if they have spoken these words, they must make atonement. 6 From this those words are called effata ' pronounced,' by which the augurs c have effati ' pronounced ' the limit that the fields outside the city are to have, for the observance of signs in the sky ; from this, the areas of observation are said effari d ' to be pro- nounced ' ; by the augurs, 6 the boundaries effantur ' are pronounced ' which are attached to them. 54. From this the f ana ° ' sanctuaries ' are named, because the pontiffs in consecrating them have fati ' spoken ' their boundary ; from this, profanum ' being before the sanctuary,' b which applies to something that is in front of the sanctuary and joined to it ; from this, anything in the sacrifice, and especially Hercules 's tithe, is called prqfanatum ' brought before the sanc-» tuary, dedicated,' from this fact that it fanatur ' is consecrated ' by some sacrifice, that is, that it becomes by law the property of the sanctuary. This is called polluctum ' offered up,' a term which is shaped c from porricere ' to lay before ' : for when from articles of commerce first fruits d are laid before Hercules, on his altar, then there is a polluctum ' offering-up,' just as, when prqfanatum is said, it is as if the thing had be- come the sanctuary's property. So formerly all that was profanatum e ' dedicated ' used to be consumed in Hercules ; cf. Festus, 253 a 17-21 M. ' That is, so far as it was not burned on the altar, in the god's honour. profan(at)um 8 erat, ut etiam (nunc) 10 fit quod praetor urb(an)ws u quotannis facit, cum Herculi immolat publice iuvencam. 55. Ab eodem verbo fari fabulae, ut tragoediae et comoediae, 1 dictae. Hinc fassi ac confessi, qui fati id quod ab is 2 quaesitum. Hinc professi ; hinc fama et famosi. Ab eodem falli, sed et falsum et fallacia, quae propterea, quod fando quern decipit ac contra quam dixit facit. Itaque si quis re fallit, in hoc non proprio nomine fallacia, sed tralati(ci)o, 3 ut a pede nostro pes lecti ac betae. Hinc etiam famigerabile 4 et sic compositicia 5 aha item ut declinata multa, in quo et Fatuus et Fatuae. 6 56. Loqui ab loco dictum. 1 Quod qui primo dicitur iam fari 2 vocabula et reliqua verba dicit ante quam suo quique 3 loco ea dicere potest, 1 hunc CArys- ippus negat loqui, sed ut loqui : quare ut imago hominis non sit homo, sic in corvis, cornicibus, pueris primitus incipientibus fari verba non esse verba, quod 8 L. Sp., for profanum. 10 Added by L. Sp. 11 Aug., with B, for P. R. urbis Fv. % 55. 1 For tragaediae et comaediae. 2 For his. 3 A. Sp. ; tralatitio Sciop. ; for tranlatio. 4 M, V, p, Aldus, for famiger fabile Fv. 5 A. Sp.,for composititia Fv. « B, O, f, for fatue Fv. § 56. 1 Punctuation by Stroux. 2 For farit Fv. 3 L. Sp. ; quidque Aug. ; for quisque. § 55. ° The preceding words all belong with fari ; but falli, falsum, fallacia form a distinct group. 6 Instead of by speaking. e That is, beet-root. d Faunus and the Nymphs. § 56. ° Wrong. 6 Page 143 von Arnim. " Ravens the sanctuary, as even now is done "with that which the City Praetor offers every year, when on behalf of the state he sacrifices a heifer to Hercules. 55. From the same word fan ' to speak,' the fabulae ' plays,' such as tragedies and comedies, were named. From this word, those persons have fassi ' admitted ' and confessi ' confessed,' who have fati 4 spoken ' that which was asked of them. From this, professi ' openly declared ' ; from this, fama ' talk, rumour,' and famosi ' much talked of, notorious.' a From the same,/affi ' to be deceived,' but also falsum ' false ' and fallacia ' deceit,' which are so named on this account, that by fando ' speaking ' one misleads someone and then does the opposite of what he has said. Therefore if one fallit ' deceives ' by an act, 6 in this there is not fallacia ' deceit ' in its own proper meaning, but in a transferred sense, as from our pes ' foot ' the pes ' foot ' of a bed and of a beet c are spoken of. From this, moreover, famigerabile ' worth being talked about,' and in this fashion other com- pounded words, just as there are many derived -words, among which are Fatuus ' god of prophetic speaking ' and the Fatuae ' women of prophecy.' d 56. Loqui 'to talk,' is said from locus 'place.' Because he who is said to speak now for the first time, utters the names and other words before he can say them each in its own locus ' place,' such a person Chrysippus says 6 does not loqui ' talk,' but quasi- talks ; and that therefore, as a man's sculptured bust is not the real man, so in the case of ravens, crows," and boys making their first attempts to speak, their words are not real words, because they are not talk- and crows were the chief speaking birds of the Romans ; cf. Macrobius, Sat. ii. 4. 29-30. V. non loquantur. 4 Igitur is loquitur, qui suo loco quod- que verbum sciens ponit, et is turn 5 prolocutus, 6 quom in animo quod habuit extulit loquendo. 57. Hinc dicuntur eloqui ac reloqui 1 in fanis Sabinis, e cella dei qui loquuntur. 2 Hinc dictus loquax, qui nimium loqueretur ; hinc eloquens, qui copiose loquitur ; hinc colloquium, cum veniunt in unum locum loquendi causa ; hinc adlocutum mulieres ire aiunt, cum eunt ad aliquam locutum consolandi 3 causa ; hinc quidam loquelam dixerunt verbum quod in loquendo efferimus. Concinne loqui dictum a concinere, 4 ubi inter se conveniunt partes ita 3 novissimum, quod extremum. Sic ab eadem origine novitas et novicius et novalis in agro et " sub No vis " dicta pars in Foro aedificiorum, quod vocabulum ei pervetustww, 4 ut Novae Viae, quae via iam diu vetus. 60. Ab eo quoque potest dictum nominare, quod res novae in usum quom 1 additae erant, quibus ea(s) 2 novissent, nomina ponebant. Ab eo nuncupare, quod tunc (pro) 3 civitate vota nova suscipiuntur. Nuncu- pare nominare valere apparet in legibus, ubi " nun- cupatae pecuniae " sunt scriptae ; item in Choro in quo est : Aenea ! — Quis 4 est qui meum nomen nuncupat ? § 59. 1 Aug., from Gellius, x. 21. 2, for dico. 2 Ben- tinus, from Gellius, I.e., for uetustus ac ueterrimus. 3 Added by Aug., from Gellius, I.e. 4 B, Laetus, for peruetustas. § 60. 1 Aug. (quoting a friend), for quomodo. 2 Ver- tranius,for ea. 3 Added by L. Sp. 4 Added by Grotius. e Naples ; Nova-polis is a half-way translation into Latin. § 59. ° Page 57 Funaioli. * The Tabernae Novae were the shops on the north side of the Forum which replaced those burned in the fire of 210 b.c. ; those on the south side, which escaped the fire, were called the Tabernae Veteres. § 60. ° Nomen and nominare are distinct from novus, and 226 ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VI. 58-60 derived from a Greek word ; from this, accordingly, their Neapolis e ' New City ' was called Nova-polis ' New-polis ' by the old-time Romans. 59. From this, moreover, novissimum ' newest ' also began to be used popularly for extremum ' last,' a use which within my memory both Aelius and some elderly men avoided, on the ground that the proper form of the superlative of this word was nimium novum ; its origin is just like vetustius ' older ' and veterrimum ' oldest ' from vetus ' old,' thus from novum were derived novius ' newer ' and novissimum, which means ' last.' So, from the same origin, novitas ' newness ' and novi- cius ' novice ' and novalis ' ploughed anew ' in the case of a field, and a part of the buildings in the Forum was called sub Xovis 6 ' by the New Shops ' ; though it has had the name for a very long time, as has the Nova Via New Street,' which has been an old street this long while. 60. From this can be said also nominare ' to call by name,' because when novae ' new ' things were brought into use, they set nomina ' names ' on them, by which they novissent ' might know ' them. From this, nuncupate* ' to pronounce vows publicly,' because then nova ' new ' vows are undertaken for the state. That nuncupare is the same as nominare, is evident in the laws, where sums of money are written down as nuncupatae ' bequeathed by name ' ; likewise in the Chorus, in which there is c : Aeneas ! — Who is this who calls me by my name ? also from novisse ' to know.' * Containing the elements of nomen and capere ' to take.' e Trag. Rom. Frag., page 272 Ribbeck 3 ; R O.L. ii. 608-609 Warmington ; possibly belonging to a play entitled Proserpina, cf. vi. 9-1. But the title is perhaps hopelessly corrupt. V. Item in Medo 5 : Quis tu es, mulier, quae me insueto nuncupasti nomine ? 61. Dico originem habet Graecam, quod Graeci SeiKvvw. 1 Hinc (etiam dicare, ut ait) 8 Ennius : Dico VI hunc dicare (circum metulas). 3 Hinc iudicare, quod tunc ius dicatur ; hinc iudex, quod iu(s> dicat 4 accepta potestate ; (hinc dedicat), 5 id est quibusdam verbis dicendo finit : sic 6 enim aedis sacra a magistratu pontifice prae(e)unte 7 dicendo dedicatur. Hinc, ab dicendo, 8 indicium ; hinc ilia : indicit (b)ellum, 9 indixit funus, prodixit diem, addixit iudicium ; hinc appellatum dictum in mimo, 10 ac dictiosus ; hinc in manipulis castrensibus (dicta 11 ab) 13 ducibus ; hinc dictata in ludo ; hinc dictator magister populi, quod is a consule debet dici ; hinc antiqua ilia (ad)dici 13 numo et dicis causa et addictus. 6 Aldus, for medio. §61. 1 L. Sp. ; SeiKvvvai Mue. ; SeiKco Scaliger ; for NISIhce Fv. 2 Added by Kent. 3 Fay, for qui hunc dicare; cf Festus, 153 a 15-21 M., and Livy, xli. 27. 6. 4 Aug., with B,for iudicat. b Added by Stroux. 8 With sic enim, F resumes ; cf. v. 118, crit. note 7. 7 Bcntinus (or earlier) ; praeunte /, Laetus ; for prae unce F. 8 L. Sp.,for dicando. 9 Turnebus, for ilium. 10 B, Aldus, for minimo. 11 Added by Aug., with B. 18 Added by Kent ; a added by Fay. 13 Budaeus, for dici. d Pacuvius, Trag. Rom. Frag. 239 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. ii. 260- 261 Warmington ; the play was named from one of Medea's sons. §61. ° All the words explained in this section belong together ; but dicere is cognate with the Greek word, not derived from it. 6 Inc. frag. 39 Vahlen 2 ; see critical note. c Rather, because he dictat ' gives orders ' to the people. d Numo in the text is the older spelling, in which consonants were never doubled. * Applied to the fictitious sale of an And likewise in the Medus d : Who are you, woman, who have called me by an unaccustomed name ? 61. Dico ° ' I say ' has a Greek origin, that which the Greeks call BeiKvi'm ' I show.' From this more- over comes dicare ' to show, dedicate,' as Ennius says b : I say this circus shows six little turning-posts. From this, iudicare ' to judge,' because then ius ' right ' dicitur ' is spoken ' ; from this, index ' judge,' because he ius dicat ' speaks the decision ' after receiving the power to do so ; from this, dedicat ' he dedicates,' that is, he finishes the matter by dicendo ' saying ' certain fixed words : for thus a temple of a god dedicatur ' is dedicated ' by the magistrate, by dicendo ' saying ' the formulas after the pontiff. From this, that is from dicere, comes indicium ' information ' ; from this, the following : indicit ' he declares ' war, indixit ' he has invited to ' a funeral, prodixit ' he has postponed ' the day, addixit ' he has awarded ' the decision ; from this was named a dictum ' bon mot ' in a farce, and dic- tiosus ' witty person ' ; from this, in the companies of soldiers in camp, the dicta ' orders ' of the leaders ; from this, the dictata ' dictation exercises ' in the school ; from this, the dictator c ' dictator,' as master of the people, because he must did ' be appointed ' by the consul ; from this, those old phrases addict nummo d ' to be made over to somebody for a shilling,' e and dicis causa ' for the sake of judicial form,' and addictus " bound over f ' to somebody. inheritance to the heir. ' Said of a defendant who was unable to pay the amount of debt or damages, and was de- livered to the custody of the plaintiff as a virtual slave until he could arrange payment. V. 62. Si dico quid (sciens 1 ne)scienti, 2 quod ei 3 quod ignoravit trado, hinc doceo declinatum vel quod cum docemus 4 dicimus vel quod qui docentur induczm- tur 5 in id quod docentur. Ab eo quod scit ducere 6 qui est dux aut ductor ; (hinc 7 doctor) 8 qui ita inducit, ut doceat. Ab dwcendo 9 docere disciplina discere litteris commutatis paucis. Ab eodcm principio documenta, quae exempla docendi causa dicuntur. 63. Disputatio ct computatio e 1 propositione putandi, quod valet purum facere ; ideo antiqui purum putum appellarunt ; ideo putator, quod arbores puras facit ; ideo ratio putari dicitur, in qua summa fit pura : sic is sermo in quo pure disponuntur verba, ne sit confusus atque ut diluceat, dicitur dis- putare. 64. Quod dicimus disserit item translati(ci)o 1 aeque 2 ex agris verbo : nam ut //olitor disserit in areas sui cuiusque generis res, sic in oratione qui facit, disertus. Sermo, opinor, est a serie, unde serta ; ctiam in vestimento sartum, quod comprehensum : Added by L. Sp. 2 Scaliger, for scienti. 3 Sciop., for det. 4 After docemus, Laetus deleted ut. 6 Reiter, for inducantur. 6 M, Laetus, for ducare. 7 Added by GS. 8 Added by L. Sp. 9 Fay, for docendo. § 63. 1 L. Sp., for et. §64. 1 A. Sp. ; translatitio Aug.; for translatio. 2 Aug., for atque. § 62. ° Docere is quite independent of dicere, and also of ducere. b Disciplina was popularly associated with discere, but was really a derivative of discipulus, which came from dis + capere 1 to take apart (for examination).' § 64. ° There are in Latin two verbs sero serere, distinct in etymology : serere sevi satus 4 to sow, plant,' and serere serui sertus ' to join together, intertwine.' The derivatives in this section are all from the second verb, except sartum, the participle of sarcio, which is distinct from both. If I DICO ' say ' something – H. P. Grice, dictiveness, dictive content, what is said -- that I know to one who does NOT know it, because I trado ' hand over' to him what he was ignorant of, from this is derived DOCEO a ' I teach,' or else because when we docemus ' teach ' we dicivius ' say,' or else because those who docentur ' are taught ' inducuntur ' are led on ' to that which they docentur ' are taught.' From this fact, that he knows how ducere ' to lead,' is named the one who is dux ' guide ' or ductor ' leader ' ; from this, doctor ' teacher,' who so inducit ' leads on ' that he docet ' teaches.' From ducere ' to lead,' come docere ' to teach,' disciplina b ' instruction,' discere ' to learn,' by the change of a few letters. From the same original element comes documenta ' instructive ex- amples,' which are said as models for the purpose of teaching. 63. Disputatio ' discussion ' and coniputatio ' reckon- ing,' from the general idea of putare, which means to make purum ' clean ' ; for the ancients used putum to mean purum. Therefore putator ' trimmer', because he makes trees clean ; therefore a business account is said putari ' to be adjusted,' in which the sum is pura ' net.' So also that discourse in which the words are arranged pure ' neatly,' that it may not be confused and that it may be transparent of meaning, is said disputare ' to discuss ' a problem or question. 64. Our word disserit a is used in a figurative mean- ing as well as in relation to the fields : for as the kitchen-gardener disserit ' distributes ' the things of each kind upon his garden plots, so he who does the like in speaking is disertus ' skilful.' Sermo ' conversa- tion,' I think, is from series ' succession,' whence serta ' garlands ' ; and moreover in the case of a garment sartum ' patched,' because it is held together : for 231 V. sermo enim non potest in uno homine esse solo, sed ubi (o)ratio 3 cum altero coniuncta. Sic conserere manu(m) 4 dicimur cum hoste ; sic ex iure manu(m) 5 consertum vocare ; hinc adserere manu 6 in libertatem cum prendimus. Sic augures dicunt : Si mihi auctor es 7 verbenam 6 manu 9 asserere, dicit(o> 10 consortes. 65. Hinc etiam, a quo 1 ipsi consortes, sors ; hinc etiam sortes, quod in his iuncta tempora cum homini- bus ac rebus ; ab his sortilegi ; ab hoc pecunia quae in faenore sors est, impendium quod inter se iung^t. 2 66. Legere dictum, quod leguntur ab oculis litterae ; ideo etiam legati, quod (ut) 1 publice mit- tantur leguntur. Item ab legendo leguli, qui oleam aut qui uvas legunt ; hinc legumina in frugibus variis ; etiam leges, quae lectae et ad populum latae quas observet. Hinc legitima et collegae, qui una lecti, et qui in eorum locum suppositi, sublecti ; additi allecti et collecta, quae ex pluribus locis in unum lecta. Ab 3 Aug., for ratio. 4 Other codd.,for manu F. 5 Sciop., for manu ; cf. Gellius, xx. 10. 6 p, Aug., for manum. 7 Aug., for est. 8 Bergk, for verbi nam. 9 Aug., for manum. 10 A. Sp.,for dicit. §65. 1 L. Sp., for ad qui. 2 Groth, for iungat. § 66. 1 Added by B, Aldus. b Genitive plural. e Page 18 Regell. § 65. ° These words belong to serere, but V.'s reason for the meaning of sors may not be correct. 6 To V., the fundamental meaning in sors is one of ' joining ' : cf. v. 183. § 66. ° All words discussed in this section are from various forms of the root seen in legere, which means ' to gather, pick, select, choose, read ' ; except legumen. * Properly parti- ciple of legare ' to appoint,' a derivative of legere. e More exactly, legumina are, according to V., fruits of various kinds that have to be picked (rather than cut, like cabbage, sermo ' conversation ' cannot be where one man is alone, but where his speech is joined with another's. So we are said conserere manum ' to join hand-to-hand fight ' with an enemy ; so to call for vianum 6 consertum ' a laying on of hands' according to law ; from this, adserere manu in libertatem ' to claim that so-and-so is free,' when we lay hold of him. So the augurs say c : If you authorize me to take in my hand the sacred "bough, then name my colleagues (consortes). 65. From this, moreover, sors a ' lot,' from which the consortes ' colleagues ' themselves are named ; from this, further, sortes ' lots,' because in them time- ideas are joined with men and things ; from these, the sortilegi ' lot-pickers, fortune-tellers ' ; from this, the money which is at interest is the sors 1 principal,' because it joins 6 one expense to another. 66. ° Legere ' to pick or read,' because the letters leguntur ' are picked ' with the eyes ; therefore also legati 6 ' envoys,' because they leguntur ' are chosen ' to be sent on behalf of the state. Likewise, from legere ' to pick,' the leguli ' pickers,' who legunt ' gather ' the olives or the grapes ; from this, the legumina e ' beans ' of various kinds ; moreover, the leges ' laws,' which are lectae ' chosen ' and brought before the people for them to observe. From this, legitima ' law- ful things ' ; and collegae ' colleagues,' who have been lecti ' chosen ' together, and those who have been put into their places, are sublecti ' substitutes ' ; those added are allecti ' chosen in addition,' and things which have been lecta ' gathered ' from several places into one, are collecta ' collected.' From legere ' to gather ' or mowed, like wheat) ; but the resemblance to legere seems to be only accidental. 233 V. legendo ligna quoque, quod ea caduca legebantur in agro quibus in focum uterentur. Indidem ab legendo legio et diligens et dilectus. 67. Murmuran' 1 a similitudiae sonitus dictus, qui ita leviter loquitur, ut magis e sono id faccre quam ut intellegatur videatur. Hinc etiam poctae Murmurantia litora. Similiter fremere, gemere, clamare, crepare ab similitudine vocis sonitus dicta. Hinc ilia Arma sonant, fremor oritur ; hinc Nihil 2 me increpitando commoves. 68. Vicina horum quiritarc, iubilare. Quiritare dicitur is qui Quiritum fidem clamans inplorat. Qui- rites a Curensibus ; ab his cum Tatio rege in socie- tatem venerunt civitatz's. 1 Ut quiritare urbanorum, sic iubilare rusticorum : itaquc hos imitans Aprissius ait : Io bucco ! — Quis me iubilat ? — Vicinns tuus antiquus. Sic triumphare appellatum, quod cum imperatore § 67. 1 L. Sp.,for murmuratur dictum. 2 For nichil. § 68. 1 Sciop., for civitates. d Better spelling, delectus. § 67. ° Some, but not all, of the words discussed in this section are onomatopoeic. b Lh-iter ' lightly.' e Trag. Rom. Frag., page 314 Ribbeck 3 ; but the words look like part of a dactylic hexameter, in which case it should read Arma sonant, oritur fremor. d Trag. Rom. Frag., page 314 Ribbeck 3 . Frequentative of queri ' to complain,' and not connected with Quirites. b Cures, ancient capital city of the Sabines. c The name is corrupt, but no probable comes also ligna ' firewood,' because the wood that had fallen was gathered in the field, to be used on the fireplace. From the same source, legere ' to gather,' came legio ' legion,' and diligens ' careful,' and dilectus A ' military levy.' 67. ° From likeness to the sound, he is said mur- murari ' to murmur,' who speaks so softly b that he seems more as the result of the sound to be doing it, than to be doing it for the purpose of being understood. From this, moreover, the poets say Murmuring sea-shore. Likewise, fremere ' to roar,' gemere ' to groan,' clamare ' to shout,' crepare ' to rattle ' are said from the likeness of the sound of the word to that which it denotes. From this, that passage c : Arms are resounding, a roar doth arise. From this, also, d By your rebuking you alarm me not. 68. Close to these are quiritare a ' to shriek,' iubilare ' to call joyfully.' He is said quiritare, who shouts and implores the protection of the Quirites. The Quirites were named from the Curenses ' men of Cures ' b ; from that place they came with King Tatius to receive a share in the Roman state. As quiritare is a word of city people, so iubilare is a word of the countrymen ; thus in imitation of them Apris- sius c says : Oho, Fat-Face ! — Who is calling rne ? — Your neighbour of long standing. So triumpkare ' to triumph ' was said, because the emendation has been suggested ; Com. Rom. Frag., page 332 Ribbeck 3 . milites redeuntes clamitant per Urbem in Capitolium eunti " (I)o 2 triumphe " ; id a dpidfifiu) 3 ac Graeco Liberi cognomento potest dictum. 69- Spondere est dicere spondee-, a sponte : nam id (idem) 1 valet et a voluntate. Itaque Lucilius scribit de Cretcea, 2 cum ad se cubitum venerit sua voluntate, sponte ipsam suapte adductam, ut tunicam et cetera 3 reiceret. Eandem voluntatem Terentius significat, cum ait satius esse Sua sponte recte facere quam alieno metu. Ab eadem sponte, a qua dictum spondere, declinatum (de)spondet 4 et respondet et desponsor et sponsa, item sic alia. Spondet enim qui dicit a sua sponte " spondeo " ; (qui) spo(po)ndit, 5 est sponsor ; qui (i)dem« (ut) 7 faciat obligatur sponsu, 8 consponsus. 70. Hoc Naevius significat cum ait " consponsi." (Si) 1 spondebatur pecunia aut filia nuptiarum causa, 2 Laetus, for o. 3 Aldus, for triambo. § 69. 1 Added by Fay. 2 For Gretea. 3 For ceterae. 4 GS, after Lachmann, for spondit. 8 L. Sp., for spondit. 6 B, Ed. Veneta, for quidem. 7 Added by Aug., with B. 8 L. Sp.,for sponsus. § 70. 1 Added by Fay. d From the Greek, through the Etruscan. e Ac, intro- ducing an appositive. § 69. ° Verses 925-927 Marx. Cretaea was a meretrix, named from the country of her origin. V. has para- phrased the quotation, which was thus restored to metrical form by Lachmann, the first two words being added by Marx : Cretaea nuper, cum ad me cubitum venerat, Sponte ipsa suapte adducta ut tunicam et cetera Reiceret. soldiers shout " Oho, triumph ! " as they come back with the general through the City and he is going up to the Capitol; this is perhaps derived** from dpiafifios, as * a Greek surname of Liber. 69« Spondere is to say spondeo ' I solemnly promise,' from sponte ' of one's own inclination ' : for this has the same meaning as from voluntas ' personal desire.' Therefore Lucilius writes of the Cretan woman, that when she had come of her own desire to his house to lie with him, she was of her own sponte ' inclination ' led to throw back her tunic and other garments. The same voluntas ' personal desire ' is what Terence means 6 when he says that it is better Of one's own inclination right to do, Than merely by the fear of other folk. From the same sponte from which spondere is said, are derived despondet ' he pledges ' and respondet ' he promises in return, answers,' and desponsor ' promiser ' and sponsa ' promised brides' and likewise others in the same fashion. For he spondet ' solemnly promises ' who says of his own sponte ' inclination ' spondeo ' I promise ' ; he who spopondit ' has promised ' is a sponsor ' surety ' ; he who is by sponsus ' formal promise ' bound to do the same thing as the other party, is a consponsus ' co-surety.' 70. This is what Naevius means" when he says consponsi. If money 6 or a daughter spondebatur ' was promised ' in connexion with a marriage, both the While this might accord with the Lucilian prototype of Horace, Sat. i. 5. 82-85, the meter forbids, and because of the subject matter A. Spengel proposed Licinius, writer of comedies, for Lucilius. b Adelphoe, 75. §70. " Com. Rom. Frag., page 34 Ribbeck*; R.O.L. ii. 598 Warmington. * As dower. 237 V. appellabatur etpecunia et quae desponsa erat sponsa ; quae pecunia inter se contra sponsu 2 rogata erat, dicta sponsio ; cui desponsa quae 3 erat, sponsus ; quo die sponsum erat, sponsalis. 71. Qui 1 spoponderat filiam, despondisse 2 dice- bant, quod de sponte eius, id est de voluntate, exierat : non enim si volebat, dabat, quod sponsu erat alligatus : nam ut in com(o)ediis vides dici : Sponde(n) 3 tuam gnatam 4 filio uxorem meo ? Quod turn et praetorium ius ad legem et censorium iudicium ad aequum existimabatur. Sic despondisse animum quoque dicitur, ut despondisse filiam, quod suae spontis statuerat finem. 72. A sua sponte dicere cum spondere, (respon- dere) 1 quoque dixerunt, cum a(d) sponte(m) 2 re- sponderent, id est ad voluntatem rogatoris. 3 Itaque qui ad id quod rogatur non dicit, non respondet, ut non spondet ille statim qui dixit spondeo, si iocandi 2 L. Sp., for sponsum. 3 Hue., for quo. § 71. 1 G, B, Laetus, for quo. 2 B, Aldus, for dispon- disse. 3 Aug. ; spondem Rhol. ; for sponde. 4 Rhol., for agnatam. § 72. 1 Lachmann, for a qua sponte dicere cumspondere. 2 Turnebus, for a sponte. 3 L. Sp.,for rogationis. c To be forfeited to the other party as damages by that party which might break the agreement. § 71. ° Com, Rom. Frag., page 134 Ribbeck 3 . money and the girl who had been desponsa ' pledged ' were called sponsa ' promised, pledged * ; the money which had been asked under the sponsus ' engagement ' for their mutual protection against the breaking of the agreement,* was called a sponsio ' guarantee de- posit ' ; the man to whom the money or the girl was desponsa ' pledged,' was called sponsus ' betrothed ' ; the day on which the engagement was made, was called sponsalis ' betrothal day.' 71. He who spoponderat ' had promised ' his daughter, they said, despondisse ' had promised her away,' because she had gone out of the power of his sponte ' inclination,' that is, from the control of his voluntas ' desire ' : for even if he wished not to give her, still he gave her, because he was bound by his sponsus ' formal promise ' : for you see it said, as in comedies a : Do you now promise your daughter to my son as wife ? This was at that time considered a principle estab- lished by the praetors to supplement the statutes, and a decision of the censors for the sake of fairness. So a person is said despondisse animum ' to have promised his spirit away, to have become despondent,' just as he is said despondisse Jiliam ' to have promised his daughter away,' because he had fixed an end of the power of his sponte ' inclination.' 72. Since spondere was said from sua sponte dicere ' to say of one's own inclination,' they said also re- spondere ' to answer,' when they responderunt ' promised in return ' to the other party's spontem ' inclination,' that is, to the desire of the asker. Therefore he who says " no " to that which is asked, does not respondere, just as he does not spondere who has immediately said 239 V. causa dixit, neque agi potest cum eo ex sponsu. Itaqu(e) is 4 qu(o)i dicit(ur) 5 in co?«oedia 6 : Meministin 7 te spondere 8 mihi gnatam 9 tuam ? quod sine sponte sua dixit, cum eo non potest agi ex sponsu. 73. Etiam spes a sponte potest esse declinata, quod turn sperat cum quod 1 volt fieri putat : nam quod non volt si putat, metuit, non sperat. Itaque hi 2 quoque qui dicunt in Astraba Plauti : Nwwc 3 sequere adseque, Polybadisce, meam spem cupio consequi. — Sequor hercle (e)quidem, 4 nam libenter mea(m) sperata(m) 5 consequor : quod sine sponte dicunt, vere neque ille sperat qui dicit adolescens neque ilia (quae) 6 sperata est. 74. Sponsor et praes et vas neque ide/w, 1 neque res a quibus hi, sed e re simili. 2 Itaque praes qui a magistratu interrogatus, in publicum ut praestet ; a quo et cum respondet, dicit " praes." Vas appel- 4 L. Sp., for itaquis. 5 Kent, for qui dicit F (d'r a = dici- tur). 6 L. Sp.,for tragoedia. 7 Aug., for meministine. 8 Lachmann, metri gratia, for despondere. 9 Rhol., for agnatam. § 73. 1 Aug., for quod cum. 2 L. Sp., for hie. 3 L. Sp., for ne. 4 L. Sp., for quidem. 6 Ritschl, for mea sperata. 6 Added by Kent. §74. 1 Laetus, for ideo. 2 Sciop., for simile. § 72. Hanging nominative, resumed by cum eo after the quotation. b Trag. Rom. Frag., page 305 Ribbeck 3 ; but as the content indicates that it came from a comedy rather than from a tragedy, I have accepted L. Spengel's emenda- tion comoedia for the. manuscript tragoedia. § 73. a Wrong. * Frag. I Ritschl. c A dseque, active imperative form ; cf. Neue-Wagener, Formenlehre der lat. spondeo, if he said it for a joke, nor can legal action be taken against him as a result of such a sponsus 'promise.' Thus he" to whom someone says in a comedy, 6 Do you recall you pledged your daughter unto me ? which he had said without his sponte ' inclination,' cannot be proceeded against under his sponsus. 73. Spes ' hope ' is perhaps also derived a from sponte ' inclination,' because a person then sperat ' hopes,' M'hen he thinks that what he wishes is coming true ; for if he thinks that what he does not wish is coming true, he fears, not hopes. Therefore these also who speak in the Astraba of Plautus 6 : Follow now closely,' Polybadiscus, I wish to overtake my hope. — Heavens I surely do : I'm glad to overtake her whom I hope : because they speak without sponte ' feeling of success,' the youth who speaks does not truly ' hope,' nor does the girl who is ' hoped for.' d 74. Sponsor and praes and vas are not the same thing, nor are the matters identical from which these terms come ; but they develop out of similar situa- tions. Thus a praes is one who is asked by the magistrate that he praestat 1 make a guarantee ' to the state ; from which, also when he answers, he says, " I am your praes." He was called a vas Spr. 3 iii. 89. d Sperata, a regular term for the object of a young man's love. § 7i. " V. apparently says that a sponsor is one who undertakes an engagement toward an individual or indivi- duals ; a praes is one who undertakes an engagement on his own behalf, toward the state ; a vas is one who guarantees another person's engagement toward the state. VOL. I r 2-H V. latus, qui pro altero vadimonium promittebat. Con- suetudo erat, cum re?/s 3 parum esset idoneus inceptis rebus, ut pro se alium daret ; a quo caveri 4 postea lege coeptum 5 est ab his, qui praedia venderent, vadem ne darent ; ab eo ascribi coeptum 5 in lege mancipiorum: Vadem ne poscerent nec dabitur. 75. Canere, 1 accanit et succanit ut canto et can- tatio ex Camena permutato pro M N. 2 Ab eo quod semel, canit, si saepius, cantat. Hinc cantitat, item alia ; nec sine canendo (tubicines, liticines, corni- cines), 3 tibicines dicti : omnium enim horum quo- da^) 4 canere ; etiam bucinator a vocis similitudine et cantu dictus. 76. Oro ab ore et perorat et exorat et oratio et orator et osculum dictum. Indidem omen, orna- mentum ; alterum quod ex ore primum elatum est, osmen dictum ; alterum nunc cum propositione dici- tur vulgo ornamentum, quod sicut olim ornamenta 1 3 For reos. 4 For cavari. 6 For caeptum. §75. 1 For canerae. 2 Mue., for N.M. 8 Added by L. Sp., after Mue. recognized the lacuna and its contents, but set it after tibicines; cf v. 91. 4 Kent ; quoddam Canal ; for quod a. §76. 1 OS., for ornamentum. §75. ° The words explained in this section belong to- gether, except Camena, which stands apart. 6 Either ' sing ' or ' play on an instrument.' c Usually in the plural ; Italian goddesses of springs and waters, regularly identified with the Greek Muses. d The insertion in the text is rendered necessary by omnium horum ; cf. also critical note. e Quodam, ablative with canere. § 76. ° These words are from os, except omen, ornamen- tum, oscines. ' bondsman ' who promised bond for another. It was the custom, that when a part}' in a suit was not considered capable of fulfilling his engagements, he should give another as bondsman for him : from which they later began to provide by law against those who should sell their real estate, that they should not offer themselves as bondsmen. From this, they began to add the provision in the law about the transfer of properties, that " they should not demand a bondsman, nor will a bondsman be given." 7o. a Canere 6 ' to sing,' accanit ' he sings to ' some- thing, and succanit ' he sings a second part,' like canto ' I sing ' and cantatio ' song,' from Camena c ' Muse,' with N substituted for M. From the fact that a person sings once, he canit : if he sings more often, he cantat. From this, cantitat ' he sings repeatedly,' and likewise other words ; nor without canere ' singing, playing ' are the tubicines ' trumpeters,' named, and the liticines ' cornetists,' cornicines ' horn-blowers,' d iibicines ' pipes-players ' : for canere ' playing ' on some special instrument * belongs to all these. The bucinator ' trumpeter ' also was named from the like- ness of the sound and the cantus ' playing.' 76. a Oro ' I beseech ' was so called from os ' mouth,' and so were perorat ' he ends his speech ' and exorat ' he gains by pleading,' and oratio ' speech ' and orator ' speaker ' and osculum ' kiss.' From the same, omen ' presage ' and ornamentum ' ornament ' : because the former was first uttered from the os ' mouth,' it was called osmen ; the latter is now commonly used in the singular with the general idea of ornament, but as formerly most of the play-actors use it in 24-3 V. scoenici plerique dicunt. Hinc oscines dicuntur apud augures, quae ore faciunt auspicium. VIII. 77. Tertium gradum agcndi esse dicunt, ubi quid faciant ; in eo propter similitudinem agendi et faciendi et gerendi quidam error his qui putant esse unum. Potest enim aliquid facere et non agere, ut poeta facit fabulam et non agit, contra actor agit et (non) 1 facit, et sic a poeta fabula fit, non agitur, ab actore agitur, non fit. Contra imperator quod dicitur res gerere, in eo neque facit neque agit, sed gerit, id est sustinet, tralatum ab his qui onera 2 gerunt, quod hi sustinent. 78. Proprio nomine dicitur facere a facie, qui rci quam facit imponit faciem. Ut fictor cum dicit fingo, figuram imponit, quom dicit formo, 1 formam, sic cum dicit facio, faciem imponit ; a qua facie discernitur, ut dici possit aliud esse vestimentum, aliud vas, sic item quae fiunt apud fabros, fictores, item alios alia. Qui quid 2 amministrat, cuius opus non extat quod sub § 77. 1 Omitted in F. 2 G, H, for honera F. § 78. 1 L. Sp„ for informo. 2 Aug., for quicquid. 6 Found only in the plural in the scenic poets, who used it of ornaments for the head and face (os) ; it is a derivative of ornare ' to adorn,' which comes from ordo ordinis. c From prefix ops + can- ' sing ' : cf. o(p)s-tendere ' to show.' § 77. Cf vi. 41-42. 6 The distinction is almost impossible to imitate in translation, but the argument is good so far as the examples in the text are concerned. § 78. a Fades is from facere. the plural. 6 From this, oscines c ' singing birds ' are spoken of among the augurs, which indicate their pre- monitions by the os ' mouth.' VIII. 77. The third stage of action ° is, they say, that in -which they fadunt ' make ' something : in this, on account of the likeness among agere ' to act ' and facere ' to make ' and gerere ' to carry or carry on,' a certain error is committed by those •who think that it is only one thing. 6 For a person can facere something and not agere it, as a poet fadt ' makes ' a play and does not act it, and on the other hand the actor agit ' acts ' it and does not make it, and so a play ft ' is made ' by the poet, not acted, and agitur ' is acted ' by the actor, not made. On the other hand, the general, in that he is said to gerere ' carry on ' affairs, in this neither fadt ' makes ' nor agit ' acts,' but gerit ' carries on,' that is, supports, a meaning transferred from those who gerunt ' carry ' burdens, because they support them. 78. In its literal sense facere ' to make ' is from fades ° ' external appearance ' : he is said facere ( to make ' a thing, who puts a fades ' external appear- ance ' on the thing which he facit ' makes.' As the fetor ' image-maker,' when he says " Fingo ' I shape,' " puts a figura ' shape ' on the object, and when he says " Formo ' I form,' " puts a. forma ' form ' on it, so when he says " Fado ' I make,' " he puts a fades ' external appearance ' on it ; by this external appearance there comes a distinction, so that one thing can be said to be a garment, another a dish, and likewise the various things that are made by the carpenters, the image- makers, and other workers. He who furnishes a service, whose work does not stand out in concrete form so as to come under the observation of our 245 V. sensu(m) 3 veniat, ab agitatu, ut dixi, magis agere quam facere putatur ; sed quod his magis promiscue quam diligenter eonsuetudo est usa, translations utimur verbis : nam et qui dieit, faeere verba dieimus, et qui aliquid agit, non esse inficientem. 79- (Et facere lumen, 1 faculam) 2 qui adlueet, dieitur. Lucere ab luere, (quod) et 3 luce dissolvun- tur tenebrae ; ab luce Noctiluea, 4 quod propter lueem amissam is eultus institutus. Aequirere est ad et quaerere ; ipsum quaerere ab eo quod quae res ut reeiperetur datur opera ; a quoerendo quaestio, ab his turn quaestor. 5 80. Video a visu, (id a vi) 1 : qui(n)que 2 enim sensuum maximus in oeulis : nam cum sensus nullus quod abest mille passus sentire possit, oculorum sensus vis usque pervenit ad stellas. Hinc : Visenda vigilant, vigilium invident. Et Acci 3 : 3 //, Aldus, for sensu. § 79. 1 Added by GS. 2 Added by Fay, from Plautus, Persa, 515. 3 quod et Kent; quod A. Sp. ; for et. 4 After Noctiluea, L. Sp. deleted lucere item ab luce, a mar- ginal gloss that had crept into the text. 6 Kent, for con- qucstor. §80. 1 Added by L. Sp. 2 For qui que. 3 Kent, for atti. 6 vi. 41-42. § 79. " Wrong etymology. 6 This sentence, if properly reconstructed, goes with the preceding section. c Wrong. d As dis-so-luuntur, which is in fact its origin. * This sentence is out of place, but its proper place cannot be deter- mined ; cf. v. 81. f Correct etymologies, except that of qnaerere itself. § 80. " Video is to be kept distinct from vis and from vigilium. 6 Part of a verse from an unknown play, in physical senses, is, from his agitatus ' action, motion,' as I have said, 6 thought rather agere ' to act ' than facere ' to make ' something ; but because general practice has used these words indiscriminately rather than with care, we use them in transferred meanings ; for he who dicit ' says ' something, we say facere ' makes ' words, and he who agit ' acts ' something, we say is not inficiens ' failing to do ' something. 79. And he who lights a faculam a ' torch,' is said to facere ' make ' a light. 6 Lucere ' to shine,' from luere c ' to loose,' because it is also by the light that the shades of night dissohuntur d ' are loosed apart ' ; from lux ' light ' comes Noctiluca ' Shiner of the Night,' because this worship was instituted on account of the loss of the daylight. Acquirere e ' to acquire ' is ad' in addition ' and quaerere ' to seek ' ; quaerere itself is from this, that attention is given to quae res ' what thing ' is to be got back ; from quaerere comes quaestio ' question ' ; then from these, quaestor ' in- vestigator, treasurer.' * 80. Video a ' I see,' from visus ' sight,' this from vis ' strength ' ; for the greatest of the five senses is in the eyes. For while no one of the senses can feel that which is a mile away, the strength of the sense of the eyes reaches even to the stars. From this 6 : They watch for what is to be seen, but hate to stay awake.' Also the verse of Accius d : which the persons are watching the night sky for omens. e Invidere 4 to look at with dislike ' originally took a direct object, as here ; cf. Cicero, Tusc. iii. 9. 20. d If properly reconstituted, an iambic tetrameter catalectic, referring to Actaeon,_who inadvertently beheld Artemis bathing with the nymphs. 247 V. Cum illud o(c)wli(s) violavit 4 (is), 5 qui inmdit 6 invidendum. A quo etiam violavit virginem pro vit(i)avit dicebant ; acque eadem modestia potius cum muliere fuisse quam concubuisse dicebant. 81. Cerno idem valet : itaque pro video ait En- nius : Lumen — iubarne ? — in caelo cerno. Cawius 1 : Sensumque inesse et motum in membris cerno. Dictum cerno a cereo, id est a creando ; dictum ab eo quod cum quid creatum est, tunc denique videtur. Hinc fines capilli d^scripti, 2 quod finis videtur, dis- crimen ; et quod 3 in testamento (cernito), 4 id est facito videant te esse heredem : itaque in cretione adhibere iubent testes. Ab eodem est quod ait Medea : Ter sub armis malim vz'tam 5 cernere, Quam semel modo parere ; quod, ut decernunt de vita eo tempore, multorum videtur vitae finis. 4 Mue., for obliuio lavet (obviolavit Aug., with B). 5 Added by Kent, metri gratia. 6 Kent ; vidit Mue. ; for incidit. §81. 1 Schoell, marginal note in his copy of A. Sp.'s edition,for canius. 2 A. Sp., for descripti. 3 Turnebus, for qui id. 4 Added by Turnebus. 5 Bentinus, from Nonius Marc. 261. 22 M.,for multa. e See note c. f Invidendum with negative prefix in-, unlike the preceding word; cf. infectum meaning both ' stained ' and ' not done.' §81. "Literally 'separate'; hence 'distinguish, see,' and also ' discriminate, decide.' Cerno has no connexion When that he violated with his eyes, Who looked upon • what ought not to be seen.' From which moreover they used to say violavit ' he did violence to ' a girl instead of vitiavit ' ruined ' her ; and similarly, with the same modesty, thev used to say rather that a man fult ' was ' with a woman, than that he concubuit ' lay ' with her. 81. Cerno a has the same meaning; therefore Ennius b uses it for video : I see light in the sky — can it be dawn ? Cassius c says : I see that in her limbs there's feeling still and motion. Cerno ' I see ' is said from cereo, that is, creo ' I create ' ; it is said from this fact, that when something has been created, then finally it is seen. From this, the bound- ary-lines of the parted hair, d because a boundary- line is seen, got the name discrimen ' separation ' ; and the cernito ' let him decide,' e which is in a will, that is, make them see that you are heir : therefore in the cretio ' decision ' they direct that the heir bring wit- nesses. From the same is that which Medea says / : I'd rather thrice decide, in battle wild, My life or death, than bear but once a child. Because, when they decernunt ' decide ' about life at that time, the end of many persons' lives is seen. with creo. 6 Trag. Rom. Frag., verse 338 Ribbeck* ; R.O.L. i. 226-227 Warmington ; from the Ajar ; cf. vi. 6 and vii. 76. e Fitting Cassius's play Lucretia ; cf. vi. 7 and vii. 72. * Capittus in the singular was used as a collective by V., according to Charisius, i. 104. 20 Keil. • Cf. Gams, Institut. ii. 1 74. ' Ennius, Medea, 222-223 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. i. 316-317 Warmington; translated from Euripides, Medea, 250-251. 249 V. 82. Spectare dictum ab (specio) 1 antiquo, quo etiam Ennius usus : uos 2 Epulo postquam spexit, et quod in auspiciis distributum est qui habent spec- tionem, qui non habeant, et quod in auguriis etiam nunc augurcs dicunt avem specere. Consuetudo com(m)unis quae cum praeverbi(i)s coniun(c)ta fuerunt etiam nunc servat, ut aspicio, conspicio, respicio, suspicio, despicio, 3 sic alia ; in quo etiam expecto quod spectare volo. Hinc speculo(r), 4 hinc speculum, quod in eo specimus imaginem. Specula, de quo prospicimus. Speculator, quern mittimus ante, ut respiciat quae volumus. Hinc qui oculos inunguimus quibus specimus, specillum. 83. Ab auribus verba videntur dicta audio et ausculto ; aures 1 ab aveo, 2 quod his avemus di(s)cere 3 semper, quod Ennius videtur ervfiov ostendere velle in Alexandro cum ait : lam dudum ab ludis animus atque aures avent, Avide expectantes nuntium. Propter hanc aurium aviditatem theatra replentur. Ab audiendo etiam auscultare declinatum, quod hi § 82. 1 Added bp Aug. 2 A. Sp., from Festus, 330 b 32 31., for uos. 3 31, Jxietus, for didestspicio. 4 Canal, for specula. § 83. 1 3Iue., for audio. 2 Laetus, for abaucto. 3 Aug., for dicere. § 82. ° Annales, 421 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 148-149 Warm- ington ; given in better form by Festus, 330 b 32 M. : Quos ubi rex (Ep)ulo spexit de cotibus (=cautibus) celsis. Epulo was a king of the Istrians, who fought against the Romans in 178-177 b.c. ; cf. Livy,xli. 1,4, 11. 6 Page 20 Regell. c Page 17 Regell. § 83. Auris, audio, ausculto belong ultimately together, Spectare ' to see ' is said from the old word specere, which in fact Ennius used a : After Epulo saw them, and because in the taking of the auspices 6 there is a division into those who have the spectio ' watch-duty ' and those who have not ; and because in the taking of the auguries even now the augurs say c specere ' to watch ' a bird. Gammon practice even now keeps the compounds made with prefixes, as aspicio ' I look at,' conspicio ' I observe,' respicio ' I look back at,' suspicio ' I look up at,' despicio ' I look down upon,' and similarly others ; in which group is also expecto ' I look for, expect ' that which I wish spectare ' to see.' From this, speculor ' I watch ' ; from this, speculum ' mirror,' because in it we specimus ' see ' our image. Specula ' look-out,' that from which we prospicimus ' look forth.' Speculator ' scout,' whom we send ahead, that he respiciat 1 may look attentively ' at what we wish. From this, the instrument with which we anoint our eyes by which we specimus ' see,' is called a specillum ' eye-spatula.' 83. From the aures ' ears ' seem to have been said the words audio ' I hear ' and ausculto ' I listen, heed ' ; aures ' ears ' from aveo a ' I am eager,' because with these we are ever eager to learn, which Ennius seems to wish to show as the radical in his Alexander, 1 * when he says : A long time eager have been my spirit and my ears, Awaiting eagerly some message from the games. It is on account of this eagerness of the ears that the theatres are filled. From audire ' to hear ' is derived also auscultare ' to listen, heed,' because they are said but are not to be connected with aveo. 6 Trag. Rom. Frag. 34-35 Ribbeck'; R.O.L. i. 236-237 Warmington. V. auscultare dicuntur qui auditis parent, a quo dictum poetae : Audio, . 7 84. Ore edo, sorbeo, bibo, poto. Edo a Graeco low, 1 hinc esculentum et esca edulia 2 ; et quod Graece yei'eTcu, 3 Latine gustat. Sorbere, item bi- bere a vocis sono, ut fervere aquam ab eius rei simili sonitu. Ab eadem lingua, quod irorov, potio, unde poculum, potatio, repotia. 4 Indidem puteus, quod sic Graecum antiquum, non ut nunc (f>peap dictum. 85. A manu manupretium 1 ; mancipium, quod manu capitur ; (quod) 2 coniungit plures manus, manipulus ; manipularis, manica. Manubrium, quod manu tenetur. Mantelium, ubi manus terguntur. . . . 3 4 Aug. {quoting a friend), for aut. 5 B, Laetus, for ob- scnlto. 6 L. Sp., for odoratur. 7 sic alia ab ore A. Sp., for sic ab ore (Mue. deleted sic, and set ab ore at the begin- ning of the next section). §84. 1 A Idus, for edon. 2 Canal; escae edulia Aldus; for escaedulia. 3 Victorias, for geuete. 4 Aug. (quot- ing a friend), for repotatio. Victorius, for mantur praetium. 2 Added by G, H. 3 Lacuna recognized by Aug. e That is, with an changed to o, as if audor were the origin of odor ; olor, with the well-known change of d to I, is not attested elsewhere in Latin literature, but is found in the glosses and survives in the Romance languages. These words belong together, but are not to be grouped with audio. The etymological connexions are correct (except for puteus ; cf. v. 25 note a), but the Latin words are cognate auscultare who obey what they have heard ; from which comes the poet's saying : I hear, but do not heed. With the change of a letter are formed odor c or olor ' smell ' ; from this, olet ' it emits an odour,' and odorari ' to detect by the odour,' and odoratus ' perfumed,' and an odora ' fragrant ' thing, and similarly other words. 84. a With the mouth edo ' I eat,' sorbeo ' I suck in,' 6160 ' I drink,' poto ' I drink.' Edo from Greek eSto ' I eat ' ; from this, esculentum ' edible ' and esca ' food ' and edulia ' eatables ' ; and because in Greek it is yevtrat ' he tastes,' in Latin it is gustat. Sorbere ' to suck in,' and likewise bibere ' to drink,' from the sound 6 of the word, as for water fervere ' to boil ' is from the sound like the action. From the same language, because there it is — 6-ov ' drink,' is potio ' drink,' whence poculum ' cup,' potatio ' drinking-bout,' repotia ' next day's drinking.' From the same comes puteus ' well,' because the old Greek word was like this, and not pcap as it is now. 80. From manus ' hand ' comes manupretium ' workman's wages ' ; mancipium ' possession of pro- perty,' because it capitur ' is taken ' mann ' in hand ' ; manipulus ' maniple,' because it unites several manus ' hands ' ; manipularis ' soldier of a maniple,' manica ' sleeve.' Manubrium ' handle,' because it is grasped by the manus ' hand.' Mantelium ' towel,' on which the manus ' hands ' terguniur ' are wiped.' . . . a with the Greek, not derived from it. 6 These words are not onomatopoeic § 85. The gap is serious : the subject matter shifts abruptly, and many appropriate topics are missed, such as the actions of the feet, and some further discussion of the distinctions among agere, facere, gerere. Nunc primum ponam (de) 1 Censoriis Tabulis : Ubi noctu in templum censor 2 auspicaverit atque de caelo nuntium erit, praeconi 3 sic imperato 4 ut viros vocet : " Quod bonum fortunatum felix salutareque siet 5 populo Ro- mano Quiritiiw* 6 reique publicae populi Romani Quiritium mihique collegaeque meo, fidei magistratuique nostro : omnes Quirites pedites armatos, privatosque, curatores omnium tribuum, si quis pro se sive pro 1 altero rationem dari volet, voca 8 inlicium hue ad me." 87. Praeco in templo primum vocat, postea de moeris 1 item vocat. Ubi ht 12 ex(qua)0ra(s>, 13 consules praetores tribunosque plebis collegasque uos, 14 et in templo adesse iubeas omnes 15 ; ac cum mittas, contionem avoces. 18 92. In eodem Commentario Awquisitionis 1 ad ex- tremum scriptum caput edicti hoc est : Item quod attingat qui de censoribus 2 classicum ad comitia centuriata redemptum habent, uti curent eo die quo die comitia erunt, in Arce classicus canat 3 circumque muros et ante privati huiusce T. Quinti Trogi scelerosi ostium 4 canat, et ut in Campo cum primo luci adsiet. 5 93. Inter id cum circum muros mittitur et cum contio advocatur, interesse tempus apparet ex his quae interea fieri mlicium 1 scriptum est ; sed ad comitiatum 2 vocatur populus ideo, quod alia de causa hie magistratus non potest exercitum urbanum con- § 91. 1 Bergk, for orande sed. 2 Mommsen, for au- spiciis. 3 L. Sp., for dum. 4 Sciop., for commeatum. 5 Kent ; praeco reum Aug. ; for praetores. 6 Laetus, for portet. 7 Aug., with B, for cornicem. 8 Aldus, for cannat. ' Rhol., for colligam. 10 Mue., for rogis. 11 Victorius, for comitiae dicat. 12 Mue., for censeat. 13 Bergk ; exquiras Mue.; for extra. 14 Sciop., for uos. 15 Sciop., for homines. 16 B, G, Aug., for auoces. § 92. 1 Aug., with B, for acquisitionis. 2 Aug., with B, for decessoribus. 3 Victorius, for cannatum. 4 Sciop., for hostium. 5 Sciop., for adsit et. § 93. 1 Aldus, for illicitum F 1 (illicium F 2 ). 2 Sciop., for comitia turn. § 91. a The document is addressed to Sergius as quaestor. 6 Page 21 Regell. "The northern summit of the Capito- You° shall give your attention to the auspices, 4 and take the auspices in the sacred precinct ; then you shall send to the praetor or to the consul the favourable presage which has been sought. The praetor shall call the accused to appear in the assembly before you, and the herald shall call him from the walls : it is proper to give this command. A horn-blower you shall send to the doorway of the private individual and to the Citadel," where the signal is to sound. Your colleague you shall request that from the speaker's stand he proclaim an assembly, and that the bankers shut up their shops.* You shall seek that the senators express their opinion, and bid them be present ; you shall seek that the magistrates express their opinion, the consuls, the praetors, the tribunes of the people, and your colleagues, and you shall bid them all be present in the temple ; and when you send the request, you shall summon the gathering. 92. In the same Commentary on the Indictment, at the end, this summing up of the edict is written : Likewise in what pertains to those who have received from the censors the contract for the trumpeter who gives the summons to the centuriate assembly, they shall see to it that on that day, on which the assembly shall take place, the trumpeter shall sound the trumpet on the Citadel and around the walls, and shall sound it before the house-entrance of this accursed Titus Quintius Trogus, and that he be present in the Campus Martius at daybreak." That between the sending around the walls and the calling of the gathering some time elapses, is clear from those things the doing of which in the meantime is written down as the inlicium ' imitation ' ; but the people is called to appear in the assembly because for any other reason this magistrate cannot call together the citizen-army of the City. The line. * These shops (c/. § 59 and note), on both sides of the Forum, were to be closed during the trial of Trogus. § 92. In early Latin, lux was normally masculine, as in Plautus, Aul. 7-lS,Cist. 525, Capt. 1008 ; Terence, Adel. 841. § 93. a The praetor. 259 V. vocare ; censor, consul, dictator, interrex potest, quod censor 3 exercitum centuriato constituit quinquen- nalem, cum lustrare 4 et in urbem ad vexillum ducere debet ; dictator et consul in singulos annos, quod hie exercitui imperare potest quo eat, id quod propter centuriata comitia imperare solent. 94. Quare non est dubium, quin 1 hoc inlicium sit, cum circum muros itur, ut populus inliciatur ad magis- tratus conspectum, qui (vi)ros 2 vocare 3 potest, in eum locum unde vox ad contionem vocantis exaudiri possit. Quare una origine illici et inlicis quod in Choro Pro- serpinae est, et pellexit, quod in //ermiona est, cum ait Pacuius : Regni alieni cupiditas Pellexit. Sic Elicii Iovis ara 4 in Aventino, ab eliciendo. 95. Hoc nunc aliter fit atque olim, quod augur consuli adest turn cum exercitus imperatur ac praeit quid eum dicere oporteat. Consul augur(i) 1 imperare solet, ut iralicium 2 vocet, non accenso aut praeconi. Id inceptum credo, cum non adesset accensus ; et nihil intererat cui imperaret, et dicis causa fieba(n)t 3 3 Laetus, for censorem. 4 Scaliger, for lustraret. § 94. 1 Vertranvus, for cum. 2 L. Sp., for qui ros. 3 Aldus, for uocari. 4 Victor -ins, for iobis uisa ara. §95. 1 Victorius, for augur. 2 B, Laetus, for is licium. 3 Aug., with B, for fiebat. 6 This statement refers to the consul only ; the part de- fining the dictator's powers seems to have fallen out of the text. § 94. " Trag. Rom. Frag., page 272 Ribbeck 3, of an un- known poet ; unless Chorus Proserpinae is a substitute name for Eumenides, a tragedy of Ennius. " Trag. Rom. Frag., verses 170-171 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. ii. 226-227 Warmington. c A popular etymology only, since Jupiter could hardly be censor, the consul, the dictator, the interrex can, because the censor arranges in centuries the citizen- army for a period of five years, when he must cere- monially purify it and lead it to the city under its standards ; the dictator and the consul do so every year, 6 because the latter can order the citizen-army where it is to go, a thing which they are accustomed to order on account of the centuriate assembly. 91. Therefore there is no doubt that this is the inUcium, when they go around the walls that the people may inlici 1 be enticed ' before the eyes of the magistrate who has the authority to call the men into that place from which the voice of the one who is calling them to the gathering can be heard. There- fore there come from the same source also illici 1 to be enticed ' and inlicis ' thou enticest,' which are in the Chorus of Proserpina, a and pellexit ' lured,' which is in the Hermiona, when Pacuvius says 6 : Desire for another's kingdom lured him on. So also the altar of Jupiter Elicius ' the Elicited ' on the Aventine, from elicere ' to lure forth.' c 95. This is now done otherwise than it was of old, because the augur is present with the consul when the citizen-army is summoned, and says in advance the formulas which he is to say. The consul regularly gives order to the augur, not to the assistant nor to the herald, that he shall call the inlicium ' invitation.' I believe that this was begun on an occasion when the assistant was not present ; it really made no difference to whom he gave the order, and it was for form's sake ' tricked ' ; according to G. S. Hopkins, Indo-European deiwos and Related Words, 27-32, Elicius is a derivative of liquere ' to be liquid,' and Jupiter Elicius is a rain-god. 261 V. quaedam neque item facta neque item dicta semper. Hoc ipsum inlieium scriptum inveni in M. Iunii Com- mentariis ; quod tamen (inlex apud Plautum in Persa est qui legi non paret), 4 ibidem est quod illicit illex, (f)it quod 5 (I) 6 cum E et C cum G magnam habet co(m)munitatem. X. 96. Sed quoniam in hoe de paucis rebus verba feci plura, de pluribus rebus verba faciam pauca, et potissimum quae in Graeea lingua putant Latina, ut sealpere a o-KaAeveiv, 1 sternere a a-rpwvvf.iv, 2 lingere a Xixfiaadai? i ab W(t), i ite ab Ttc, 5 gignitur toris. 6 Non reprehendendum igitur in illis qui in scrutando verbo litteram adiciunt aut demunt, quo 7 facilius quid sub ea voce subsit viden' 8 possit : ut* enim facilius obscuram operam (M)yrmecidw 10 ex 1 The lost heading is restored after that of Book VI. 2 F contains this statement of loss; B and the Leipzig codex contain an interpolated beginning : Temporum vocabula et eorum quae coniuncta sunt, aut in agendo fiunt, aut cum tempore aliquo enuntiantur, priore libro dixi. In hoc dicam de poeticis vocabulis et eorum originibus, in quis multa difficilia : nam, after which comes repens ruina aperuit. AT THIS POINT, AT LEAST ONE LEAF, BUT PERHAPS MORE, IS LACKING. A word a poet uses is hard to expound. For, often, some meaning, or sense, that is fixed in olden times is buried by a sudden catastrophe, or in some word whose proper make-up of letters is hidden after some element has been taken away from it, the INTENT OR INTENTION – Grice’s m-intention -- of him who first applied the word becomes in this fashion quite obscure. There should be no rebuking then of those who, in examining a word, add a letter or take one away, that what underlies this expression may be more easily perceived : just as, for instance, that the eyes may more easily see Myrmecides' indistinct Proposed by A. Sp., as the most probable indication of what immediately preceded. * Turnebus, for aperuit. s A. Sp., for ut. * Turnebus, for sit. 5 Aldus, 11, for obscurius. 6 Victorius, for in posterioris. 7 Turnebus, for quid. 8 L. Sp., for uidere. ' Victorius, for et. 10 L. Sp. ; Myrmetidis Aldus ; for yrmeci dum. 267 V. ebore oculi videant, extrinsecus admovent nigras setas. 2. Cum haec amminicula addas ad eruendum voluntatem impositoris, tamen latent multa. Quod si poetice (quae) 1 in carminibus servant 2 multa prisca quae essent,sic etiam cur essent posuisset^yecundius 4 poemata ferrent fructum ; sed ut in soluta oratione sic in poematis verba (non) 5 omnia quae habent 8 ervfxa possunt dici, neque multa ab eo, quern non erunt in lucubratione litterae prosecutae, multum licet legeret. AeliV hominis in primo in litteris Latinis exercitati interpretationem Carminum Salio- rum videbis et exili littera expedita(m) 8 et praeterita obscura 9 multa. 3. Nec mirum, cum non modo Epemenides 1 (s)opor(e) 2 post annos L experrectus a multis non cognoscatur, sed etiam Teucer Livii post XV annos ab suis qui sit ignoretur. At 3 hoc quid ad verborum poeticorum aetatem ? Quorum si Pompili regnum fons in Carminibus Saliorum neque ea ab superioribus § 2. 1 Added by L. Sp. 2 Victorius, for servabit. 3 Victorius, for posuissent. 4 Laetns, for secundius. 6 Added by line. 6 For haberent. 7 H, B, Ed. Veneta, for helii. 8 Laetus, for expedita. 9 For praeteritam obscuram. §3. 1 Aug., icith B, for Epamenidis. 2 GS., for opos. 3 Victorius, for ad. § 1. ° Cf. ix. 108 ; his carvings were so tiny that the detail in the white ivory could be seen only against a black background. A Cretan poet and prophet, reputed to have cleansed Athens of a plague in 596 b.c According to one story, in his boyhood he went into a cave to escape the noonday sun, and fell into a sleep that lasted fifty-seven years. When he awoke, handiwork in ivory, men put black hairs behind the objects. 2. Even though you employ these tools to unearth the intent of him who applied the word, much remains hidden. But if the art of poesy, which has in the verses preserved many words that are early, had in the same fashion also set down why and how they came to be, the poems would bear fruit in more pro- lific measure ; unfortunately, in poems as in prose, not all the words can be assigned to their primitive radicals, and there are many which cannot be so assigned by him whom learning does not attend with favour in his nocturnal studies, though he read pro- digiously. In the interpretation of the Hymns of the Saltans, which was made by Aelius, an outstanding scholar in Latin literature, you will see that the inter- pretation is greatly furthered by attention to a single poor letter, and that much is obscured if such a letter is passed by. 3. Nor is this astonishing : for not only were there many who failed to recognize Epimenides ° when he awoke from sleep after fifty years, but even Teucer's own family, in the play of Livius Andronicus, 6 do not know who he is after his absence of fifteen years. But what has this to do with the age of poetic words ? If the reign of Numa Pompilius c is the source of those in the Hymns of the Saltans and those words were not received from earlier hymn-makers, they are none the everything was changed ; his younger brother had become an old man. * Livius Andronicus, T rag. Rom. Frag., page 7 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. ii. 14-15 Warmington. Teucer, son of Telamon king of Salamis, was absent from home during the Trojan War, and again during his exile after his return from that war. e Second king of Rome, founder of the Salian priesthood. 269 V. accepta, tamen habent DCC annos. Quare cur scriptoris industriam reprehendas qui herois tritavum, atavum non potuerit reperire, cum ipse tui tritavi matrem dicere non possis ? Quod intervallum multo tanto propius nos, quam hinc ad initium Saliorum, quo Romanorum prima verba poetica dicunt Latina. 4. Igitur de originibus verborum qui multa dix- erit commode, potius boni consulendum, quam qui aliquid nequierit reprehendendum, praesertim quom dicat etymologice 1 non omnium verborum posse dici causa 2 natura in caelo, ab auspiciis in terra, a similitudine sub terra. In caelo te(m)plum dicitur, ut in .Hecuba : O magna templa caelitum, commixta stellis splendidis. In terra, ut in Periboea : Scrupea saxea Ba(c)chi Templa prope aggreditur. Sub terra, ut in Andromacha : Acherusia templa alta Orci, salvete, infera. 7. Quaqua 1 initi erat 2 oculi, a tuendo primo templum dictum : quocirca caelum qua attui- mur dictum templum ; sic : Contremuit templum magnum Iovis altitonantis, 2 Sciop., for excidit. § 6. 1 Groth, with V, p, for auspicendo. 2 Added by L. Sp. % 7. 1 Aug., for quaquia. 2 Sciop., for initium erat. § 6. ° Said of Romulus, by Ennius, Ann. 65-66 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 22-23 Warmington ; quoted without templa by Ovid, Met. xiv. 814 and Fast. ii. 487. » Properly a ' limited space,' for divination or otherwise ; from the root tern- 'cut.' c Page 18 Regell. d That is, likeness to a templum in the sky or on the earth. ' Ennius, Trag. Rom. Frag. 163 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. i. 292-293 Warmington. that if any word lies outside this fourfold division, I shall still include it in the account. 6. I shall begin from this : One there shall be, whom thou shalt raise up to sky's azure temples." Templum 6 ' temple ' is used in three ways, of nature, of taking the auspices, 6 from likeness d : of nature, in the sky ; of taking the auspices, on the earth ; from likeness, under the earth. In the sky, templum is used as in the Hecuba e : O great temples of the gods, united with the shining stars. On the earth, as in the Periboea f : To Bacchus' temples aloft On sharp jagged rocks it draws near. Under the earth, as in the Andromacha : Be greeted, great temples of Orcus, By Acheron's waters, in Hades. 7. Whatever place the eyes had iniuiti ' gazed on,' was originally called a templum ' temple,' from tueri ' to gaze ' ; therefore the sky, where we attuimur ' gaze at ' it, got the name templum, as in this ° : Trembled the mighty temple of Jove who thunders in heaven, ' Pacuvius, Tray. Rom. Frag. 310 Ribbeck*; R.O.L. ii. 278- 279 Warmington ; anapaestic; said of a Bacchic rout. ' Ennius, Trag. Rom. Frag. 70-71 Ribbeck*; R.O.L. i. 254- 255 Warmington ; anapaestic ; quoted more fully by Cicero, Tusc. Disp. i. 21. 48. §7. "Ennius, Ann. 541 Vahlen*; R.O.L. i. 450-451 Warmington. vol. i T 273 V. id est, ut ait Naevius, HemispAaerium 3 ubi conca* Caerulo 6 septum stat. Eius templi partes quattuor dicuntur, sinistra ab oriente, dextra ab occasu, antica ad meridiem, postica ad septemtrionem. 8. In terris dictum templum locus augurii aut auspicii causa quibusdam conceptis verbis finitus. Concipitur verbis non isdem 1 usque quaque ; in Arce sic : Tem tescaque 2 me ita sunto, quoad ego- ea rite 3 lingua 4 nuncupavero. Olla t'er(a) 6 arbos quirquir est, quam me sentio dixisse, templum tescumque me esto 6 in sinistrum. Olla ver(&} 7 arbos quirquir est, quam 6 me sentio dixisse, te(m)plum tescumque me esto 6 (in) 9 dextrum. Inter ea conregione conspicione cortumione, utique ea (rit)e dixisse me 10 sensi. 9. In hoc templo faciundo arbores constitui fines apparet et intra eas regiones qua oculi conspiciant, id 3 Turnebns, B, for hiemisferium. 4 Mue., for conca. 6 For cherulo. §8. 1 Mue., for hisdem. 2 Turnebus,for item testaque. 3 ea rite L. Sp., for eas te. 4 Victorius, p, for linquam. 6 Kent, for ullaber. 6 tescum Turnebus, -que me Fay, esto Scaliger and Turnebns, for tectum quern festo. 7 Kent, for ollaner. 6 Mue., for quod. . 9 Added by B, Laetus. 10 L. Sp., ; ea dixisse me Sciop. ; for ea erectissime. b An uncertain fragment, not listed in the collections of the fragments of Naevius. c Cf. p. 18 Regell. § 8. Page 18 Regell. 6 Text and translation both very problematic. I take me as dative (cf Fest. 160. 2) ; regard quirquir as equal to quisquis, either by manuscript corruption or with rhotacism in the phrase quisquis est, that is, as Naevius says, 6 Where land's semicircle lies, Fenced by the azure vault. Of this temple c the four quarters are named thus : the left quarter, to the east ; the right quarter, to the west ; the front quarter, to the south ; the back quarter, to the north. 8. On the earth, templum is the name given to a place set aside and limited by certain formulaic words for the purpose of augury a or the taking of the auspices. The words of the ceremony are not the same everywhere ; on the Citadel, they are as follows 6 : Temples and wild lands be mine in this manner, up to where I have named them with my tongue in proper fashion. Of whatever kind that truthful' tree is, which I con- sider that I have mentioned, temple and wild land be mine to that point on the left. Of whatever kind that truthful tree is, which I consider that I have mentioned, temple and wild land be mine to that point on the right. Between these points, temples and wild lands be mine for direction, for viewing, and for interpreting, and just as I have felt assured that I have mentioned them in proper fashion. 9. In making this temple, it is evident that the trees are set as boundaries, and that within them the regions are set where the eyes are to view, that is we becoming quisquir est (so Fay, Amur. Journ. Phil. xxxv. 253) ; take as datives the three words in -one in the last sentence (meanings, vii. 9), supplying after them templa tescaque me sunto. For meaning of tescum, cf. vii. 10-11. ' That is, lending itself to true predictions through the auspices. est tueamur, a quo templum dictum, et contemplare, ut apud Ennium in Medea : Contempla et templum Cereris ad laevam aspice. Contempla et conspicare id(em) 1 esse apparet, ideo dicere turn, cum te(m)plum 2 facit, augurem con- spicione, qua oculorum conspectum fmiat. Quod cum dicunt conspicionem, addunt cortumionem, dicitur a cordis visu : cor enim cortumionis origo. 10. Quod addit templa ut si(n)t 1 tesca, 2 aiunt sancta esse qui glossas scripserunt. Id est falsum : nam Curia Hostilia templum est et sanctum non est ; sed hoc ut putarent aedem sacram esse templum, . 14 Quare haec quo(d) tesca dixit, non erravit, neque ideo quod sancta, sed quod ubi mysteria fiunt at- tuentur, 15 tuesca dicta. 12. Tueri duo significat, unum ab aspectu ut dixi, unde est Ennii 1 illud : Tueor te, senex ? Pro Iupiter ! § 11. 1 Laetus, for ut. 2 Aldus, for philocto etatem. 3 Aldus, for appones (cf. adportas Festus, 356 a 26 31.). 4 Added by Mue. 6 Aug., with B, for prest olitor a rarat. 6 For teues. 7 Aldus, for castris. 8 For uolgania. 9 Added by Ribbeck. 10 Aug., with B, for lumine. 11 Vertranius {from Cicero, Tusc. ii. 10. .23), for ignes. 12 Aldus, for clauet. 13 Added by Victorius (from Cicero, I.e.). 14 Turnebus (from Cicero, I.e.), for diuis. 15 Mue.. for aut tuentur. § 12. 1 Sciop., for enim. § 11. » Trag. Bom. Frag. 554 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. ii. 514- 515 Warmington. 6 Trag. Bom. Frag. 525-534 Ribbeck 3 ; For there is the following in Accius, in the Philoctetes of Lemnos a : What man are thou, who dost advance To places desert, places waste ? What sort of places these are, he indicates when he says 6 : Around you you have the Lemnian shores, Apart from the world, and the high-seated shrines Of Cabirian Gods, and the mysteries which Of old were expressed with sacrifice pure. Then : You see now the temples of Vulcan, close by Those very same hills, upon which he is said To have fallen when thrown from the sky's lofty sill. e And : The wood here you see with the smoke gushing forth, Whence the fire — so they say — was secretly brought To mankind.* Therefore he made no mistake in calling these lands tesca, and yet he did not do so because they were con- secrated ; but because men attuentur ' gaze at ' places where mysteries take place, they were called tuesca. 6 12. Tueri has two meanings, one of ' seeing ' as I have said, whence that verse of Ennius ° : I really see thee, sire? Oh Jupiter ! R.O.L. ii. 506-507 Warmington ; anapaestic. e He fell on Lemnos, as related in Iliad, i. 590-594. d This last portion is quoted by Cicero, Tusc. Disp. ii. 10. 23, who continues with a summary of the story of Prometheus. * V. means that tesca is for tuesca, waste or wild land where men may look at (attueri) celebrations of religious mysteries : an incorrect etymology. § 12. ° Trag. Rom. Frag. 335 Ribbeck 8 ; R.O.L. i. 290- 291 Warmington. 279 V. Et :Quis pater aut cognatus volet vos 2 contra tueri ?   Alterum a curando ac tutela, ut cum dicimus " vellet 3  tueri villain," a quo etiam quidam dicunt ilium qui  curat aedes sacras cedituum, non aeditamuiw ; sed  tamen hoc ipsum ab eadem est profectum origine,  quod quern volumus domum curare dicimus " tu domi  videbis," ut Plautus cum ait :   Intus para, cura, vide. Quod opus(t> 5 flat.   Sic dicta vestis(pi)ca,* quae vestem spiceret, id est  videret vestem ac tueretur. Quare a tuendo et  templa et tesca dicta cum discrimine eo quod dixi.  13. Etiam indidem illud EnmV 1 :   Extemplo acceptam 2 me necato 3 et filiam. 4  Extemplo enim est continuo, quod omne te(m)plum  esse debet conti(nu)o septum nec plus unum in-  troitum habere.   2 Aug., with B, for nos. 3 Ellis, for bell . . et {vacant  space for two letters). 4 For aeditomum. 6 From  Plautus, Men. 352, for quid opus. 6 Aldus, for vestisca.   § 13. 1 Scaliger, for enim. 2 Voss, for acceptum.   3 Scaliger, for negato. 4 Bothe,for filium / cf. Euripides,  Hecuba, 391.     » Ann. 463 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 172-173 Warmington.  * Aeditumus is original, with the second part of uncertain  origin. d V. compares the two meanings of tueri  with the two meanings of videre, ' to see ' and ' to see after,  care for.' * Men. 352.    And 6 :   Who will now wish, though father or kinsman, to look  on your faces ?   The other meaning is of ' caring for ' and tutela  ' guardianship,' as when we say " I wish he were will-  ing tueri ' to care for ' the farmhouse," from which  some indeed say that the man who attends to con-  secrated buildings is an aedituus and not an aedi-  tumus c ; but still this other form itself proceeded from  the same source, because when we want some one to  take care of the house we say " You will see to d  matters at home," as Plautus does when he says * :   Inside prepare, take pains, see to 't ;  Let that be done, that's needed.   In this way the vestispica ' wardrobe maid ' was named,  who was spicere ' to see ' the vestis ' clothing,' that is,  was to see to the clothing and tueri 1 guard ' it. There-  fore, both temples and tesca ' wastes ' were named  from tueri, with that difference of meaning which I  have mentioned.   13. Moreover, from the same source comes the  word in Ennius a :   Extemplo take me, kill me, kill my daughter too.   For extemplo 6 ' on the spot ' is continuo ' without in-  terval,' because every templum ought to be fenced  in uninterruptedly and have not more than one  entrance.   § 13. a Trag. Rom. Frag. 355 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. i. 380-  381 Warmington; perhaps spoken by the captive Hecuba,  who gave her name to a tragedy by Ennius. 6 Templum  denotes a limited portion of time as well as of space ; in  extemplo the application is to time.   281     V.   14. Quod est apud Accium :   Pervade polum, splendida mundi  Sidera, bigis, (bis) 1 continues )  Se(x ex)pkti $ign\s,*   polus Graecum, id significat circum caeli : quare quod  est pervade polum valet 3 vade irepl ttoXov. Signa  dicuntur eadem et sidera. Signa quod aliquid  significent, ut libra aequinoctium ; sidera, quae  (qua)si 4 insidunt atque ita significant aliquid in terris  perurendo aliave 5 qua re : ut signum candens in  pecore.   15. Quod est :   Terrarum anfracta revisam, 1   anfractum est flexum, ab origine duplici dictum, ab  ambitu et frangendo : ab eo leges iubent in directo  pedum VIII esse (viam), 2 in anfracto XVI, id est in  flexu.   16. Ennius :   Ut tibi   Titanis Trivia dederit stirpem liberum.  Titanis Trivia Diana est, ab eo dicta Trivia, quod in   § 14. 1 Added by Kent ; cf. GS., note. 2 Continui se  cepit spoliis F ; continuis sex apti signis Scaliger ; picti  Ribbeck, exceptis Fay, expicti Kent. 3 Victoritis, for  valde. 4 quae quasi GS. ; quod quasi L. Sp. ; for quae  si. 5 A. Sp., for aliudue.   § 15. 1 Aug., with B, for anfractare visum. 2 Added  by GS ; following Sciop., who added viam after iubent.     § 14. ° Trag. Rom. Frag. 678-680 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L.  ii. 572-573 Warmington ; anapaestic. The passage is appar-  ently addressed to Phaethon, but possibly to the Sun-God or  to the Moon-God. The twelve signs of the zodiac are con-  ceived as taken by the Universe and worn by it as a girdle.  6 Properly 1 white-hot ' ; the Roman poets often speak of As for what is in Accius,°   With thy team do thou go through the sky, through  the bright   Constellations aloft, which the universe holds,  Adorned with its twice six continuous signs,   the word polus ' sky ' is Greek, it means the circle  of the sky : therefore the expression pervade polum  ' traverse the sky ' means ' go around the -oAos.'  Signa 1 signs of the zodiac ' means the same as sidera  ' constellations.' Signa are so called because they  significant ' indicate ' something, as the Balance marks  the equinox ; those are sidera which so to speak in-  sidunt ' settle down ' and thus indicate something on  earth by burning or otherwise : as for example a  signum candens ' scorching sign,' 6 in the matter of  the flocks.   15. In the phrase   Again of the land I shall see the anfracta,"   anfractum means ' bent or curved,' being formed from  a double source, from ambitus ' circuit ' and frangere  ' to break.' Concerning this the laws 6 bid that a road  shall be eight feet wide where it is straight, and six-  teen at an anfractum, that is, at a curve.   16. Ennius says ° :   As surely as to thee  Titan's daughter Trivia shall grant a line of sons.   The Trivian Titaness is Diana, called Trivia from the   the flocks as being burned by the heat of Canicula ' the  Dog-star,' which is visible while the sun is in the sign of Leo.   § 15. • Accius, Trag. Rom. Frag. 336 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L.  ii. 440-141 Warmington. 6 Cf. XII Tabulae, page 138  Schoell.   § 16. ■ Trag. Rom. Frag. 362 Ribbeck*; R.O.L. i. 260-  261 Warmington.   283     V.   trivio ponitur fere in oppidis Graecis, vel quod luna  dicitur esse, quae in caelo tribus viis movetur, in  altitudinem et latitudinem et longitudinem. Titanis  dicta, quod earn genuit, ut ai(t) 1 Plautus, Lato ; ea,  ut scribit Manilius,   Est Coe(o> creata 2 Titano.   Ut idem scribit :   Latona pari(e)t 3 casta complexu Iovis  Deliadas 4 geminos,   id est Apollinem et Dianam. Dii, quod Titanis  aX6si 1 :   /iellespontum et claustra.   (Claustra), 2 quod Xerxes 3 quondam eum locum   clausit : nam, ut Ennius ait,   Isque Hellespont*) pontem contendit in alto.   Nisi potius ab eo quod Asia et Europa ibi cow(c)ludi-   t(ur> 4 mare ; inter angustias facit Propontidis fauces.   §19. 1 Ribbeck, for quid. 2 Ribbeck ; aequam pugnam  Mue. ; aequom palam Bothe ; for quam pudam. 3 Laetus,  for his locis.   § 20. 1 For piple. ide ( = id est) espiades, with h above the  e of esp-.   § 21. 1 Mue. ; Cassius Sciop. ; for quasi. 2 Added by  Scaliger. 3 Bentinus, for exerses. 4 A. Sp. ; con-  clude Ijaetus ; for colludit.     c Trag. Rom. Frag. 349 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. i. 272-273  Warmington. d At the trial of Orestes for the murder  of his mother.   §20. "Ennius, Ann. 1 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 2-3 War-  mington ; opening the poem. * As home of the gods.  c That is, not merely the Greeks. a Pipleides or Pim-   288     OX THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 19-21     In the verse of Ennius, c   Since the Areopagites have cast an equal vote,*   Areopagitae ' Areopagites ' is from Areopagus ; this is  a place at Athens.   20. Muses, ye who with dancing feet beat mighty  Olympus."   Olympus is the name which the Greeks give to the  sky, b and all peoples c give to a mountain in Mace-  donia ; it is from the latter, I am inclined to think,  that the Muses are spoken of as the Olympiads : for  they are called in the same way from other places on  earth the Libethrids, the Pipleids, d the Thespiads,  the Heliconids. e   21. In this phrase of Cassius,   The Hellespont and its barriers,   claustra ' barriers ' is used because once on a time  Xerxes clausit ' closed ' the place by barriers b : for,  as Ennius says, c   He, and none other, on Hellespont deep did fasten  a bridgeway.   Unless it is said rather from the fact that at this place  the sea concluditur ' is hemmed in ' by Asia and Europe ;  in the narrows it forms the entrance to the Propontis.   pleides. e Respectively from Libethra, a fountain sacred  to the Muses, near Libethmm and Magnesia, in Mace-  donia ; Pimpla, a place and fountain in Pieria, in Mace-  donia ; Thespiae, a town of Boeotia at the foot of Helicon ;  and Helicon, a mountain-range in Boeotia.   §21. 8 Trag. Rom. Frag. inc. inc. 106 Ribbeck* ; with  the text as here emended, it belongs to Cassius. * Cf.  Herodotus, vii. 33-36. e Ann. 378 Vahlen*; R.O.L. i.  136-137 Warming-ton.   vol. I U 289     V.     22. Pacui :   Li 2 nos esse   (Camenas). 2   Ca(s)menarum 3 priscum vocabulum ita natum ac  scriptum est alibi ; Carmenae ad eadem origine sunt  declinatae. In multis verbis in quo 4 antiqui dicebant  S, postea dicunt R, ut in Carmine Saliorum sunt haec :   10 This statement is in the margin of F, opposite a blank space  which amounts to one and one half pages.   § 24. 1 Added by L. Sp. and by Bergk. 2 Mue., for  infulas hostiis. 3 For sepulchrum. 4 L. Sp. and Rib-  beck, for lanas. 6 L. Sp. and Ribbeck, for frondentis  comas.   § 25. 1 GS. (cornutam umbram L. Sp. ; cornutarum  umbram Victor hi s ; iacit Scaliger), for cornua taurum  umbram iaci.   § 26. 1 Scaliger, for curuamus ac (which includes the last  word of § 25). 2 Additions by Jordan. 3 Laetus, for  camenarum. 4 Later codd.,for quod F.     § 24. a Trag. Rom. Frag. inc. inc. 220-221 Ribbeck 3 .   § 25. ° Trag. Rom. Frag. inc. inc. 222 Ribbeck 3 .  6 Cornu and curvus are not connected etymologically.   § 26. a Ennius, Ann. 2 Vahlen 2 . 6 Perhaps of Etruscan  origin ; at any rate, not connected with canere ' to sing.'  c A spelling caused by association with carmen and Car-   292     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 23-26     HERE OXE LEAF IS LACKING IX THE MODEL COPY   III. 2 k ... it is clear that agrestes ' rural '  sacrificial victims were so called from ager ' field-  land ' ; that infulatae ' filleted ' victims were so called,  because the head-adornments of wool which are put  on them, are infulae ' fillets ' : therefore then, with  reference to the carrying of leafy branches and flowers  to the burial-place, he added a :   Decked not with wool, but with a hair-like shock  of leaves.   25. The horned shadow lures the bull to fight.   It is clear that cornuta ' horned ' is said from cormia  ' horns ' ; cornua is said from curvor ' curvature,'  because most horns are curva ' curved.' 6   26. Learn that we, the Camenae, are those whom   they tell of as Muses.   Casmenae b is the early form of the name, when it  originated, and it is so written in other places ; the  name Carmenae c is derived from the same origin. In  many words, at the point where the ancients said S,  the later pronunciation is R, d as the following in the  Hymn of the Saltans e :   menta ; though no etymological connexion with them exists.  d The well-known phenomenon of rhotacism, the change of  intervocalic S to R. • Fragy. 2-3, pp. 332-335 Mauren-  brecher ; page 1 Morel. It is hazardous in the extreme to  attempt to restore and interpret the text of the Hymn. These  sentences seem to invoke Mars not as God of War, but in his  old Italic capacity of God of Agriculture, spoken of in several  functions. It was the view of L. Spengel, approved by A.  Spengel, that this verbatim text of the Hymn was an inter-  polation, and that foedesum foederum of § 27 immediately  followed in Carmine Saliorum sunt haec. Cozevi o6orieso. Omnia vero ad Patulc(ium)   co»imisse.  Ianeus iam es, duonus Cerus es, du(o)nus Ianus.  Ven(i)es po(tissimu)m melios eum recum . . . 5   HIC SPATIUM X LINEARUM RELICTUM ERAT IN  EXEMPLARI . . . . f(o)edesum foederum, 1 plusima plu-  rima, meliosem meliorem, asenam arenam, ianitos  ianitor. Quare e 2 Casmena Carmena,  3 Carmena 4  R extrito Camena factum. Ab eadem voce canite,  pro quo in Saliari versu scriptum est cante, hoc  versu :   Divum em pa 5 cante, divum deo supplicate. 6   28. In Carmine Priami 1 quod est :  Veteres Casmenas cascam rem volo profarier, 2   5 F has : Cozeulodori eso. Omnia uero adpatula coemisse.  ian cusianes duonus ceruses, dunus ianusue uet pom melios  eum recum. This is here emended as follows : Cozevi Havet ;  oborieso Kent; Patulcium Kent, after Bergk ; commissei  Kent; Ianeus GS., cf Festus, 103. 11 31.; iam es Kent;  duonus Cerus es, duonus Ianus Bergk; ueniet V, venies  Kent ; potissimum, cf Festus, 205 all 31. 6 At this point,  the remainder of the line and the next four lines are vacant in  F, with traces of writing in the last empty line, which must  have given the data for this statement, found in II and a.   §27. 1 For faederum. 2 A. Sp. ; ex Ursinus ; for e  (=est). 3 Added by A. Sp. * A. Sp., for carmina  carmen. 5 Bergk, for empta. 6 Grotefend, for sup-  plicante.   § 28. 1 At this point, the rest of the page (three and one-  third lines) remains vacant in F, but there is no gap in the  text. 2 Scaliger,for profari et.   ' Cozevi, voc. of Consivius (epithet of Janus, in Macrobius,  Sat. i. 9. 15), with NS developing to NTS as in Umbrian,  the N not written before the consonants (cf. Latin cosol for  consul), and z having the value of ts, as in the Umbrian   O Planter God/ arise. Everything indeed have I  committed unto (thee as) the Opener." Now art  thou the Doorkeeper, thou art the Good Creator,  the Good God of Beginnings. Thou'lt come especi-  ally, thou the superior of these kings HERE A SPACE OF TEN LINES IS LEFT VACANT IN  THE MODEL COPY In the Hymn of the Saltans are found  such old forms as) foedesum for foederum ' of treaties,'  plusima for plurima ' most,' meliosem for meliorem  ' better,' asenam for arenam ' sand,' ianitos for ianitor °  ' doorkeeper.' Therefore from Casmena came Car-  viena, and from Carmena, with loss of the R, came  Camena. b From the same radical came canite ' sing  ye,' for which in a Salian verse c is written cante, and  this is the verse :   Sing ye to the Father d of the Gods, entreat the God  of Gods.*   28. In The Song of Priam there is the following ° :  I wish the ancient Muses to tell a story old.   alphabet. 9 Epithet of Janus, in Macrobius, Sat. i. 9. 15.  * The god is addressed as more powerful than all earthly  lords, whether kings or (perhaps) priests. The gen. plural  eum, equal to eorum. is elsewhere attested. ' The vacant  lines in the model copy may have represented more of the  text of the Hymn, too illegible to copy.   § 27. a Fragg. 4, 7, 20, 26, 27, pages 335, 339, 347, 349  Maurenbrecher. Ianitos is an incorrect form, since the word  had an original R ; but all the other words have R from  earlier S. » Cf. § 26, note 6. e Frag. 1, page 331  Maurenbrecher ; page 1 Morel. * Here em pa stands for  in patrem ; so Th. Bergk, Zts.f. Altertumswiss. xiv. 138 =  Kleine Philol. Schriften, i. 505, relying on Festus, 205 all M.,  pa pro parte (read patre) et po pro potissimum positum est in  Saliari Carmine. * Equal to ' father of the gods.'   § 28. a Frag. Poet. Lat., page 29 Morel.   295     V.   primum cascum significat vetus ; secundo eius origo  Safeina, quae usque radices in Oscam linguam egit.  Cascum vetus esse significat Ennius quod ait :   Quam Prisci casci populi tenuere 3 Latini.  Eo magis Manilius quod ait :   Cascum duxisse cascam non mirabile est,  Quoniam cariosas 4 conficiebat nuptias.   Item ostendit Papini epigrammation, quod in adole-  scentem fecerat Cascam :   Ridiculum est, cum te Cascam tua dicit arnica, 5  Fili(a> 6 Potoni, sesquisenex' puerum.   Die tu illam 8 pusam : sic net " mutua 9 muli " :  Nam vere pusns tu, tua arnica senex.   29. Idem ostendit quod oppidum vocatur Casinum  (hoc enim ab Sabinis orti Samnites tenuerunt) et 1  nostri etiam nunc Forum Vetus appellant. Item  significat 2 in Atellanis aliquot Pappum, senem quod  Osci 3 casnar appellant.   3 Columna, for genuere. 4 L. Sp. and Lachmann, for  carioras. 6 Laetus, B, for amici. 6 Popma, for fili.  7 Turnebus, for potonis es qui senex. 8 Turnebus, for dicit  pusum puellam. 9 Pantagatkus, for mutuam.   § 29. 1 L. Sp. deleted nunc after et. 2 For significant.  3 For ostii.     * The native Latin word was canus 1 grey-haired,' from  casnos, with the same root as in cascus, but a different suffix.  e Sabine was not a dialect of Oscan, but stood on an equal  footing with it. d Ann. 24 Vahlen 2 ; B.O.L. i. 12-13  Warmington. ' Frag. Poet. Lat., page 52 Morel.  1 Frag. Poet. Lat., page 42 Morel ; the poet's name is  doubtful : Priscian, ii. 90. 2 K., calls him Pomponius, and  Bergk, Opusc. i. 88, proposes Pompilius. 9 Casca was  a male cognomen in the Servilian gens only ; for this reason  Potonius is rather to be taken as a jesting family name of  the arnica. h Pusum puellam (see crit. note) was origin-   296     ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VII. 28-29   First, cascum means ' old ' ; secondly, it has its origin  from the Sabine language, 6 which ran its roots back  into Oscan. c That cascum is ' old,' is indicated by the  phrase of Ennius a :   Land that the Early Latins then held, the long-ago  peoples.   It is even better shown in Manilius's utterance e :   That Whitehead married Oldie is surely no surprise :  The marriage, when he made it, was aged and decayed.   It is shown likewise in the epigram of Papinius/ which  he made with reference to the youth Casca :   Funny it is, when your mistress tenderly calls you her  " Casca " 3 :   Daughter of Rummy she, old and a half — you a boy.  Call her your " laddie " A ; for thus there will be the   mule's trade of favours ' :  You're but a lad, to be sure ; Oldie's the name for   your girl.   29. The same is shown by the fact that there is a  town named Casinum, a which was inhabited by the  Samnites, who originated from the Sabines, 6 and we  Romans even now call it Old Market. Likewise in  several Atellan farces c the word denotes Pappus, an  old man's character, because the Oscans call an old  man casnar.   ally a marginal gloss to pusam, since pusus had no normal  feminine form ; cf. French la garqonne. But the gloss  crept into the text. ' Proverbial phrase, equal to ' tit for  tat,' or ' an eye for an eye.'   § 29. A town of southeastern Latium, on the borders of  Samnium. b The Samnites and the Sabines were separate  peoples, but their names are etymologically related, and so  presumably were the two peoples. e Com. Rom. Frag,  inc. nom. vii. p. 334 Ribbeck 3 ; these farces were named  from Atella, an Oscan town in Campania a few miles north  of Naples.   297     V.   30. Apud Lucilium :   Quid tibi ego ambages Ambiv(i) 1 scribere coner ?   Profectum a verbo ambe, quod inest in ambitu et  ambitioso.   31. Apud Valerium Soranura :   Vetus adagio est, O Publi 1 Scipio,  quod verbum usque eo evanuit, ut Graecum pro eo  positum magis sit apertum : nam id(em) est 2 quod  Trapoi/xiav vocant Graeci, ut est :   Auribus lupum teneo ;  Canis caninam non est.   Adagio est littera commutata a(m)bagio, 3 dicta ab  eo quod ambit orationem, neque in aliqua una re  consistit sola. (Amb)agio 4 dicta ut a(m)6ustum, 5  quo(d) 6 circum ustum est, ut ambegna 7 bos apud  augures, quam circum aliae hostiae constituuntur.   32. Cum tria sint coniuncta in origine verborum  quae sint animadvertenda, a quo sit impositum et in  quo et quid, saepe non minus de tertio quam de  primo dubitatur, ut in hoc, utrum primum una canis   § 30. 1 Laetus, for ambiu.   § 31. 1 Abbreviated to P in F. 2 idem est Mve. ; idem  early edd., with later codd. ; for id est F. 3 Tvrnebus,  for abagio. 4 L. Sp. ; adagio Laetus ; for agio. 8 Aug.,  for adustum. 6 Laetus, M, for quo. 7 Tvrnebus, with  Festus, 4. 16 M., for ambiegna.     § 30. ° 1281 Marx. 6 If the text is correctly restored,  this is L. Ambivius Turpio, famous stage director and actor  of Caecilius Statius and of Terence ; Lucilius puns on his  name. c Equal to Greek a^i, and found in Latin only  as a prefix.   § 31. "A little-known writer of the second century b.c. ;  Frag. Poet, Lat., page 40 Morel. b Adagio, gen. -onis ; not  In Lucilius ° :   Why should I try to tell to you Roundway's * round-  about speeches ?   The word ambages ' circumlocutions ' comes from the  word ambe c ' round about,' which is present in ambitus  ' circuit ' and in ambitiosus ' going around (for votes),  ambitious.'   31. In Valerius of Sora a is the following :   It is an old adagio, 1 * Publius Scipio.   This word has gone out of use to such a,point that the  Greek word put for it is more easily understood : for  it is the same as that which the Greeks call Trapoifita ' proverb,' as for example : I'm holding a wolf by the ears, c Dog doesn't eat dog-flesh. Now adagio d is only ambagio with a letter changed, which is said because it ambit ' goes around ' the dis- course and does not stop at some one thing only." Ambagio resembles ambustum, which is ' burnt around,' and an ambegna cow f in the augural speech, 9 which is a cow around which other victims are arranged. 32. Whereas there are three things combined which must be observed in the origin of words, namely from what the word is applied, and to what, and what it is, often there is doubt about the third no less than about the first, as in this case, whether the word for dog in the singular was at first canis or canes : the more usual adagium. e Terence, Phor. 506, etc. 4 Really from ad ' thereto ' and the root of aio 'I say.' e That is, it applies also to other things than that which it specifically mentions. ' ' Having a lamb {agna) on each side.' 8 Page 17 Regell. 299 V. aut canes si^ 1 appellata : dicta enim apud veteres una canes. Itaque Ennius scribit : Tantidem quasi feta 2 canes sine dentibus latrat. Lucilius : Nequam et magnus homo, laniorum immams 3 canes ut. Impositio unius debuit esse canis, plurium canes ; sed neque Ennius consuetudinem illam sequens repre- hendendus, nec is qui nunc dicit : Canis canina(m> 4 non est. Sed canes quod latratu 5 signum dant, ut signa canunt, canes appellatae, et quod ea voce indicant noctu quae latent, latratus appellatus. 33. Sic dictum a quibusdam ut una canes, una trabes : (Trabes) 1 remis rostrata per altum. Ennius : Utinam ne in nemore Pelio 2 securibiis Caesa accidisset abiegna ad terram trabes, cuius verbi singularis casus rect«s 3 correptus 4 ac facta trabs. § 32. 1 For sic. 2 For faeta. 3 Aug., with B, for immanes. 4 Laetus, for canina. 6 M, V,p, Laetus,for latratus. § 33. 1 Added by Colnmnn. 2 For polio. 3 Sciop., for recte. 4 Laetus, for correctus. §32. ° Ann. 528 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 432-433 Warming- ton. 6 Her bark is worse than her bite, as a pregnant bitch was proverbially harmless ; cf. Plautus, Most. 852, Tarn placidast {ilia canis) quam feta quaevis. e 1221 for in the older writers the expression is one canes. Therefore Ennius writes the following, using canes a : Barks just as loud as a pregnant bitch : but she's toothless. 6 Lucilius also uses canes : Worthless man and huge, like the monstrous dog of the butchers. When applied to one, the word should have been cams, and when applied to several it should have been canes ; but Ennius ought not to be blamed for follow- ing the earlier custom, nor should he who now says : Canis ' dog ' doesn't eat dog-flesh. But because dogs by their barking give the signal, as it were, canunt ' sound ' the signals, they are called canes ; and because by this noise they make known the things which latent ' are hidden ' in the night, their barking is called latratus. d 33. As some have said canes in the singular, so others have said trabes ' beam, ship ' in the singular : The beaked trabes is driven by oars through the waters. Ennius used trabes in the following 6 : I would the trabes of the fir-tree ne'er had fall'n To earth, in Pelion's forest, by the axes cut ! But now the nominative singular of this word has lost a vowel and become trabs. Marx. d Canis is not etymologically connected with canere, nor tat rat us with latere. §33. ° Ennius, Ann. 616 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 458-459 Warmington. * Medea Exul, Trag. Rom. Frag. 205- 206 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. i. 312-313 Warmington; that is, " would that the ship Argo had never been built." 301 V. 34. In Medo : Caelitum Camilla, expectata advenis : salve, Aospita. Camilla(m) 1 qui glos(s)emata interpretati dixerunt administram ; addi oportet, in his quae occultiora : itaque dicitur nuptiis camillus 2 qui cumerum 3 fert, in quo quid sit, in ministerio plerique extrinsecus neim 1 : Subulo quondam marinas propter astabat plagas. 2 Subulo dictus, quod ita dicunt tibicines Tusci : quo- circa radices eius in Etr(ur)ia, non Latio quaerundae. 3 36. Versibus quo(s) 1 olim Fauni 2 vatesque canebant. Fauni dei Latinorum, ita ut et Faunus et Fauna sit ; hos versibus quos vocant Saturnios in silvestribus locis traditum est solitos fari (futura, 3 a) 4 quo fando § 34.. 1 Mue., for Camilla. 2 Turnebus, for scamillus. 3 Turnebus, for quicum merum. 4 Turnebus, for nectunc. 6 For casmillus. § 35. 1 Laetus, for enim. 2 Mue., from Fest. 309 a 5 M., for aquas. 3 Victorius, for querunda e. §36. 1 Aldus, for quo. 2 Laetus deleted et after Fauni, following Cicero, Div. i. 50. 114, Brut. 18. 71, Orator, 51. 171. 3 Added by Mue., from Serv. Dan. in Georg. i. 11. 4 Added by Aug. §34. "Pacuvius, Trag. Rom. Frag. 232 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. ii. 256-257 Warmington. 6 Page 112 Funaioli. c Probably certain belongings of the bride. d Identified with Hermes, the messenger of the gods, according to Ma- crobius, Sat. iii. 8. 6. ' More probably Etruscan than Greek : there were Etruscans on Lemnos, not far from Samothrace, which may explain the use of the similar word In the Medus a : Long awaited, Camilla of the gods, thou comest ; guest, all hail ! A Camilla, according to those who have interpreted 6 difficult words, is a handmaid assistant ; one ought to add, in matters of a more secret nature : therefore at a marriage he is called a camillus who carries the box the contents of which c are unknown to most of the uninitiated persons who perform the service. From this, the name Casmilus is given, in the Samothracian mysteries, to a certain divine personage who attends upon the Great Gods. 6 poematis cum scribam ostendam. 37. Corpore Tartarino prognata Pallida virago. Tartarino dictj^m) 1 a Tartaro. Plato in IIII de fluminibus apud inferos quae sint in his unum Tar- tarum appellat : quare Tartari origo Graeca. Paluda a paludamentis. Haec insignia atque ornamenta militaria : ideo ad bellum cum exit imperator ac lictores mutarunt vestem et signa incinuerunt, palu- datus dicitur proficisci ; quae propter quod con- spiciuntur qui ea habent ac fiunt palam, paludamenta dicta. 38. Plautus : Epeum fumificum, qui legioni nostrae habet Coctum cibum. Epeum fumificum cocum, ab Epeo illo qui dicitur ad Troiam fecisse Equum Troianum et Argivis cibum curasse. 39. Apud Naevium : Atque 1 prius pariet lucusta 2 Lucam bovem. Luca bos elepAans ; cur ita sit dicta, duobus modis 5 Canal and L. Sp., for antiquos. 6 Added by L. Sp., cf. vi. 52. § 37. 1 Laetus, for dicta. § 39. 1 For at quae. 2 For lucustam. c This applies both to words and to music. d Page 213 Funaioli. §37. "Ennius, Ann. 521 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 96-97 Warmington; referring to Discordia, an incarnation of chaos. b Phaedo, 112-113; in Thrasyllus' numbering of Plato's dialogues, the Phaedo was the fourth in the first tetralogy. But in Plato's account, Tartarus is not a river of Hades, but the abyss beneath, into which all the rivers of Hades empty. c Of unknown etymology ; not from palam. rates ' poets,' the old writers used to give this name to poets from viere ' to plait ' c verses, as I shall show when I write about poems. d 37. Born of a Tartarine body, the w arrior maiden Paluda. Tartarinum ' Tartarine ' is derived from Tartarus. Plato in his Fourth Dialogue,* speaking of the rivers which are in the world of the dead, gives Tartarus as the name of one of them ; therefore the origin of Tartarus is Greek. Paluda c is from paludamenta, which are distinguishing garments and adornments in the army ; therefore when the general goes forth to war and the lictors have changed their garb and have sounded the signals, he is said to set forth palu- datus ' wearing the pahdamentum.' The reason why these garments are called paludamenta is that those who wear them are on account of them conspicuous and are made palam ' plainly * visible. 38. Plautus has this a : Epeus the maker of smoke, who for our army gets The well-cooked food. Epeus fumificus ' the smoke-maker ' was a cook, named from that Epeus who is said to have made the Trojan Horse at Troy and to have looked after the food of the Greeks. 6 39. In Naevius is the verse a : And sooner will a lobster give birth to a Luca bos. Luca bos is an elephant ; why it is thus called, I have § 38. Fab. inc. frag. 1 Ritschl. * Epeus is not else- where said to have been a cook, though he is said to have furnished the Atridae with their water supply. § 39. « Frag. Poet. Jxit., page 28 Morel; R.O.L. ii. 72-73 Warmington. vol. I x 305 V. inveni scriptum. Nam et in Cornelii Commentario erat ab Libycis Lucas, et in Vergilu 3 ab Lucanis Lucas ; ab co quod nostri, cum maximam quadri- pedem quam ipsi habercnt vocarent bovem et in Lucanis PyrrAi bello primum vidissent apud hostis elep^antos, id est 4 item quadripedes cornutas (nam quos dentes multi dicunt sunt cornua), Lucanam bovem quod putabant, Lucam bovem appellasse(nt). 5 40. Si ab Libya dictae essent Lucae, fortasse an pantherae quoque et leones non Africae bestiae dicerentur, sed Lucae ; neque ursi potius Lucani quam Luci. Quare ego 1 arbitror potius Lucas ab luce, quod longe relucebant propter inauratos regios clupeos, quibus eorum turn ornatae erant turres. 41. Apud Ennium : Orator sine pace redit regique refert rem. Orator dictus ab oratione : qui enim verba 1 haberet publice adversus eum quo legabatur, 2 ab oratione orator dictus ; cum res maior erat (act)iom', 3 lege- 3 For uirgilius. 4 Aug. deleted non after est. 5 O, H, Mue., for appellasse. § 40. 1 G, H, M, for ergo. §41. 1 Sciop. deleted orationum after verba. 2 Seal i- ger, for legebatur. 3 GS. (maior erat Turn.), for maiore ratione. 6 Cf. v. 150. " An otherwise unknown author; page 106 Funaioli. a V. is wrong ; elephants' tusks are teeth. * Apparently correct ; iAicanus was in Oscan Jsucans, pro- nounced Lucas by the Romans, to which a feminine form Lnica was made. found set forth by the authors hi two ways. For in the Commentary of Cornelius 6 was the statement that Lucas is from Libyci ' the Libyans,' and in that of Ver- gilius, c that Lucas was from Lucani ' the Lucanians ' : from the fact that our compatriots used to call the largest quadruped that they themselves had, a bos ' cow ' ; and so, when among the Lucanians, in the war with Pyrrhus, they first saw elephants in the ranks of the enemy — that is, horned quadrupeds like- wise (for what many call teeth are really horns riai. 1 Olli valet dictum illi ab olla et olio, quod alterum comitiis cum recitatur a praecone dicitur olla centuria, non ilia ; alterum apparet in funeribus indictivis, quo dicitur Ollus leto 2 datus est, quod Graecus dicit ^jOy, id est oblivioni. 43. Apud Ennium : Mensas constituit idemque ancilia (primus. 1 Ancilia) 2 dicta ab ambecisu, quod ea arma ab utraquc parte ut TTzracum incisa. 44. Libaque, 1 fictores, Argeos et tutulatos. Liba, quod libandi causa fiunt. Fictores dicti a fin- gendis libis. Argei ab Argis ; Argei fiunt e scir- peis, simulacra hominum XXVII ; ea quotannis de § 42. 1 Victor his, for egria i. 2 For laeto. § 43. 1 Added by Scaliger. 2 Added by B, Laetns. § 44. 1 Victorius, for incisa saliba quae {which includes the end of § 43). c Ann. 582 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 438-439 Warmington. § 42. ° Ann. 119 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 42-43 Warmington ; a conversation between Numa Pompilius and his adviser, the nymph Egeria. 6 Fest. 254 a 34 M. inserts Quirts in this formula after ollus. c Of uncertain etymology, but not from the Greek. § 43. ° Ann. 120 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 42-43 Warmington ; enumerating the institutions of Numa Pompilius. 6 Of the priests ; cf. Livy, i. 20. e Cf vi. 22. §44. "Ennius, Ann. 121 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 42-43 port, those were selected for the pleading who could plead the case most skilfully. Therefore Ennius says c : Spokesmen, learnedly speaking. 42. In Ennius is this a : Olli answered Egeria's voice, speaking softly and sweetly. Olli ' to him ' is the same as Mi, dative to feminine olla and to mascuhne ollus. The one of these is said by the herald when he announces at the elections " Olla ' that ' century," and not Ma. The other is heard in the case of funerals of which announcement is made, wherein is said Ollus h ' that man ' has been given to letum e ' death,' which the Greek calls XrjOrj, that is, oblivion. 43. In Ennius this verse is found a : Banquets 6 he first did establish, and likewise the shields c that are holy The ancilia ' shields ' were named from their ambe- cisus ' incision on both sides,' because these arms were incised at right and left like those of the Thracians. 44. Cakes and their bakers, Argei and priests with conical topknots." Liba ' cakes,' so named because they are made libare ' to offer ' to the gods. 6 Fictores ' bakers ' were so called irom Jingere ' to shape ' the liba. Argei from the city Argos c : the Argei are made of rushes, human figures twenty-seven d in number ; these are each Warmington; continuing the list of Numa's institutions. * Libare is derived from liba I c Etymology of Argei and of tutulus quite uncertain. * On the number, see v. 45, note a. 309 V. Ponte Sublicio a sacerdotibus publice dezci 2 solent in Tiberim. Tutulati dicti hi, qui in sacris in capitibus habere solent ut metam ; id tutulus appellatus ab eo quod matres familias crines convolutos ad verticem capitis quos habent vit(ta} 3 velatos 4 dicebantur tutuli, sive ab eo quod id tuendi causa capilli fiebat, sive ab eo quod altissimum in urbe quod est, Arcs, 5 tutis- simum vocatur. 45. Eundem Pompilium ait fecisse flamines, qui cum omnes sunt a singulis deis cognominati, in qui- busdam apparent erv/xa, ut cur sit Martialis et Quiri- nalis ; sunt in quibus flaminum cognominibus latent origines, ut in his qui sunt versibus plerique : Volturnalem, Palatualem, Furinalem, Floralemqu^ 1 Falacrem et PomonaJem fecit Hie idem, quae o(b>scura sunt ; eorum origo Volturnus, diva Palatua, Furrina, Flora, Falacer pater, Pomona. 2 46. Apud Ennium : lam cata signa ferae 1 sonitum dare voce parabant. Cata acuta : hoc enim verbo dicunt Sa&ini : quare Catus Melius Sextus 2 Rhoh, for duci. 3 Mue. ; vittis Popma ; for uti. 4 Laetus, for velatas. 5 For ares. § 45. 1 Mue., for floralem qui. 2 Turnebus, for pomo- rum nam. § 46. 1 So F ; but fera {agreeing with voce) Mue. " See § 44 note c. §45. "Ennius, Ann. 122-124 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 44-45 Warmington. 6 The protecting spirit of the Palatine. §46. Ann. 459 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 182-183 "Warming- ton. "Ennius, Ann. 331 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 120-121 year thrown into the Tiber from the Bridge-on-Piles, by the priests, acting on behalf of the state. These are called tutulati ' provided with tutuli,' since they at the sacrifices are accustomed to have on their heads something like a conical marker ; this is called a tutulus from the fact e that the twisted locks of hair which the matrons wear on the tops of their heads wrapped with a woollen band, used to be called tutuli, whether named from the fact that this was done for the purpose of tueri ' protecting ' the hair, or because that which is highest in the city, namely the Citadel, was called tutissimum ' safest.' 45. He says ° that this same Pompilius created the flamens or special priests, every one of whom gets a distinguishing name from one special god : in cer- tain cases the sources are clear, for example, why one is called Martial and another Quirinal ; but there are others who have titles of quite hidden origin, as most of those in these verses : The Volturnal, Palatual, the Furinal, and Floral, Falacrine and Pomonal this ruler likewise created ; and these are obscure. Their origins are Volturnus, the divine Palatua, 6 Furrina, Flora, Father Falacer, Pomona. 46. In Ennius is this verse ° : Now the beasts were about to give cry, their shrill-toned signals. In this, cata ' shrill-toned ' is acuta ' sharp or pointed,' for the Sabines use the word in this meaning ; there- fore Keen Aelius Sextus * Warmington ; Sextus Aelius Paetus, consul 198, censor 194, a distinguished writer on Roman law. 311 V. non, ut aiunt, sapiens, sed acutus, et quod est : Tunc cepit memorare simul cata 2 dicta, accipienda acuta dicta. 47. Apud Lucilium : Quid est P 1 Thynno capto co&ium 2 excludunt foras, et Occidunt, Lupe, saperdae te 3 et iura siluri et Sumere te atque amian. Piscium nomina sunt eorumque in Groecia origo. 48. Apud Ennium : Quae cava corpore caeruleo (c)orh'na receptat. 1 Cava cortina dicta, quod est inter terram et caelum ad similitudinem cortinae Apollinis ; ea a eorde, quod inde sortes primae existimatae. 49. Apud Ennium : Quin inde invitis sumpserwnt 1 perduellibus. 2 Bergk filled out the verse by reading simul stulta et cata, Vahlen, by proposing simul lacrimans cata. § 47. 1 L. Sp., for quidem. 2 Mue., for corium. 3 Turnebus, for lupes aper de te. § 48. 1 Mue. (following Turnebus in cava and cortina receptat, and Scaliger in deleting in and caelo; he himself deleted que and transposed corpore cava), for quaeque in corpore causa ceruleo caelo orta nare ceptat. § 49. 1 M, Laetus, for sumpserint. "Page 115 Funaioli. d Ennius, Ann. 529 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 458-459 Warmington. § 47. a Respectively 938, 54, 1304 Marx. 6 Lucilius puns on iura, 'sauces ' and ' rights, justice,' and on Lupe, a man's name and also a kind of fish. Respectively Ovwos ' tunny,' called horse-mackerel and tuna in America ; Kw&og ' sand-goby,' a worthless fish ; o. 3 Roram 1 dicti ab rore qui bellum committebant, ideo quod ante rorat quam plu«7. 4 Accensos 5 ministra- tores Cato esse scribit ; potest id (ab censione, id est) 6 ab arbitrio : nam ide(m) 7 ad arbitrium eius cuius minister. 59- Pacuvius : Cum deum triportenta . . 60. In Mercatore : Non tibi 1 istuc magis dividiaest 2 quam mihi hodie fuit. (Eadem (vi) 3 hoc est in Corollaria Naevius (usus). 4 ) Dividia ab dividendo dicta, quod divisio distractio est doloris : itaque idem in Curculione ait : Sed quid tibi est ? — Lien enecat, 5 renes dolent, Pulmones distrahuntur. § 58. 1 RhoL, for rorani. 2 F 2, for an F 1 . 3 Added by Kent, to complete verse metrically. 4 H 2 and p, for plusti. 5 For acensos F 1, adcensos F 2 . 6 Added by GS. 7 Brakmann, for inde. § 59. 1 Lacuna marked by Scaliger. § 60. 1 L. Sp. deleted in mercatore non tibi, here repeated in F. 2 Aug., for diuidia est, from the text of Plautus. 3 Added by GS. 4 Added by L. Sp. 5 b, for liene negat. b That is, not to be retained in the hand during use. § 58. a Plautus, Friv. frag. IV Ritschl. 6 Page 81. 14 Jordan. e For correct etymology, see vi. 89, note a. §59. a Trag. Rom. Frag. 381 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. ii. 304- empty and profitless ; or because those were called ferentarii cavalrymen who had only weapons which ferrentur ' were to be thrown,' 6 such as a javelin. Cavalrymen of this kind I have seen in a painting in the old temple of Aesculapius, with the label "feren- tarii." 58. In The Story of the Trifles a : Where are you, rorarii ? Behold, they're here. Where are the accensi ? See, they're here. Rorarii ' skirmishers ' were those who started the battle, named from the ros ' dew-drops,' because it rorat ' sprinkles ' before it really rains. The accensi, Cato writes, 6 were attendants ; the word may be from censio ' opinion,' that is, from arbitrium ' de- cision,' for the accensus c is present to do the arbitrium of him whose attendant he is. 59- Pacuvius says a : When the gods' portents triply strong . . . 60. In The Trader a : That's no more a dividia to you than 'twas to me to-day. (This word was used by Naevius in The Story of the Garland, b in the same meaning.) Dividia ' vexation ' is said from dividere ' to divide,' because the distractio ' pulling asunder ' caused by pain is a division ; therefore the same author says in the Curculio e : But what's the matter ? — Stitch in the side, an aching back, And my lungs are torn asunder. 305 Warmington ; perhaps referring to portents of the in- fernal deities. § 60. Plautus, Merc. 619. " Cam. Rom. Frag. IX Ribbeck*. e Plautus, Cure. 236-237 ; literally, ' my spleen kills me, my kidneys hurt me.' vol. 1 Y 321 V. 61. In Pagone : Honos syncerasto peri(i>t, x pernis, gla stribula 1 (a)ut 2 de lumbo obscena viscera. 3 Stribula, ut Opil/us 4 scribit, circum coxendices 5 sunt bovis e ; id Graecum est ab eius loci versura. 68. In (N)ervolaria 1 : Scobina 2 ego illu?i(c) 3 actutum adrasi (s)enem. 4 Scobinam a scobe : lima enim materia(e) 5 fabrilis est. 69. In Penulo : Vinceretis cerium curs?* 1 vel gralatorem 2 gradu. 3 Gral(l)ator 2 a gradu 3 magno dictus. 70. In Truculento : Sine virtute argutum civem mihi habeam pro praefica. (Praefica) 1 dicta, ut Aurelius scribit, mulier ab luco quae conduceretur quae ante domum mortui laudis ' Added by Mue., whose et was changed to ut by GS. § 67. 1 Buecheler, for distribute. 2 Sciop., for ut. 3 Mue., for obscenabis cera, with o above first e and v above second b, F 1 . 4 GS. (cf. vii. 50), for opilius. 5 Aldus, for coxa indices. 6 Sciop., for uobis. § 68. 1 Aldus, for eruolaria. 2 Sciop., for scobinam. 3 A. Sp., metri gratia, for ilium. 4 Lachmann, for enim. 5 Canal, for materia. §69. 1 Aldus, from Plautus, for circumcurso. 2 -1I-, from Festns, 97. 12 M. 3 Aldus, from Plautus, for gradum. § 70. 1 Added by B, Aldus. c Page 97 Funaioli. § 67. ° Plautus, Frag. 52 Ritschl. 6 Page 92 Funaioli. c Of uncertain etymology ; Festus, 313 a 34 M ., has strebula, and calls it an Umbrian word. d V. perhaps derived it from Greek orpefiXos ' twisted.' Claudius c writes that women who make joint en- treaties are clearly shown to be axitiosae ' united, unionist.' Axitiosae is from agere ' to act ' : as fac- tiosae ' partisan women ' are named from facere ' doing ' something in unison, so axitiosae are named from agere ' acting ' together, as though actiosae. 67. In the Cesistio a : For the gods the thigh-meats or the lewd parts from the loins. Stribula ' thigh-meats,' as Opillus 6 - writes, are the fleshy parts of cattle around the hips ; the word c is Greek, derived from the fact that in this place there is a socket-joint. d 68. In The Story of the Prison Ropes a : At once I with my rasp did scrape the old fellow clean. Scobina ' rasp,' from scobis ' sawdust ' ; for a file belongs to a carpenter's equipment. 69- In The Little Man from Carthage a : You'd outdo the stag in running or the stilt-walker in stride. Grallator ' stilt-walker ' is said from his great gradus ' stride.' 70. In The Rough Customer a : Although without a deed of bravery I may have A clear-toned citizen as leader of my praise. Praefica ' praise-leader,' as Aurelius 6 writes, is a name applied to a woman from the grove of Libitina, 6 who was to be hired to sing the praises of a dead man in § 68. ° Plautus, Frag. 94 Ritschl. § 69. ° Plautus, Poen. 530. § 70. ° Plautus. True. 495. " Page 90 Funaioli. c Where the wailing-women had their stand ; cf. Dionysius Halic iv. 15. 327 V. eius caneret. Hoc factitatum Aristoteles scribit in libro qui (in)scribitur 2 No/xi/m (3apj3apiKa, 3 quibus testimonium est, quod (in) Freto est 4 Noevii : Haec quidem hercle, opinor, praefica est : nam mortuum collaudat. Claudius scribit : Quae praeficeretur ancillis, quemadmodum lamentarentur, praefica est dicta. Utrumque ostendit a praefectione praeficam dictam. 71. Apud Ennium : Decern Coclites quas montibus summis Ripaeis fodere. 1 Ab oculo codes, ut ocles, dictus, qui unum haberet oculum : quocirca in Curculione est : De Coclitum prosapia 2 esse arbitror : Nam hi sunt unoculi. IV. 72. Nunc de temporibus dicam. Quod est apud Cassium : Nocte intempesta nostram devenit domum, intempesta nox dicta ab tempestate, tempestas ab 2 Aug., with B, for scribitur. 3 Turnebus, for nomina barbarica. 4 GS. ; Freto inest Canal ; for f return est. § 71. 1 a, Ttirnebvs,for federe. 2 Added by Aug., from Plautus. d Frag. 604, page 367 Rose. " Coin. Rom. Frag. 129 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. ii. 142-143 Warmington. 'Page 98 Funaioli. § 71. ° Sat. 67-68 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 392-393 Warming- ton. The one-eyed Arimaspi of northern Scythia (where the Rhipaean or Rhiphaean mountains were located) were said to have taken much gold from their neighbours the Grypes (or Griffins); cf. Herodotus, iii. 116, iv. 13, iv. 27, who front of his house. That this was regularly done, is stated by Aristotle in his book entitled Customs of Foreign Nations d ; whereto there is the testimony which is in The Strait of Naevius e : Dear me, I think, the woman's a praefica : it's a dead man she is praising. Claudius writes f : A woman who praeficeret ur ' was to be put in charge ' of the maids as to how they should perform their lamentations, was called a praefica. Both passages show that the praefica was named from praefectio ' appointment as leader.' 71. In Ennius we find ° : Treasures which ten of the Coclites buried, High on the tops of Rhiphaean mountains. Codes ' one-eyed ' was derived from ociilus ' eye,' as though ocles, b and denoted a person who had only one eye ; therefore in the Curculio c there is this : I think that you are from the race of Coclites ; For they are one-eyed. IV. 72. Now I shall speak of terms denoting time. In the phrase of Cassius," By dead of night he came unto our home, intempesta nox ' dead of night ' is derived from tem- pestas, and tempestas from tempus ' time ' : a nox quotes (with incredulity) from a poem by Aristeas of Procon- nesus. Fodere = infodere. * V. means, from co-ocles ' with an eye ' ; but the word is derived from Greek kvkXcdi/i, through the Etruscan. e Plantus, Cure. 393-394. § 72. ° Accius, Com. Rom. Frag. Praet. V, verse 41 Rib- beck 8 ; R.O.L. ii. 562-563 Warmington ; repeated from vi. 7, where see note a on authorship. 329 V. tempore ; nox intempesta, quo tempore nihil 1 agitur. 73. Quid noctis videtur ? — In altisono Caeli clipeo temo superat Stellas sublime(n) 1 agens etiam Atque etiam noctis iter. Hie multam noctem ostendere volt a temonis motu ; sed temo unde et cur dicatur latet. Arbitror antiques rusticos primum notasse quaedam in caelo signa, quae praeter alia erant insignia atque ad aliquem usum, (ut) 2 culturae tempus, designandum convenire animadvertebantur. 74. Eius signa sunt, quod has septem Stellas Graeci ut Homcrus voca(n)t a/jui^ar 1 et propinquum eius signum {3qwti)v, nostri eas septem Stellas (t)r(i)o«es 2 et temonem et prope eas axem : triones enim et boves appellantur a bubulcis etiam nunc, maxime cum arant terra??* 3 ; e quis ut dicti Valentes glebarii, qui facile proscindunt glebas, sic omnes qui terram arabant a terra terriones, unde triones ut dicerentur detrito. 4 75. Temo dictus a tenendo : is enim continet § 72. 1 For nichil. §73. 1 Skutsch, after Buecheler, for sublime. 2 Added by Mue. §74. 1 For AMA2AN. 2 L. Sp.,/or boues. 3 For terras. 4 A tig., for de tritu. §73. "Ennius, Trag. Rom. Frag. 177-180 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. i. 300-301 Warmington; freely adapted from Euri- pides, Iphig. in Aid. 6-8; anapaestic. Cf. v. 19, above. 6 Signa in this and the following seems to vary in meaning between ' signs = marks ' and ' signs = constellations.' § 74. " E.g., Od. v. 272-273. 6 Charles' Wain, or the Great Dipper ; and other parts of the constellation Ursa intempesta ' un-timely night ' is a time at which no activity goes on. 73. What time of the night doth it seem ? — In the shield Of the sky, that soundeth aloft, lo the Pole Of the Wain outstrippeth the stars as on high More and more it driveth its journey of night." Here the author -wishes to indicate that the night is advanced, from the motion of the Temo ' Wagon- Pole ' ; but the origin of Temo and the reason for its use, are hidden. My opinion is that in old times the farmers first noticed certain signs 6 in the sky which were more conspicuous than the rest, and w T hich were observed as suitable to indicate some profitable use, such as the time for tilling the fields. 74. The marks of this one are, that the Greeks, for example Homer, call these seven stars the Wagon 6 and the sign that is next to it the Ploughman, while our countrymen call these seven stars the Triones ' Plough-Oxen ' and the Temo ' Wagon-Pole ' and near them the Axis ' axle of the earth, north pole * c : for indeed oxen are called triones by the ploughmen even now, especially when they are ploughing the land ; just as those of them which easily cleave the glebae ' clods of earth ' are called Mighty glebarii ' clod-breakers,' so all that ploughed the land were from terra ' land ' called terriones, so that from this they were called triones, d with loss of the E. 75. Temo is derived from tenere ' to hold ' ° : for it Major. e Or perhaps even the Pole-Star itself. d Trio is a derivative of terere ' to tread,' cf. perf. trivi and ptc. tritus. § 75. ° Wrong etymology. 331 V. iugum et plaustrum, appellatum a parte 1 totum, ut multa. Possunt triones dicti, VII quod ita sitae stellae, ut ternae trigona faciant. 76. Aliquod lumen — iubarne ? — in caelo cerno. Iubar dicitur stella Lucifer, quae in summo quod habet lumen diffusum, ut leo in capite iubam. Huius ortus significat circiter esse extremam noctem. Itaque ait Pacuius : Exorto iubare, noctis decurso itinere. 77. Apud Plautum in Parasito Pigro : Inde hie bene potus 1 primo 2 crepusculo. Crepusculum ab Saftinis, et id dubium tempus noctis an diei sit. Itaque in Condalio est : Tarn crepusculo, ferae 3 ut amant, lampades accendite. Ideo (d)ubiae res 4 creperae dictae. 78. In Trinummo : Concubium sit noctis priusquam (ad) 1 postremum perveneris. Concubium a concubitu dormiendi causa dictum. § 75. 1 B, Laetus,for aperte. § 77. 1 Pius, for de nepotus. 2 Scaliger, for primo. 3 Buecheler, for fere. 4 Laetus, for ubi heres. § 78. 1 Added by Aug., from Plautus. 6 Wrong etymology. § 76. ° Ennius, Trag. Rom. Frag. 336 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. i. 226-227 Warmington; cf. vi. 6 and vi. 81. 6 Iubar and iuba are not etymologically connected. c That is, shortly before sunrise, when it is visible in the eastern sky. d Trag. Rom. Frag. 347 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. ii. 320-321 Warmington : cf. vi. 6. continet ' holds together ' the yoke and the cart, the whole being named from a part, as is true of many things. The name triones may perhaps have been given because the seven stars are so placed that the sets of three stars make triangles. 1 * 76. I see some light in the sky — can it be dawn ? ° The morning-star is called iubar, because it has at the top a diffused light, just as a lion has on his head a tuba ' mane.' 6 Its rising c indicates that it is about the end of the night. Therefore Pacuvius says d : When morning-star appears and night has run her course. 77. Plautus has this in The Lazy Hanger-on a : From there to here, right drunk, he came, at early dusk. Crepusculum ' dusk ' is a word taken from the Sabines, and it is the time when there is doubt whether it belongs to the night or to the day. 6 Therefore in The Finger-Ring there is this c : So at dusk, the time when wild beasts make their love, light up your lamps. Therefore doubtful matters were called creperae. b 78. In The Three Shillings ° : General resting time of night 'twould be, before you reached its end. Concubium ' general rest ' is said from concubitus ' general lying-down ' for the purpose of sleeping. 6 § 77. ° Frag. I, verse 107 Ritschl. * Cf. vi. 5 and notes. e Plautus, Frag. 60 Ritschl. § 78. a Plautus, Trin. 8S6 ; that is, " if I should try to tell you my name." * Cf. vi. 7 and note c. 333 V. 79. In Asinaria : Videbitur, factum volo : redito 1 conticim'o. 2 Putem a conticiscendo conticinn/m 3 sive, ut Opil/us 4 scribit, ab eo cum conticuerunt homines. V. 80. Nunc de his rebus quae assignificant ali- quod tempus, cum dicuntur aut fiunt, dicam. Apud Accium : Reciproca tendens nervo equino concita Tela. Reciproca est cum unde quid profectum redit eo ; ab recipere reciprocare Actum, aut quod poscere procare 1 dictum. 81. Apud Plautum : Ut 1 transversus, 2 non proversus cedit quasi cancer solet. (Proversus) 3 dicitur ab eo qui in id quod est (ante, est) 4 versus, et ideo qui exit in vestibulum, quod est ante domum, prodire et procedere ; quod cum lerao 5 non faceret, sed secundum parietem transversus iret, § 79. 1 A. Sp. ; redito hue Vertranius, from Plautus ; at redito Rhol. ; for ad reditum. 2 Laetus, for conticinno. 3 Laetus, for conticinnam. 4 GS.,for o pilius ; cf. vii. 50, vii. 67. § 80. 1 B, Aldus, for prorogare. § 81. 1 Bentinus,for aut. 2 Aug., for transuersum ; the mss. of Plautus have non prorsus uerum ex transuerso cedit ... 3 Added by L. Sp. 4 Added by Christ. 5 Aldus, for lemo. § 79. Plautus, Asin. 685 ; where the text is redito hue. Cf. vi. 7. 6 Page 88 Funaioli. § 80. a That is, words of actions, whether or not they are verbs. 6 Philoctetes, Trag. Rom. Frag. 545-546 Ribbeck 3 ; Ji.O.L. ii. 512-513 Warmington. Reciproca tela is properly In The Story of the Ass there is this verse a : I'll see to it, I wish it done ; come back at conticinium. I rather think that conticinium ' general silence ' is from conticiscere ' to become silent,' or else, as Opillus 6 writes, from that time when men conticuerunt ' have become silent.' V. 80. Now I shall speak of those things which have an added meaning of occurrence at some special time, when they are said or done. In Accius b : The elastic weapon bring into action, bending it With horse-hair string. Reciproca ' elastic ' is a condition which is present when a thing returns to the position from which it has started. Reciprocare ' to move to and fro ' is made c from recipere ' to take back,' or else because procare was said for poscere ' to demand.' d 81. InPlautus : How sidewise, as a crab is wont, he moves, Not straight ahead. Proversus ' straight ahead ' is said of a man who is turned toward that which is in front of him ; and therefore he who is going out into the vestibule, which is at the front of the house, is said prodire ' to go forth ' or procedere ' to proceed.' But since the brothel-keeper was not doing this, but was going sidewise along the wall, Plautus said " How sidewise only the Homeric (Iliad, viii. 266, x. 459) iraAlmova t6£cl ' backward-stretched bow,' and not as V. interprets it. e Probably from reque proque ' backward and forward ' ; not as V. interprets it. d That is, ' demand return.' §81. " Pseud. 955; said of the brothel-keeper as he enters. 335 V. dixit " ut transversus cedit quasi cancer, non pro- versus ut homo." 82. Apud Ennium : Andromachae nomen qui indidit, recte 1 indidit. Item : Quapropter Parim pastores nunc Alexandrum vocant. Imitari dum volm't* Eurip/den 3 et ponere ervfiov, est lapsus ; nam Euripides quod Graeca posuit, eTv/ia sunt aperta. Ille ait ideo nomen additum Andro- machae, quod ai'S/yt ^a^eTca 4 : hoc Enni?/(m) 5 quis potest intellegere in versu 6 significare Andromachae nomen qui indidit, recte indidit, aut Alexandrum ab eo appellatum in Graecia qui Paris fuisset, a quo Herculem quoque cognominatum aX^iKaKov, ab eo quod defensor esset hominum ? 83. Apud Accium : Iamque Auroram rutilare procul Cerno. Aurora dicitur ante solis ortum, ab eo quod ab igni solis turn aureo aer aurescit. Quod addit rutilare, est ab eodem colore : aurei enim rutili, et inde equam 1 lymphata (aut Bacchi sacris Commota. Lymphata) 2 dicta a hympha ; (lympha) 3 a Nympha, ut quod apud Graecos 9eT 5 spe quidem id successor* tibi ; apud Pompilium : Heu, qua me causa, Fortuna, infeste premis 7 ? Quod ait iurgio, id est litibus : itaque quibus res erat in controversia, ea vocabatur lis : ideo in actionibus videmus dici quam rem sive litem 8 dicere oportet. Ex quo licet vidcre iurgare esse ab iure dictum, cum quis iure litigaret ; ab quo obiurgat is qui id facit iuste. 94. Apud LuczVium 1 : Atque aliquo(t) sibi 2, 8 osmen, e quo S 9 extritum. 98. Apud Plautum : Quia ego antehac te amavi o 5 quidem nos pretio (facile 8 0>ptanti est 7 frequentare : Ita in prandio nos lepide ac nitide Accepisti, apparet dicere : facile est curare ut (adsidue) 8 adsi- mus, cum tarn 9 bene nos accipias. 100. Apud Ennium : Decretum est stare i muset 1 obrutum. §99. 1 Aug., for quo desimi. 2 Ellis ; fere quom Canal; for ferret quern. 3 Aug., with B, for his. 4 Added by L. Sp. 5 GS. (pol istoc Aug., from Plautus), for dicunto. 8 Added by Aug., from Plautus. 7 Schoell (after A. Sp., icho proposed and rejected optanti), for ptanti F, with p deleted by cross-lines. 8 Added by GS. ' Aug., for iam. § 100. 1 GS., after Fest. 84. 7 M. ; est stare et fossari Bergk ; est fossare B, Vertranius ; for est stare. § 101. 1 L. Sp. ; fac is musset Mue. ; face musset Turne- bus ; for facimus et. § 99 ° Plautus, Cist. 6. b Frequens usually means ' in numbers ' (that is, many at one place at the same time) In the same author, the word frequentem b frequent ' in Frequent aid you gave me means assiduam ' busily present ' : therefore he who is at hand assiduus ' constantly present ' fere et quom ' generally and when ' he ought to be, he is frequens, as the opposite of which infrequens c is wont to be used. Therefore that which these same girls say d : Dear me, at that price that you say it is easy For one who desires it to be frequently with us ; So nicely and elegantly you received us At luncheon, clearly means : it is easy to get us to be constantly present at your house, since you entertain us so well. 100. In Ennius ° : Resolved are they to stand and be dug through their bodies with javelins. This verb Jbdare ' to dig ' which Ennius used, was made from fodere ' to dig,' from which comes fossa ' ditch.' 101. In Ennius ° : With words destroy him, crush him if he make a sound. and not ' frequent ' (that is, one in the same place at many different times), which is why the word here needs explana- tion. V. takes it as a shortening of the phrase fere et quom=f, r, e'qu(ym+s, which needs no refutation. " Used especially of a soldier qui abest afuitve a signis ' who is or has been absent from his place in the ranks ' (Festus, 112. 7 M.). d Cist. 8-11, with omissions ; anapaestic and bacchiac verses alternately. §100. 'Ann. 571 Vahlen*; B.O.L. i. 190-191 Warm- ington. § 101. » Trag. Rom. Frag. 393 Ribbeck 8 ; R.O.L. i. 378- 379 Warmington. VOL. I 2 A V. Mussare dictum, quod muti non amplius quam fxv dicunt ; a quo idem dicit id quod minimum est : Neque, ut aiunt, (iD facere audent. 102. Apud Pacuium : Di 1 monerint meliora atque amentiam averruncassint (tuam. 2 Ab) 3 avertendo averruncare, ut deus qui in eis rebus praeest Averruncus. Itaque ab eo precari solent, ut pericula avertat. 103. In Aulularia : Pipulo te 1 differam ante aedis, id est convicio, declinatum a pi(p)atu 2 pullorum. Multa ab animalium vocibus tralata in homines, partim quae sunt aperta, partim obscura ; perspicua, ut Ennii : Animus cum pectore latrat. Plauti : Gannit odiosus omni totae familiae. (Cae)cilii 3 : Tantum rem dibalare ut pro nilo habuerit. § 102. 1 For dim. 2 Added from Festus, 373. 4 M. 3 Added by Turnebus. § 103. 1 So F ; but pipulo te hie Nonius, 152. 5 31., pipulo hie Plautus. 2 Aldus, for piatu. 3 Laetus, for cilii. 6 Onomatopoeic, as V. indicates. c Ennius, Inc. 10 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 438-439 Warmington. §102. a Trag. Rom. Frag. 112 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. ii. 206-207 Warmington; quoted by Festus, 373. 4 M., with tuam, and by Nonius, 74. 22 M. (who assigns it to Lucilius, Bk. XXVI.) with meam. b Monerint is perf. subj. of monere, a form known from other sources also. e The word combines averrere ' to sweep away ' with runcare ' to remove weeds.' d Mentioned elsewhere only by Mussare 6 ' to make a sound ' is said because the muti ' mute ' say nothing more than mu ; from which the same poet uses this for that which is least c : And, as they say, not even a mu dare they utter. 102. In Pacuvius a : May the gods advise * thee of better things to do, and thy madness sweep away ! Averruncare e ' to sweep away ' is from avertere ' to avert,' just as the god who presides over such matters is called Averruncus. neque 12 in Iudicium ^4esopi nec theatri trittiles. 105. In Colace : Nexum . . . (Nexum) 1 Mawilius 2 scribit omne quod per libram et aes geritur, in quo sint mancipia ; Mucius, quae per aes et libram fiant ut obligentur, praeter quom 3 mancipio detur. Hoc verius esse ipsum verbum ostendit, de quo quaerit(ur) 4 : nam id aes 5 quod obligatur per libram neque suum fit, inde nexum dictum. Liber qui suas operas in servitutem pro pecunia quam debebat (nectebat), 6 dum solveret, nexus vocatur, ut ab aere obaeratus. Hoc C. Poetelio 9 GS., after Mati Mue., for Maccius. 10 Baehrens, for sues. 11 Mue. ; a volucri L. Sp. ; for auoluerat. 12 Kent, for tradedeque inreneque. § 105. 1 Added by L. Sp., who recognized the lacuna. 2 Laetus, for mamilius. 3 Huschke, for quam. 4 Aug., for querit. 5 Mommsen, for est. 6 debebat nectebat Kent ; debeat dat Aug. ; for debebat. ' Plautus, Cas. 267 ; the more common orthography is fringilla and friguttis. k Frag. Poet. Lat., page 54 Morel ; wrongly listed by Ribbeck 3 as Juventius, Com. Rom. Frag. IV. 1 Trit, the sound made by the crushing or breaking of a hard grain or seed, as by the strong-beaked birds. If the text is correctly restored, the passage refers to a complaint against trittiles, that is, persons who made similar noises and thereby disturbed a theatrical perform- ance ; the poet says that he will refer the complaint to a regular law-court, and not to the prejudiced decision of the That of Maccius in the Casina, from finches 3 : What do you twitter for ? What's that you wish so eagerly ? That of Sueius, from birds * : So he'll bring the snappers 1 fairly into court and not To the judgement of Aesopus m and the audience. 105. In The Flatterer a : A bound obligation . . . Xexum ' bound obligation,' Manilius 6 writes, is every- thing which is transacted by cash and balance-scale, c including rights of ownership ; but Mucius d defines it as those things which are done by copper ingot and balance-scale in such a way that they rest under formal obligation, except when delivery of property is made under formal taking of possession. That the latter is the truer interpretation, is shown by the very word about which the inquiry is made : for that copper which is placed under obligation according to the balance-scale and does not again become independent (nec suum) of this obligation, is from that fact said to be nexum ' bound.' A free man who, for money which he owed, nectebat ' bound ' his labour in slavery until he should pay, is called a nexus ' bondslave,' just as a man is called obaeratus ' indebted,' from aes ' money- debt.' When Gaius Poetelius Libo Visulus * was offended actor and of the annoyed fellow - spectators. m Famous tragic actor of Cicero's time. § 105. ° Plautus, Frag. IV Ritschl ; but possibly from the Colax of Naevius. 6 Page 6 Huschke. e That is, by agreement to pay a sum of money, measured by weight. * Page 18 Huschke. • Consul in 346, 333 (?), 326 (Liyy, viii. 23. 17), and dictator in 313 (Livy, ix. 28. 2), in which V. sets the abolition of slavery for debt, though Livy, viii. 28, sets it in his third consulship. 359 V. (Li)bone Ftsolo 7 dictatore sublatum ne fieret, et omnes qui Bonam Copiam iurarunt, ne essent nexi dissoluti. 106. In Ca(sina) : Sine ame^, 1 sine quod lubet id facial, 2 Quando tibi domi nihil 3 delicuum est. Dictum ab eo, quod (ad) deliquandum non sunt, ut turbida quae sunt deliquantur, ut liquida fiant. Aurelius scribit delicuum esse 1 ab liquido ; Cla(u)dius ab eliquato. Si quis alterutrum sequi malet, 5 habebit auctorem. Apud Atilium : Per laetitiam liquitur Animus. Ab liquando liquitur fictum. VI. 107. Multa apud poetas reliqua esse verba quorum origines possint dici, non dubito, ut apud Naevium in ^4esiona mucro 1 gladii " lingula " a lingua ; in Clastidio " vitulantes " a Vitula ; in Dolo 7 Poetelio Libone Visolo Lachmann ; Poetelio Visolo Aug. ; for popillio vocare sillo. § 106. 1 In CasinaiW^M*, sine a.met Aldus (from Plautus), for in casineam esses. 2 Aug. (from Plautus), for facias. 3 Plautus has nihil domi. 4 For est. 5 Laetus, for mallet. § 107. 1 Aesiona Buecheler, mucro Groth, for esionam uero. ' That is, swore that they were not regular slaves, but were held in slavery for debt only. 9 Mentioned also by Ovid, Met. ix. 88. § 106. ° Plautus, Cas. 206-207 ; anapaestic. * Appar- ently meant by Plautus as ' lacking,' from delinquere ' to lack,' and so understood by Festus, 73. 10 M., who glosses it with minus. V. has taken it as ' strainable, subject to straining (for purification),' and has connected it with liquare and liquere ' to strain, purify,' also ' to melt.' c Page dictator, this method of dealing with, debtors was done away with, and all who took oath f by the Good Goddess of Plenty 3 were freed from being bond- slaves. 106. In the Casino. a : Let him go and make love, let him do what he will, As long as at home you have nothing amiss. Nihil delicuum 6 ' nothing amiss ' is said from this, that things are not ad deliquandum ' in need of straining out ' the admixtures, as those which are turbid are strained, that they may become liqvida ' clear.' Aurelius c writes that delicuum is from liquidum ' clear ' ; Claudius, 4 * that it is from eliquatum ' strained.' Any- one who prefers to follow either of them will have an authority to back him up. In Atilius e : With joy his mind is melted. Liquitur ' is melted ' is formed from liquare ' to melt.' VI. 107. I am quite aware ° that there are many words still remaining in the poets, whose origins could be set forth ; as in Naevius, 6 in the Hesione, 6 the tip of a sword is called lingula, from lingua ' tongue ' ; in the Clastidium, d vitulantes ' singing songs 89 Funaioli. d Page 97 Funaioli. • Com. Rom. Frag., inc. fab. frag. II, page 37 Ribbeck*. § 107. » Cf the beginning of § 109. * All the citations in § 107 and § 108 are from Naevius; R.O.L. ii. 88-89, 92-93, 96-97, 104-105, 136-137, 597-598 Warmington. c Trag. Rom. Frag. 1 Ribbeck 8 ; for the spelling of the title, cf Buecheler, Rh. Mus. xxvii. 475. d Trag. Rom. Frag., Praet. I Ribbeck* ; vitulari was glossed by V. with TrauwC- £«v, according to Macrobius, Sat. iii. 2. 11. It is difficult to connect the two words with Latin rictus and victoria, so that the resemblance may be fortuitous — unless Vitula be a dialectal word, with CT reduced to T. 361 V. " caperrata fronte " a caprae fronte ; in Demetrio " persibus " a perite : itaque sub hoc glossema ' callide ' subscribunt ; in Lampadione " protinam a protinus, continuitatem significans ; in Nagidone " c/u(ci)datfus " 3 suavis, tametsi a magistris accepi- mus mansuetum ; in Romulo " (con)sponsus " 3 contra sponsum rogatus ; in Stigmatia " praebia " a prae- bendo, ut sit tutus, quod si(n)t 4 remedia in collo pueris ; in Technico 5 " confidant" 6 a conficto con- venire dictum ; 108. In Tarentilla " p(r)ae(l)u(c)idum Ml a luce, illustre ; in Tunicularia : ecbolas 2 aulas quassant quae eiciuntur, a Graeco verbo ck/JoA?? 3 dictum ; in Bello Punico : nec satis sardare 4 2 Scallger, for caudacus. 3 JYeukirch, with Popma, for sponsus. 4 Laetus, for sit. 5 For thechnico. 6 Turne- bus, for conficiant. § 108. 1 Mue., for pacui dum. 2 Kent, for exbolas, metri gratia. 3 Aldus, for exbole. 4 A. Sp. {from Festus, 323. 6 M.), for sarrare. * Com. Rom. Frag, after 49 Ribbeck 3 ; caperrata may be related to capra only by popular etymology. ' Com. Rom. Frag, after 49 Ribbeck 3 ; persibus is seemingly an Oscan perfect participle active, cf. Oscan sipus, from which perhaps it is to be corrected to persipus. 9 Page 113 Funaioli. h Com. Rom. Frag, after 60 Ribbeck 3 . * Com. Rom. Frag, after 60 Ribbeck 3 ; clucidatus is a participle to a Latin verb borrowed from Greek yAu/a'£eiv ' to sweeten.' ' Trag. Rom. Frag., Praet. IT Ribbeck 3 ; for consponsus, cf. vi. 70. * Com. Rom. Frag. 71 Ribbeck 3 . 1 Com. Rom. Frag, after 93 Ribbeck 3 ; confidant, derived from confingere. of victory,' from Vitula 'Goddess of Joy and Victory ' ; in The Artificer caperrata f route ' with wrinkled fore- head,' from the forehead of a capra ' she-goat ' ; in the Demetrius/ persibus ' very knowing,' from perite ' learnedly ' : therefore under this rare word they write 9 collide' shrewdly ' ; in the Lampadio, h protinam ' forthwith ' from protinus (of the same meaning), indicating lack of interruption in time or place ; in the Nagido,* clucidatus ' sweetened,' although we have been told by the teachers that it means ' tame ' ; in the Romulus,' consponsus, meaning a person who has been asked to make a counter-promise ; in The Branded Slave, k praebia ' amulets,' from praebere ' pro- viding ' that he may be safe, because they are prophy- lactics to be hung on boys' necks ; in The Craftsman, 1 confidant ' they unite on a tale,' said from agreeing on a confictum ' fabrication.' 108. Also, in The Girl of Tarentum, a praelucidum ' very brilliant,' from lux ' light,' meaning ' shining ' : in The Story of the Shirt, b They shake the jars that make the lots jump out, ecbolicas ' causing to jump out,' because of the lots which are cast out, is said from the Greek word eK/SoXi] ; and in The Punic War c Not even quite sardare ' to understand like a Sardinian,' § 108. ° Com. Rom. Frag, after 93 Ribbeck 3 . h Com. Rom. Frag. 103 Ribbeck 3 ; R.O.L. ii. 106-107 Warming- ton (with different interpretation). e Frag. Poet. Rom. 53-54 Baehrens; R.O.L. ii. 72-73 Warmington. According to Festus, 322 a 24 and 323. 6 M., sardare means intel- legere, perhaps 'to understand like a Sardinian,' that is, very poorly, for the Sardinians had in antiquity a bad re- putation in various lines. The verse of Naevius runs : Quod bruti nec satis sardare queunt. ab serare dictum, id est aperire ; hinc etiam sera, 5 qua remota fores panduntur. VII. 109. Sed quod vereor ne plures sint futuri qui de hoc genere me quod nimium multa scripseriwz 1 reprehendant quam quod 2 reliquerim 3 quaedam accusent, ideo potius iam reprimendum quam pro- cudendum puto esse volumen : nemo reprensus qui e segete ad spicilegium reliquit stipulam. Quare in- stitutis sex libris, quemadmodum rebus Latina nomina essent imposita ad usum nostrum : e quis tn's 4 scripsi Po. 5 Septumio qui mihi fuit quaestor, tris tibi, quorum hie est tertius, prior es de disciplina verborum originis, posterior es de verborum originibus. In illis, qui ante sunt, in primo volumine est quae dicantur, cur ervfj-oXoyiKr) 6 neque ar(s> sit 7 neque ea utilis sit, in secundo quae sint, cur et ars ea sit et (ut)ilis 8 sit, in tertio quae forma etymologiae. 9 110. In secundis tribus quos ad te misi item generatim discretis, primum in quo sunt origines verborum 1 locorum et earum rerum quae in locis esse solent, secundum quibus vocabulis te(m)pora sint notata et eae res quae in temporibus hunt, tertius 5 Ed. Veneta, for serae. Laetus,for rescripserint. 2 quam quod A Idus, for quamquam. 3 For reliquerint. 4 Laetus, for tres. 5 po stands here in F, but with lines drawn through the letters. 6 L. Sp.,for ethimologice. 7 ars sit V, p, L. Sp.,for ansit. 8 et utilis Turnebus; et illis utilis V; for et illis F. 9 For ethimologiae. § 110. 1 Crossed out by F 1, but required by the meaning. d In such an etymology, V. is operating on the basis that things may be named from their opposites; cf. Festus, 122. 16 M., ludum dicimus, in quo minime luditur. § 109. ° A liber or ' book ' was calculated to fill a volumen where sardare is said from serare ' to bolt,' d that is, sardare means ' to open ' ; from this also sera ' bolt,' on the removal of which the doors are opened. VII. 109- But because I fear that there will be more who will blame me for writing too much of this sort than will accuse me of omitting certain items, I think that this roll must now rather be compressed than hammered out to greater length a : no one is blamed who in the cornfield has left the stems for the gleaning. 6 Therefore as I had arranged six books c on how Latin names were set upon things for our use d : of these I dedicated three to Publius Septumius who was my quaestor," and three to you, of which this is the third — the first three on the doctrine of the origin of words, the second three f on the origins of words. Of those which precede, the first roll con- tains the arguments which are offered as to why Etymology is not a branch of learning and is not useful ; the second contains the arguments why it is a branch of learning and is useful ; the third states what the nature of etymology is. 110. In the second three which I sent to you, the subjects are likewise divided off: first, that in which the origins of words for places are set forth, and for those things which are wont to be in places ; second, with what words times are designated and those things which are done in times ; third, the present or ' roll ' of convenient size for handling. * That is, who has cut off the ears of standing grain and left the stalks. e Books II.-VII. ; cf. v. 1. d This sentence is resumed at Quocirca, in the middle of § 1 10. * Varro held office in the war against the pirates and Mithridates in 67-66, under Pompey, and again in Pompey's forces in Spain in 49 and at Pharsalus in 48 ; but it is unknown in which of these he had Septumius as quaestor. ' Books V.-VII. 365 VARRO hie, in quo a poetis item sumpta ut il/a 2 quae dixi in duobus libris solwta 3 oratione. Quocirca quoniam omnis operis de Lingua Latina tris feci partis, primo quemadmodum vocabula imposita essent rebus, secundo quemadmodum ea in casus declinarentur, tertio quemadmodum coniungerentur, prima parte perpetrata, ut secundam ordiri possim, huic libro faciam finem. 8 Victorius, for utilia. 3 Sciop., for solita. book, in which words are taken from the poets in the same way as those which I have mentioned in the other two books were taken from prose writings. Therefore," since I have made three parts of the whole work On the Latin Language, first how names were set upon things, second how the words are declined in cases, third how they are combined into sentences — as the first part is now finished, I shall make an end to this book, that I may be able to commence the second part. §110. "This resumes the sentence interrupted at the middle of the previous section. Rolfe. DESCRIPTIVE PROSPECTUS ON APPLICATION THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARY FOUNDED BY JAMES LOEB, IX. D. EDITED BY fT. E. PAGE, C.H., LITT.D. E. CAPPS, ph.d., ll.d. W. H. D. ROUSE, litt.d. FRAGMENTS LONDON HEINEMANN QUAE DICANTUR CUR NON SIT ANALOGIA LIBER I I. 1. Quom oratio natura tripertita esset, ut su- perioribus libris ostendi, cuius prima pars, quemad- modum vocabula rebus essent imposita, secunda, quo pacto de his declinata in discrimina iermt, 1 tertia, ut ea inter se ratione coniuncta sententiam efferant, prima parte exposita de secunda incipiam hinc. Ut propago omnis natura secunda, quod prius illud rectum, unde ea, sic declinata : itaque declinatur in verbis : rectum homo, obliquum hominis, quod de- clinatum a recto. § 1. 1 Sciop.,for ierunt. § 1. a That is, bent aside and downward, from the vertical. The Greeks conceived the paradigm of the noun as the upper right quadrant of a circle : the nominative was the vertical radius, and the other cases were radii which 4 declined 1 to the right, and were therefore called m-coous 'fallings,' which the Romans translated literally by casus. The casus rectus is therefore a contradiction in itself. The Latin verb de- 370 MARCUS TERENTIUS VARRCTS ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE BOOK VII ENDS HERE, AND HERE BEGINS BOOK VIII One Book of Arguments which are advanced AGAINST THE EXISTENCE OF THE Principle of Analogy. Speech is naturally divided into THREE parts. Its first part is how a name is imposed upon a thing; its second, in what way a derivative of a name arrives at its difference; its third, how a a ‘sentence’, or words united with another one reasoningly, EXPRESSES an idea – Not that there may not be one-word sentences, like ‘Come!’ [H. P. Grice, Utterer’s meaning, sentence-meaning, and word-meaning]. Having set forth the first part, I shall begin upon the second. As every offshoot is secondary by nature, because that vertical trunk from which it comes is primary, and it is therefore declined, so there may be declension in a word – shag, shaggy : HOMO 1 man * is the vertical, HOMINIS * man's ' is the oblique, because it is declined from the vertical. clinare is used in the meanings * to decline (a noun)/ * to conjugate (a verb),' and * to derive ' in general, as well as * to bend aside and down * in a literal physical sense : it therefore offers great difficulties in translating. De huiusce(modi) 1 multiplici natura discrimi- num (ca)wsae 2 sunt hae, cur et quo et quemadmodum in loquendo declinata sunt verba. De quibus duo prima duabus causis percurram breviter, quod et turn, cum de copia verborum scribam, erit retractandum et quod de tribus tertium quod est habet suas permultas ac magnas partes. II. 3. Declinatio inducta in sermones non solum Latinos, sed omnium hominum utili et necessaria de causa : nisi enim ita esset factum, neque di(s)cere 1 tantum numerum verborum possemus (infinitae enim sunt naturae in quas ea declinantur) neque quae didicissemus, ex his, quae inter se rerum cognatio esset, appareret. At nunc ideo videmus, quod simile est, quod propagatum : legi (c)um (de lego) 2 de- clinatum est, duo simul apparent, quodam modo eadem dici et non eodem tempore factum ; at 3 si verbi gratia alterum horum diceretur Priamus, alterum fiecuba, nullam unitatem adsigniflcaret, quae ap- paret in lego et legi et in Priamus Priamo. Ut in hominibus quaedam sunt agnationes ac 1 gentilitates, sic in verbis : ut enim ab AemiMo homines orti ^emilii ac gentiles, sic ab ^emilii nomine de- clinatae voces in gentilitate nominali : ab eo enim, § 2. 1 Added by L. Sp. 2 L. Sp., for orae. § 3. 1 Mue. t for dicere ; cf, § 5. 2 GS.,for legium F ; cf. declinatum est ab lego Aug. from B, and last sentence of this section. 3 Mue., for ut. §4. 1 L. Sp. t for ad. § 2. a Cf. viii. 9 in quas. b That is, the collective vocabulary;. § 3. a The term ' inflection ' will be convenient oftentimes to express declinatio, including both declension of nouns and conjugation of verbs. 372 ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, VIII. 2-i 2. From the manifold nature of this sort there are these causes of the differences : for what reason, and to what product, a and in what way, in speaking, the words are declined. The first two of these I shall pass over briefly, for two reasons : because there will have to be a rehandling of the topics when I write of the stock of words, 6 and because the third of them has numerous and extensive subdivisions of its own. II. 3. Inflection a has been introduced not only into Latin speech, but into the speech of all men, because it is useful and necessary ; for if this system had not developed, we could not learn such a great number of words as we should have— for the possible forms into which they are inflected are numerically unlimited — nor from those which we should have learned would it be clear what relationship existed between them so far as their meanings were con- cerned. But as it is, we do see, for the reason that that which is the offshoot bears a similarity to the original : when legi ' I have gathered ' is inflected from lego ' I gather,' two things are clear at the same time, namely that in some fashion the acts are said to be the same, and yet that their doing did not take place at the same time. But if, for the sake of a word, one of these two related ideas was called Priamus and the other Hecuba, there would be no indication of the unity of idea which is clear in lego and legi, and in nominative Priamus, dative Priamo. 4. As among men there are certain kinships, either through the males or through the clan, so there are among words. For as from an Aemilius were sprung the men named Aemilius, and the clan-mcmbers of the name, so from the name of Aemilius were inflected the words in the noun-clan : for from that name which quod est impositum recto casu ^emilius, orta ^emilii, ^emilium, ^emilios, ^4emiliorum et sic reliquae eius- dem quae sunt*stirpis. 5. Duo igitur omnino verborum principia 3 im- positio (et declinatio), 1 alterum ut fons, alterum ut rivus. Impositicia nomina esse voluerunt quam paucissima, quo citius ediscere possent, declinata quam plurima, quo facilius omncs quibus ad usum opus esset 2 dicerent. 3 6. Ad illud genus, quod prius, historia opus est : nisi dzscendo 1 enim aliter id non* pervenit ad nos ; ad reliquum genus, quod posterius. ars : ad quam opus est paucis praeceptis quae sunt brevia. Qua enim ratione in uno vocabulo declinare didiceris, in infinito numero nominum uti possis : itaque novis nominibus allatis 3 (in) 4 consuetudinem sine dubitatione eorum declinatus statim omnis dicit populus ; etiam novicii servi empti in magna familia cito omnium conser- vorum (n)om{i)na 5 recto casu accepto in reliquos obliquos declinant. 7. Qui s(i) 1 non numquam offendunt, non est mirum : et enim ille 2 qui primi nomina imposuerunt rebus fortasse an in quibusdam sint lapsi : voluis(se) enim putant(ur) 3 singularis res notarc, ut ex his in multitudine(m) 4 declinaretur, ab homine homines ; § 5. 1 Added by L. Sp., V, p. 2 Canal, for essent. 3 Ed. Veneta, for dicerentur. § 6. 1 Stephanus, for descendendo. 2 For idum. 3 For allatius. 4 Added by Aug. 6 Aug., for omnes. § 7. 1 Aldus, for quid. 2 Aldus, for ilia. 3 Ellis, for putant. % 4 -dinem H, for -dine F and other codd. That is, in the singular. was imposed in the nominative case as Aemilius were made Aemilii, Aemilium, Aemilios, Aemiliorum, and in this way also all the other words which are of this same line. 5. The origins of words are therefore two in num- ber, and no more : imposition and inflection ; the one is as it were the spring, the other the brook. Men have wished that imposed nouns should be as few as possible, that they might be able to learn them more quickly ; but derivative nouns they have wished to be as numerous as possible, that all might the more easily say those nouns which they needed to use. 6. In connexion with the first class, a historical narrative is necessary, for except by outright learning such words do not reach us ; for the other class, the second, a grammatical treatment is necessary, and for this there is need of a few brief maxims. For the scheme by which you have learned to inflect in the instance of one noun, you can employ in a countless number of nouns : therefore when new nouns have been brought into common use, the whole people at once utters their declined forms without any hesita- tion. Moreover, those who have freshly become slaves and on purchase become members of a large house- hold, quickly inflect the names of all their fellow- slaves in the oblique cases, provided only they have heard the nominative. 7. If they sometimes make mistakes, it is not astonishing. Even those who first imposed names upon things perhaps made some slips in some in- stances : for they are supposed to have desired to designate things individually, that from these inflec- tion might be made to indicate plurality, as homines ' men * from homo ' man.' They are supposed to have V. sic mares liberos voluisse notari, ut ex his feminae declinarentur, ut est ab Terentio Terentia ; sic in recto casu quas imponerent voces, ut illinc e sent futurae quo declinarentur : sed haec in omnibus tenere nequisse, quod et una(e) et (binae) 5 dicuntur scopae, et mas et femina aquila, et recto et obliquo vocabulo vis. 8. Cur haec non tarn si(n)t x in culpa quam putant, pleraque solvere non difficile, sed nunc non necesse : non enim qui potuerint adsequi sed qui voluerint, ad hoc quod propositum refert, quod nihilo minus 2 de- clinari potest ab eo quod imposuerunt 3 scopae scopa- (rum), 4 quam si imposuissent scopa, ab eo scopae, sic alia. III. 9. Causa, inquam, cur eas 1 ab impositis nominibus declinarint, quam ostendi ; sequitur, in quas voluerint 2 declinari aut noluerint, ut generatim ac summatim item informem. Duo enim genera verborum, unum fecundum, 3 quod declinando multas ex se parit disparilis formas, ut est lego legi 4 legam, 5 Mette ; unae et duae A. Sp. ; unae Mue. ; for una et. § 8. 1 Aug.) with for sit. 2 For nichiloniinus. 3 For imposiuerunt. 4 Reitzenstein, for scopa. § 9. 1 Laetus, M,for earn. 2 Laetits deleted declinarint after voluerint. 3 JlhoL, for fcmndum. 4 L. Sp., for legis ; cf. § 3, end. 1 The genitive. desired that male children be designated in such a way that from these the females might be indicated by inflection, as the feminine Terentia from the masculine Terentivs ; and that similarly from the names which they set in the nominative case, there might be other forms to which they could arrive by inflection. But they are supposed to have been unable to hold fast to these principles in every- thing, because the plural form scopae denotes either one or two brooms, and aquila ' eagle ' denotes both the male and the female, and vis * force ' is used for the nominative and for an oblique case b of the word. 8. Why such words are not so much at fault as men think, it is in most instances not hard to explain, but it is not necessary to do so at this time ; for it is not how they have been able to arrive at the words, but how they wished to express themselves, that is of import for the subject which is before us : inasmuch as genitive scoparum can be no less easily derived from the plural scopae which they did impose on the object as its name, than if they had given it the name scopa in the singular, and made the genitive scopae from this — and other words likewise. III. 9- The reason, I say, why they made these inflected forms a from the names which they had set upon things, is that which I have shown ; the next point is for me to sketch by classes, but briefly, the forms a at which they have wished to arrive by inflec- tion, or have not wished to arrive. For there are two classes of words, one fruitful, which by inflection pro- duces from itself many different forms, as for example lego ' I gather/ legi * I have gathered,' legam * I shall § 9. a Understand voces with eas and with quas. V. sic alia, alterum genus sterile, quod ex se parit nihil, 5 ut est et iam 6 vix eras 7 magis cur. 10. Quarum rerum usus erat simplex, (simplex) 1 ibi etiam vocabuli declinatus, ut in qua domo unus servus, uno servili opwst 2 nomine, in qua 3 multi, pluri- bus. Igitur et in his rebus quae 4 sunt nomina, quod discrimina vocis plura, propagines plures, et in his rebus quae copulae sunt ac iungunt 5 verba, quod non opus fuit declinari in plura, fere singula sunt : uno enim loro alligare possis vel hominem vel equum vel aliud quod, quicquid est quod cum altero potest colligari. Sic quod dicimus in loquendo " Consul fuit Tullius et Antonius," eodem illo ' et ' omnis binos consules colligtfre 6 possumus, vel dicam amplius, omnia nomina, atque «deo 7 etiam omnia verba, cum fulmentuw 8 ex una syllaba illud ' et ' maneat unum. Quare duce natura (factum)s/,* quae imposita essent vocabula rebus, ne ab omnibus his declina/us 10 puta- r emus. 11 IV. 11. Quorum 1 generum declinationes oriantur, partes orationis sunt duae, (ni)si 2 item ut Dzon in tris diviserimus partes res quae verbis significantur : 6 For nichil. 6 GS., for etiam. 7 L. Sp., for vixerat ; cf. vix magis eras Aug., with B. § 10. 1 Added by Sciop. 2 servili L. Sp., opust Sciop., for seruilio post. 3 B, for quam. 4 L. Sp.^for quorum. 6 Mue. f for hmguntur. 6 Aug., for colligere. 7 Sciop., for ideo. 6 Mue., for fulmen tunc. 9 L. Sp., for si. 10 Laetus, for declinandus. 11 Fay, for putarent. § 11. 1 Laetus, for quarum. 2 Roehrscheidt, for si. 6 The invariable and indeclinable words. § 10. a ~Cf. the Marcipor ' Marcus' boy,' of earlier times. 6 In 63 b.c. ; the example compliments Cicero, to whom the work is addressed. c That is, we should expect some words to be invariable and uninflected. gather/ and similarly other words ; and a second class which is barren, 5 which produces nothing from itself, as for example et * and/ tarn * now/ vix ' hardly/ eras ' to-morrow/ magis * more/ cur 'why/ 10. In those things whose use was simple, the inflection of the name also was simple ; just as in a house where there is only one slave there is need of only one slave-name, a but in a house where there are many slaves there is need of many such names. There- fore also in those things which are names, because the differentiations of the word are several, there are more offshoots, and in those things which are connectives and join words, because there was no need for them to be inflected into several forms, the words generally have but one form : for with one and the same thong you can fasten a man or a horse or anything else, whatever it is, which can be fastened to something else. Thus, for example, we say in our talking, " Tullius et * and ' Antonius were consuls " 6 : with that same et we can link together any set of two con- suls, or — to put it more strongly — any and all names, and even all words, while all the time that one-syllabled prop-word et remains unchanged. Therefore under nature s guidance it has come about that we should not think that there are inflected forms from all these names which have been set upon things. IV. 11. In the word-classes in which inflections may develop, the parts of speech are two, unless, following Dion, a we divide into three divisions the ideas which are indicated by words : one division §11. ° An Academic philosopher of Alexandria, who headed an embassy to Rome in 56 to seek help against the exiled king Ptolemy Auletes, and was there poisoned by the king's agents. V. unam 3 quae adsignificat casus, 4 alteram 5 quae tem- pora, tertia(m) 6 quae neutrum. De his Aristoteles orationis duas partes esse dicit : vocabula et verba, ut homo et equus, et legit et currit. 12. Utriusque generis, et vocabuli et verbi, quae- dam priora, quaedam posteriora ; priora ut homo, scribit, posteriora ut doctus et docte : dicitur enim homo doctus et scribit docte. Haec sequitur locus et tempus, quod neque homo nec scribi(t) 1 potest sine loco et tempore esse, ita ut magis sit locus homini coniunctus, tempus scriptioni. 13. Cum de his nomen sit primum (prius enim nomen est quam verbum temporale et reliqua pos- terius quam nomen et verbum), prima igitur nomina : quare de eorum declinatione quam de verborum ante dicam. V. 14. Nomina declinantur aut in earum rerum discrimina, quarum nomina sunt, ut ab Terentius Terenti(a), 1 aut in ea(s) 2 res extrinsecus, quarum ea nomina non sunt, ut ab equo equiso. In sua dis- crimina declinantur aut propter ipsius rei naturam de 3 i?, for unum. 4 Laetus, for capus. 5 Laetus, B, for alterum. 6 Mue.^for tertia. § 12. 1 B, II, Laetus, for scribi. Reitzenstein, for Tcrenti; cf. ix. 55, 59. 2 V, p, Laetus^ for ea. b A division into nouns, verbs, and convinct tones went back to Aristotle, according to Quintilian, Inst, Oral. i. 4. 18 {cf also Priscian, ii. 54. 5 Keil) ; but more detailed classifications of the parts - of speech had also been made before V.'s time. e Rhet. iii. 2 ; but cf. preceding note. § 19. ° That is, grammatically subordinate in the phrase. § 13. ° Since verbum means both ' word ' in general, and which indicates also case, a second which indicates also time, a third which indicates neither. 6 Of these, Aristotle c says that there are two parts of speech ; nouns, like homo * man * and equus ' horse/ and verbs, like legit * gathers ' and currit ' runs.* 12. Of the two kinds, noun and verb, certain words are primary and certain are secondary a : primary like homo ' man * and scribit * writes/ and secondary like doctus * learned * and docie * learnedly/ for we say homo doctus ' a learned man * and scribit docie * writes learnedly.* These ideas are attended by those of place and time, because neither homo nor scribit can be asserted without the presupposition of place and of time — yet in such a way that place is more closely associated with the idea of the noun homo, and time more closely with the act of writing. 13. Since among these the noun is first — for the noun comes ahead of the verb, a and the other words stand later relatively to the noun and the verl> — the nouns are accordingly first. Therefore I shall speak of the form-variations b of nouns before I take up those of verbs. V. 14. Nouns are varied in form either to show differences in those things of which they are the names, as the woman's name Terentia from the man's name Tereniius, or to denote those things outside, of which they are not the names, as equiso ' stable-boy * from equus * horse.* To show differences in them- selves they are varied in form either on account of the nature of the thing itself about which mention is ' verb * specifically, V. here writes verbum temporale to avoid any ambiguity. * Declinatio denotes not only de- clension, but conjugation of verbs, derivation by prefixes and suffixes, and composition. 381 V. qua 3 dicitur aut -propter illius (usum) 4 qui dicit. Propter ipsius rei discrimina, aut ab toto (aut a parte. Quae a toto, declinata sunt aut propter multitudinem aut propter exiguitatem. Propter exiguitatem), 5 ut ab homine homunculus, ab capite capitulum ; propter multitudinem, ut ab homine homines ; ab eo (abeo)* quod alii dicunt cervices et id Hortensius in poematis cervix. 15. Quae a parte 1 declinata, aut a corpore, ut a mamma mammosae, a manu manubria, aut ab animo, ut a prudentia pruden(te)s, 2 ab ingenio ingeniosi. Haec sine agitationibus ; at ubi motus maiores, item ab animo (aut a corpore), 3 ut ab strenuitate et nobili- tate strenui et nobiles, sic a pugnando et currendo pugiles et cursores. Ut aliae dechnationes ab animo, aliae a corpore, sic aliae quae extra hominem, ut pecimiosi, agrarii, quod foris pecunia et ager. VI. 16. Propter eorum qui dicunt usum 1 declinati casus, uti is qui de altero diceret, distinguere posset, 3 Vert ran ius, for quo. 4 Added by GS., following Reitzen- stein, who added it after dicit. 5 Added by Reitzenstein ; aut a parte, ab toto added by L. Sp., after Aug.* who added aut a parte, a toto, suggested to him by B aut a parte aut ab animo. a toto. • Added by Fay. § 15. 1 For aperte. 1 L. Sp. t for prudens. 3 Added by L. Sp. § 16. 1 Vert ranius, for dicuntur sum. § 14. a That is, syntactical variations, indicated by the case-forms. b Other categories resulting in variations might have been listed. e Frag. Poet. Lat.^ page 91 Morel. d As did also Ennius and Pacuvius, before Hortensius ; the plural was the only regularly used form, outside the poets. § 15. ° We expect rather a plural adjective meaning * big- handed.* 6 The long abstract nouns are of course derived from the adjectives. e Or perhaps in the original meaning * farmers.* made, or on account of the use to which the speaker puts the word. a On account of differences in the thing itself, the variation is made either with reference to the whole thing, or with reference to a part of it. Those forms which concern the whole are derived either on account of plurality or on account of small- ness. 6 On account of smallness, homunculus * mani- kin ' is formed from homo * man/ and capitulum * little head ' from caput 4 head.' On account of plurality, homines 4 men ' is made from homo 4 man ' ; I pass by the fact that others use cervices 4 back of the neck ' in the plural, and Hortensius c in his poems uses it in the singular cervix. d 15. Those which are derived from a part, come either from the body, as mammosae * big-breasted women ' from mamma * breast ' and manubria a * handles ' from manus * hand/ or from the mind, as prudentes 4 prudent men * from prudentia * prudence ' and ingeniosi * men of talent ' from ingenium 4 innate .... . ability.' The preceding are quite apart from move- ments ; but where there are important motions, the derivatives are similarly from the mind or from the body, as strenui 4 the quick ' and nobiles * the noble/ from strenuitas 4 quickness ' and nobilitas 4 nobility/ b and in this way also pugiles 4 boxers * and cursores * runners * from pugnare 4 to fight ' and currere 4 to run.' As some derivations are from the mind and others from the body, so also there are others which refer to external things, as pecuniosi 4 moneyed men ' and agrarii c 4 advocates of agrarian laws/ because pecunia * money * and ager * field-land ' are exterior to the men to whom the derivatives are applied. VI. 16. It was for the use of the speakers that the case-forms were derived, that he who spoke of another V. cum vocaret, cum daret, cum accusaret, sic alia eiusdem (modi) 2 discrimina, quae nos et Graecos ad declinandum duxerunt. Sine 3 controversia (sunt obliqui, qui nascuntur a recto : unde rectus an sit casus) 4 sunt qui quae(rant. Nos vero sex habemus, Graeci quinque) 4 : quis vocetur, ut 7/ercules ; quem- admodum vocetur, ut 7/ercule ; quo vocetur, ut ad 7/crculem ; a quo vocetur, ut ab 7/ercule ; cui voce- tur, ut 7/erculi ; cuius vocetur, ut 7/erculis. VII. 17. Propter ea verba quae erant proinde ac cognomina, ut prudens, candidus, strenuus, quod in his praeterea sunt discrimina propter incrementum, quod maius aut minus in his esse potest, accessit declinationum genus, ut a candido candidius candi- dissimum sic a longo, divite, id genus aliis ut fieret. 18. Quae in eas res quae extrinsecus declinantur, sunt ab equo equile, ab ovibus ovile, sic alia : haec contraria illis quae supra dicta, ut a pecunia pecunio- 2 Added by Mue. 3 For sinae. 4 Added by Schoell apud GS. ; cf. note b. § 16. ° Vocative, dative, accusative cases ; the accusative was in Latin a poorly named case, through a mistranslation of its Greek name. b The only controversy was whether or not the nominative was to be called a case, and the text must be expanded to conform to this basic fact ; cf. Charisius, i. 154. 6-8 Keil, Priscian, ii. 185. 12-14 Keil, etc. Cf. viii. 1 note a, above. c The Greeks had no ablative case. § 17. a Nowhere recorded as a cognomen, despite V.. b Recorded as a cognomen in the Claudian and the Julian gentes, and in several others. c Not recorded as a cog- nomen. d Namely, comparison of adjectives. * For such cognomina, c/. Fulvius Nobilior and Fabius Maximus. f i.e., adjectives. might be able to make a distinction when he was calling, when he was giving, when he was accusing," and other differences of this same sort, which led us as well as the Greeks to the declension of nouns. The oblique forms which develop from the nominative are without dispute to be called cases ; but there are those who question whether the nominative is properly a case. 6 At any rate, we have six forms, and the Greeks five e : he who is called, as (nominative) Her- cules ; how the calling is done, as (vocative) Hercule ; whither there is a calling, as to (accusative) Herculem ; by whom the calling is done, as by (ablative) Hercule ; to or for whom there is a calling, as to or for (dative) Herculi ; of whom the calling or called object is, as of (genitive) Herculis. VII. 17. There are certain words which are like added family names, such as Prudens ° * prudent,* Cajididus b * frank/ Strenuus e * brisk,* and in them differences may be shown by a suffix, since the quality may be present in them to a greater or a smaller degree : therefore to these words a kind of inflection d is attached, so that from candidum 1 shining white ' comes the comparative candidius and the superlative candidissimumf formed in the same way as similar forms from longum * long,' dives 1 rich,' and other words of this kind/ 18. The terms which are derived for application to exterior objects, are for example equile ' horse- stable ' from equus ' horse,' ovile ' sheepfold * from oves 1 sheep,' and others in this same way ; these are the opposite of those which I mentioned above, such § 18. ° Here, objects named by derivation from living beings ; in § 15, living beings named by derivation from inanimate objects. vol. ti c 385 V. sus, ab urbe urbanus, ab atro atratus : ut nonnunquam ab homine locus, ab eo loco homo, ut ab Romulo Roma, ab Roma Romanus. 19. Aliquot modis declinata ea quae foris : nam aliter qui a maioribus suis, Laton{i)us 1 et Priamidae, aliter quae (a) 2 facto, ut a praedando praeda, a merendo merces ; sic alia sunt, quae circum ire non difficile ; sed quod genus iam videtur et alia urgent, omitto. In verborum genere quae tempora ad- significant, quod ea erant tria, praeteritum, praesens, futurum, declinatio facienda fuit triplex, ut ab saluto salutabam, salutabo ; cum item personarum natura triplex esset, qui loqueretur, (ad quern), 1 de quo, haec ab eodem verbo declinata, quae in copia verborum explicabuntur. IX. 21. Quoniam dictum de duobus, declinatio 1 cur et in qua(s) 2 sit facta, 3 tertium quod relinquitur, § 19. 1 p, Laetus, for latonus F. 2 Added by Aug., with B. % 20. 1 Added by Laetus after de quo, and transferred to this position by Mue. § 21. 1 Mue., for duabus declinationibus. 2 KenU for qua ; cf in quas viii. 9. 3 A. Sp.,for fama. Romulus is derived from Roma, not the reverse, as V. has it. Apollo ; but oftener Latonia (fern.), Diana. b Especially Hector, Paris, Helenus, Deiphobus. e Cf v. 44. § 20. a That is, verbs. as pecuniosus ' moneyed man * from pecunia 1 money/ urbanus 1 city man ' from urbs 1 city/ atraius * clad in mourning ' from atrum ' black.' Thus sometimes a place is named from a man, and then a man from this place, as Rome from Romulus b and then Roman from Rome. 19. The nouns which relate to exterior objects are derived in sundry ways : those like Latonias ' Latona's child * a and Priamidae ' Priam's sons/ b which are derived from the names of their progenitors, are formed in one way, and those which come from an action are made in another way, such as praeda ' booty ' from praedari * to pillage * and merces ' wages ' c from mereri ' to earn. 1 In the same way there are still others, which can be enumerated without diffi- culty ; but because this category of words is now clear to the understanding and other matters press for attention, I pass them by. VIII. 20. Inasmuch as in the class of words which indicate also time-ideas a there were these three time-ideas, past, present, and future, there had to be three sets of derived forms, as from the present saluto ' I salute ' there are the past salutabam and the future salutabo. Since the persons of the verb were likewise of three natures, the one who was speaking, the one to whom the speaking was done, and the one about whom the speaking took place, there are these deriva- tive forms of each and every verb ; and these forms will be expounded in the account of the stock of verbs which is in use. IX. 21 . Since two points have been discussed, why derivation exists and to what products it eventuates, the remaining third point shall now be spoken of, namely, how and in what manner derivation takes quemadmodum, nunc dicetur.* Declinationum genera sunt duo, voluntarium et naturale ; voluntarium est, quo ut cuiusque tulit voluntas declinavit. Sic tres cum emerunt Ephesi singulos servos, nonnunquam alius declinat nomen ab eo qui vendit Artemidorus, atque Artemam appellat, alius a regione quod ibi emit, ab Ion(i)a 5 Iona,* alius quod Ephesi Ephesium, sic alius ab alia aliqua re, ut visum est. 22. Contra naturalem declinationem dico, quae non a singulorum oritur voluntate, sed a com(m)uni consensu. Itaque omnes impositis nominibus eorum item declinant casus atque eodem modo dicunt huius Artemidori 1 et huius Ionis et huius Ephesi, 2 sic in casibus aliis. 23. Cum utrumque nonnunquam accidat, et ut in voluntaria declinatione animadvertatur natura et in naturali voluntas, quae, cuiusmodi sint, aperientur infra ; quod utraque declinatione alia fiunt similia, alia dissimilia, de eo Graeci Latinique libros fecerunt multos, partim cum alii putarent in loquendo ea verba sequi oportere, quae ab similibus similiter essent declinata, quas appellarunt dvaXoylas, 1 alii cum id 4 Aitg., for dicitur. 5 Laetus, for Iona. 6 Mue., for Ionam. §22. 1 Apparently V.^s own slip for Artemae. 2 Rhol.,for Ephesis. § 23. 1 For analogiias. § 21. a This term includes both word-formation and word- inflection. 6 Practically equal to subjective and objective. C A common type of hypocoristic or nickname, cf. Demas from Demvcritus and similar names, Hippias from Hip- parchus, etc. § 22. a This is inflection. b Specifically, declension. §23. a Cf. viii. 15-16, 51. b Cf. page 118 Funaioli. place. There are two kinds of derivation, voluntary and natural. b Voluntary derivation is that which is the product of the individual person's volition, direct- ing itself apart from control by others. So, when three men have bought a slave apiece at Ephesus, sometimes one derives his slave's name from that of the seller Artemidorus and calls him Artemas c ; another names his slave Ion, from Ionia the district, because he has bought him there ; the third calls his slave Ephesius, because he has bought him at Ephesus. In this way each derives the name from a different source, as he preferred. 22. On the other hand I call that derivation natural, which is based not on the volition of indivi- duals acting singly, but on general agreement. So, when the names have been fixed, they derive the case-forms of them in like fashion, 5 and in one and the same way they all say in the genitive case Artemidori, Ionis, Ephesi ; and so on in the other cases. 23. Sometimes both are found together, and in such a way that in the voluntary derivation the pro- cesses of nature are noted, and in the natural deriva- tion the effects of volition ; of what sort these are, will be recounted below. Since in the two kinds of derivation some things approach likeness and others become unlike, the Greeks and the Latins b have written many books on the subject : in some of them certain writers express the idea that in speaking men ought to follow those words and forms which are derived in similar fashion from like starting-points— which they called the products of Analogy c ; and e The regularizing principle which tends to eliminate irre- gular forms of less frequent occurrence, still called Analogy, by scientific linguists. ncglegendum putarent ac potius sequendam (dis)- similitudinem, 2 quae in consuetudine est, quam vocaruwtf 3 d(v)o)fxakiav, 4 cum, ut ego arbitror, utrum- que sit nobis sequendum, quod (in) 5 declinatione voluntaria sit anomalia, in naturali magis analogia. 24. De quibus utriusque generis declinationibus libros faciam bis ternos, prioris tris de earum declina- tionum disciplina, posteriores de 1 eius disciplinae propaginibus. De prioribus primus erit hie, quae contra similitudinem declinationum dicantur, secun- dus, quae contra dissimilitudinem, tertius de simili- tudinum forma ; de quibus quae expediero 2 singulis tribus, turn de alteris totidem scribere ac dividere 3 incipiam. X. 25.Quod huiusce 1 libri est dicere contra eos qui similitudinem sequuntur, quae est ut in aetate puer ad senem, (puella) 2 ad anum, in verbis ut est scribo scribam, 3 dicam prius contra universam ana- logiam, dein turn de singulis partibus. A natura sermo(nis) 4 incipiam. XI. 26. Omnis oratio cum debeat dirigi ad utili- tatem, ad quam turn denique pervenit, si est aperta 2 Aug., with B t for similitudinem. 3 For vocarum. 4 Aldus* for AtoM AeNAN. 5 Added by Aug. § 24. 1 L. Sp.,for ex. 2 Mue. ; expedierint Aug. ; for experiero. 3 L. Sp. deleted incipimus after dividere. g 25. 1 For huiuscae. 2 Added by Aldus. 3 L. Sp. deleted dico after scribam. 4 Aug., for sermo. d The irregularities summed up in this term are the products of the regular working of ' phonetic law,' unrestrained by the operation of Analogy ; the term Anomaly names it from the product rather than from the working process. e It seems better henceforth to translate analogia by Regularity or the like, rather than to keep the word Analogy. others are of opinion that this should be disregarded and rather men should follow the dissimilar and irregular, which is found in ordinary habitual speech — which they called the product of Anomaly.* But in my opinion we ought to follow both, because in voluntary derivation there is Anomaly, and in the natural derivation there is even more strikingly Regularity.* 24. About these two kinds of derivation I shall write two sets of three books each : the first three about the principles of these derivations, and the latter set about the products of these principles. In the former set the first book will contain the views which may be offered against likeness in derivation and declension ; the second will contain the argu- ments against unlikeness ; the third will be about the shape and manner of the likenesses. What I have set in order on these topics, I shall write in the three separate books ; then on the second set of topics I shall begin to write, with due division into the same number of books. X. 25. Inasmuch as it is the task of this book to speak against those who follow likeness a — which is like the relation of boy to old man in the matter of human life, and like that of girl to old woman, and in verbs is the relation of scribo * I write * and scribam ' I shall write * — I shall speak first against Regularity in general, and then thereafter concerning its several subdivisions. I shall begin with the nature of human speech. XI. 26. All speaking ought to be aimed at practical utility, and it attains this only if it is clear § 25. ° That is, regularity of paradigms resulting from the process of Analogy. et brevis, quae petimus, quod obscurus 1 et longi(or) 2 orator est odio ; et cum efficiat aperta, ut intellegatur, brevis, ut 3 cito intellegatur, et aperta(m) 4 consuetudo, brevem temperantia loquentis, et utrumque fieri possit sine analogia, nihil 5 ea opus est. Neque enim, utrum Herculi an Herculis clavam dici oporteat, si doceat analogia, cum utrumque sit in consuetudine, non neglegendum, 6 quod aeque sunt et brevi(a) et aperta. XII. 27. Praeterea quoius 1 utilitatis causa quae- que res sit inventa, si ex ea quis id sit consecutus, amplius ea(m) 2 scrutari cum sit nimium otiosi, et cum utilitatis causa verba ideo sint imposita rebus ut ea(s) 3 significent, si id consequimur una consuetudine, nihil 4 prodest analogia. XIII. 28. Accedit 1 quod quaecumque usus causa ad vitam sint assumpta, in his no(strumst) 2 utilitatem quaerere, non similitudinem : itaque in vestitu cum dissimillima sit virilis toga tunica(e), 3 muliebri(s) 4 stola pallio, tamen inaequabilitatem hanc sequiwur 5 nihilo 6 minus. XIV. 29. In tfedificiis, quo?n 1 non videamus habere § 26. 1 Aldus, for obscurum. 2 GS., for longi (Aldus longus). 3 Aldus, for et. 4 Aug., for aperta. 5 For nichiL 6 Aug. deleted sunt after neglegendum. §27. 1 Mue. s for quod ius. 2 Aug., for ea. 3 Ver- tranius, for ea. 4 For nichil. § 28. 1 Aldus, for accidit. 2 Fay, for non. 3 Laetus, for tunica., 4 Cuper, for muliebri. 5 Aug., with B, for sequitur. . 6 For nichilo. § 29. 1 Mue. ; quod quom L. Sp. ; for quod. and brief : characteristics which we seek, because an obscure and longish speaker is disliked. And since clear speaking causes the utterance to be understood, and brief speaking causes it to be under- stood quickly, and since also habitual use makes the utterance clear and the speaker's self-restraint makes it brief, and both these can be present without Regu- larity, there is no need of this Regularity. For if Regularity should instruct us whether we ought to say Herculi a or Hercitlis for the genitive, as in the phrase * the club of Hercules,' we must not fail to disregard its teaching, since both are in habitual use, and both forms are equally short and clear. XII. 27. Besides, if from a thing one has secured that useful service for which it was invented, it is the act of a person with a great deal of idle time, to examine it further ; and since the useful service for which names are set upon things is that the names should designate the things, then if we secure this result by habitual use alone, Regularity adds no gain. XIII. 28. There is the additional fact that in those things which are taken into our daily life for use, it is our practice to seek utility and not to seek resemblance ; thus in the matter of clothing, although a man's toga a is very unlike his tunic, et and a woman's stola c is very unlike a. pallium? we make no objection to the difference. XIV. 29. In the case of buildings, although we do § 26. This form occurs in Plautus, Persa 2, Rudens 822, and in other authors. § 28. The formal outer garment of a Roman man. * A shirt or undergarment. c The dress of a Roman matron. d The long outer garment of the Greeks, properly a man's garb only, but worn also by prostitutes both in Greece and in Italy as a sign of their livelihood. (ad) 2 atrium 7reptcrTv\.ov z similitudinem ct cubiculum ad equile, 4 tamen propter utilitatcm in his dissimili- tudines potius quam similitudines seqm'mur 5 : itaque et hiberna triclinia et aestiva non item valvata ac fenestrata facimus. XV. 30. Quare cum, ut 1 in vestitu aedificiis, sic in supellectile cibo ceterisque omnibus quae usus (causa) 2 ad vitam sunt assumpta dominetur inaequabilitas, in sermone quoquc, qui est usus causa constitutus, ea non repudianda. XVI. 31. Quod si quis duplicem putat esse sum- mam, ad quas metas 1 naturae sit perveniendumin usu, utilitatis et elegantiae, quod non solum vestiti esse vol umus ut vitcmus frigus, sed etiam ut videamur vestiti esse honeste, non domum habere ut simus in tecto et tuto solum, quo 2 necessitas contruserit, sed etiam ubi voluptas retineri possit, non solum vasa ad victum habilia,sed etiam figura bella atqueab artifice (ficta), 3 quod aliud homini, aliud humanitati satis est ; quod- vis sitienti homini poculum idoneum, humanitati (ni)si 4 bellum parum ; sed cum discessum e(s)t 5 ab utilitate ad voluptatem, tamen in eo ex dissimilitudine plus voluptatis quam ex similitudine saepe capitur. 32. Quo nomine et gemina conclavia dissimiliter 2 Added by L. Sp. 3 For ITePHCThAON. 4 Hue. deleted quod after equile. 5 F, Mue., for sequamur. § 30. 1 Stephanus, for et. 2 Added by L. Sp. §31. 1 For maetas. 2 Aug. (quoting a friend), for quod. 3 Fay ; facta L. Sp. ; to fill a blank space in F of about 4 letters. 4 Aldus, for si. 5 Aug., with B,for et. § 29. a Jhe garden in the rear part of the house, surrounded by colonnaded porticos. 6 The main hall in the front of the house, with a central opening to the sky under which there was a rectangular water-basin built in the floor. not see the persistyle a bearing resemblance to the atrium 6 nor the sleeping-room bearing resemblance to the horse-stable, still, on account of the utility in them we seek for unlikenesses rather than likenesses ; so also we provide winter dining-rooms and summer dining-rooms with a different equipment of doors and windows. XV. 30. Therefore, since difference prevails not only in clothing and in buildings, but also in furniture, in food, and in all the other things which have been taken into our daily life for use, the principle of difference should not be rejected in human speech either, which has been framed for the purpose of use. XVI. 31. But if one should think that the sum of those natural goals to which we ought to attain in actual use consists of two items, that of utility and that of refinement, because we wish to be clothed not only to avoid cold but also to appear to be honourably clothed ; and we wish to have a house not merely that we may be under a roof and in a safe place into which necessity has crowded us together, but also that we may be where we may continue to experience the pleasures of life ; and we wish to have table- vessels that are not merely suitable to hold our food, but also beautiful in form and shaped by an artist — for one thing is enough for the human animal, and quite another thing satisfies human refinement : any cup at all is satisfactory to a man parched with thirst, but any cup is inferior to the demands of refinement unless it is artistically beautiful : — but as we have digressed from the matter of utility to that of pleasure, it is a fact that in such a case greater pleasure is often got from difference of appearance than from likeness. 32. On this account, identical rooms are often V. pohwnt 1 et leetos non omnis paris magnitudine ae figura faeiunt. Quod (si) 2 esset 3 analogia petenda supelleetili, omnis leetos haberemus domi ad unam formam et aut eum fulcro aut sine eo, nee eum ad trieliniarem gradum, non item ad cubicularem ; neque potius delectaremur supellectile distincta quae esset ex ebore (aliisve) 4 rebus disparibus figuris quam grabatis, 5 qui dva koyov* ad similem formam plerum- que eadem materia fiunt. Quare aut negandum nobis disparia esse iucunda aut, quoniam necesse est confiteri, dicendum verborum dissimilitudine(m), quae sit in eonsuetudine, 7 non esse vitandam. XVII. 33. Quod si analogia sequenda est nobis, aut ea observanda est quae est in eonsuetudine aut quae non est. Si ea quae est sequenda est, prae- ceptis nihil 1 opus est, quod, eum eonsuetudinem sequemur, ea nos sequetur ; si quae non est in eon- suetudine, quflteremus : ut quisque duo verba in quattuor formis finxen't 2 similiter, quamvis haee nolemus, tamen erunt sequenda, ut Iuppit(r)i, 3 Marspitrem ? Quas si quis servet analogias, pro insano sit reprehendendus. Non ergo ea est se- quenda. § 32. 1 Koeler, for pollent. 2 Added by Laetus. 3 Laetus, for essent. 4 Fay ; aliisque Laetus ; to fill a blank space of about 4 letters in F ; cf ix. 47. 5 For grabattis. 6 Mue., for analogon ; cf x. 2. 7 For eonsuetudinem. §33. 1 For nichil. 2 Vert ran ius, for finxerunt. 3 L. Sp., for Iuppiti. § 33. a Namely, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative, from the nominative as starting-point. 6 Such forms, retaining and inflecting the pater which forms the second ornamented in unlike manner, and couches are not all made the same in size and shape. But if Regularity were to be sought in furniture, we should have all the couches in the house made in one fashion, and either with posts or without them, and when we had a couch suited for use beside the dining-table, we should not fail to have just the same for bedroom use ; nor should we rather be delighted with furniture which was decorated with varying figures of ivory or other materials, any more than in camp-beds, which with regularity are almost always made of the same material and in the same shape. Therefore either we must deny that differences give pleasure, or, since we must admit that they do, we must say that the un- likeness in words which is found in habitual usage, is not something to be avoided. XVII. 33. But if we must follow Regularity, either we must observe that Regularity which is present in ordinary usage, or we must observe also that which is not found there. If we must follow that which is present, there is no need of rules, because when we follow usage, Regularity attends us. But if we ought to follow the Regularity which is not present in ordinary usage, then we shall ask, When any one has made two words in four forms ° according to the same pattern, must we employ them just the same, even though we do not wish to — as for example a dative Iuppitri and an accusative Marspiirem ? b If any one should persist in using such * regular forms,* he ought to be rebuked as crazy. This kind of Regularity, therefore, is not to be followed. part of Iuppiter and Marspiter, are quite abnormal, and are found chiefly in the grammarians as examples of forms which are not to be used. 397 V. XVIII. 34. Quod si oportet id es(se), 1 ut a simili- bus similiter omnia declinentur verba, sequitur, ut ab dissimilibus 2 dissimilia debeant fingi, quod non fit : nam et (ab) 3 similibus alia fiunt similia, alia dis- similia, et ab dissimilibus partim similia partim dis- similia. Ab similibus similia, ut a bono et malo bonum malum ; ab similibus dissimilia, ut ab lupus lepus lupo lepori. Contra 4 ab dissimilibus dissimilia, ut Priamus Paris, Priamo Pari ; ab dissimilibus similia, ut Iupiter ovis, lovi ovi. 35. Eo iam magis analogias (esse negandum, 1 quod non modo ab similibus) 2 dissimilia finguntur, sed etiam ab isdem 3 vocabulis dissimilia neque a dis- similibus similia, sed etiam eadem. Ab isdem 4 voca- bulis dissimilia fingi apparet, quod, cum duae sint Al&ae, ab una dicuntur Albani, ab altera Albenses ; cum trinae fuerint Athenae, ab una dicti Athenae(i), 5 ab altera Athenaiis, a tertia Athenaeopolitae. 36. Sic ex diversis verbis multa facta in declinando inveniuntur eadem, ut cum dico ab Saturni Lua Luam, § 34. 1 id esse Canal ; ita esse Hue., for id est. 2 L. Sp.,for his similibus. 3 Added by L. Sp. ; a Aug., with B. 4 Aug., for contraria. § 35. 1 Added by L. Sp. 2 Added by Christ, who has non solum a., for which Groth, citing L. Sp., gives non modo ab. 3 Mae. ; iisdem Laetus ; for hisdem. 4 For hisdem. 8 Laetus, for Athenae. Or accusative masculine. Inhabitants of Alba Longa. h Inhabitants of Alba Fucens or Fucentia, among the Aequi on the borders of the Marsi. c There were several cities named Athens, only that in Attica being important ; the forms of the names are uncertain, especially that of the second, which may however stand for 'Adyvateis like Aeolis v. 25 for AtoXeis. There were many ethnics in -tvs, plural -e?s. But if the proper thing is that all words that start from similar forms should be inflected similarly, it follows that from dissimilar starting forms dissimilar forme should be made by inflection ; and this is not what is found. For from like forms some like forms are made, and other unlike forms, and from unlike forms also come some like forms and some unlike forms. For instance, from likes cume likes, as from bonus * good ' and malus * bad * come the neuter a forms bonum and malum ; also from likes come unlikes, as from lupus * wolf * and lepus ' hare ' come the unlike datives lupo and lepori. On the other hand, from unlikes there are unlikes, as from the nominatives Priamus and Paris come the datives Priamo and Pari ; also from unlikes there are likes, as nominatives Iupiter * Jupiter,* avis * sheep,' and datives Iovi and aw. 35. So much the more now must it be denied that Regularities exist, because not only are un- likes made from likes, but also from identical words unlikes are made, and not merely likes, but identicals are made from unlikes. From identical names unlikes, it is clear, are made, because while there are two towns named Alba, the people of the one are called Albani a and those of the other are called Albenses b ; while there are three cities named Athens, the people of the one are called Athenaei, those of the second are Athenaiis, those of the third A thenaeopolitae. c 36. Similarly, many words made in derivation from different words are found to be identical, as when I say accusative Luam from Saturn s Lua, a and § 36. ° An old Italic goddess who expiated the blood shed in battle ; her formulaic connexion with Saturn is uncertain. et ab solvendo luo 1 luam. 2 Omnia 3 fere nostra (n)omina 4 wrilia 5 et muliebria multitudinis cum recto casu fiunt dissimilia, e#(de)m (in) 6 danc?(i) 7 : dis- similia, ut mares Terentiei, feminae Terentia(e), 8 eadem in dandi, vireis Terentieis et mulieribus Terentieis. Dissimile Plautus et Plautius, (Marcus et Marcius) 8 ; et co(m)mune, ut huius Plauti et Marci. XIX. 37. Denique si est analogia, quod in multis verbis e(s)t x similitudo verborum, sequitur, quod in pluribus est dissimilitudo, ut non sit in sermone sequenda analogia. XX. 38. Postremo, si est in oratione, aut in omnibus eius partibus est aut in aliqua 1 : at 2 in omni- bus non est, in aliqua esse parum est, ut album esse ^ethiopa 3 non satis est quod habet candidos dentes : non est ergo analogia. XXI. 39- Cum ab similibus verbis quae declinan- tur similia fore polliceantur qui analogias esse dicunt, et cum simile turn 1 denique dicant esse 2 verbo ver- bum, ex eodem si 3 genere eadem figura transitum de cassu in cassum similiter ostendi possit, qui haec dicunt utrumque ignorant, et in quo loco similitudo debeat esse, et quemadmodum spectari soleat, simile § 36. 1 Suerdsioeus, for abluo. 2 Aug.,, for abluam. 3 For omina. 4 JO. Sp.^for omina. 5 Scaliger, for libe- ralia. * L. Sp.,for eum. 7 Laetus,for dant. 8 Ixietus, for femina e terentia. 9 Added by Groth. §37. x Aug., for ^t. § 38. 1 Aug., with B, deleted esse parum after aliqua. 2 Canal, for et. 3 Mue.,for ethiopam. § 39. 1 Aug., with B, for simili laetum. 2 L. Sp., for dicantes se. 3 L. Sp., for sit. b Solvendo is here attached to luo as a grloss, just as Saturni is attached to Lua. c The older spelling -EI, historically correct in these forms, was normal after I until the end of the also luam as future of luo 1 loosing.' b Almost all our names of men and women are unlike in the nomina- tive case of the plural, but are identical in the dative : unlike, as the men Terentu, c the women Terentiae, but identical in the dative, men Terentiis c and women Terentiis. Unlike are Plautus and Plautius, Marcus and Marcius ; and yet there is a form common to both, namely the genitive Plauti and Marci. d XIX. 37. Finally, if Regularity does exist for the reason that in many words there is a likeness of the word-forms, it follows that because there is unlikeness in a greater number of words the principle of Regu- larity ought not to be followed in actual talking. XX. 38. In the last place, if Regularity does exist in speech, it exists either in all its parts or in some one part ; but it does not exist in all, and it is not enough that it exists in some one part, just as the fact that an Ethiopian has white teeth Is not enough to justify us in saying that an Ethiopian is white : therefore Regularity does not exist. XXI. 39. Since those who declare that Regulari- ties exist, promise that the inflected forms from like words will be alike, and since they then say that a word is like another word only if it can be shown that starting from the same gender and the same inflectional form it passes in like fashion from case to case, those who make these assertions show their ignorance both of that in which the likeness must be found and of how the presence or absence of the like- Republic, and was therefore V.'s regular orthography. In the translation the standardized Latin forms are used. d The contracted form ending in -I was practically the exclu- sive form used as genitive of nouns ending in -I US in the nominative, until the end of the Republic. vol. 11 D 401 V. sit necne. Quae cum ignorant, sequitur ut, cum (de) analogia 4 dicere non possint, sequi (non) 6 de- beamus. 40. Quaero enim, verbum utrum dicant vocem quae ex syllabis est ficta, earn quam audimus, an quod ea significat, quam intellegimus, an utrumque. Si vox voci esse debet similis, nihil 1 refert, quod significat mas an femina sit, et utrum nomen an vocabulum sit, quod ilk' 2 interesse dicunt. 41. Sin illud quod significatur debet esse simile, Diona et Theona quos dicunt esse paene ipsi geminos, inveniuntur esse dissimiles, si alter erit puer, alter senex, aut unus albus et alter ^ethiops, item aliqua re alia dissimile(s). 1 Sin ex 2 utraque parte debet verbum esse simile, non cito invenietur qui(n) 3 in altera utra re claudicet, nec Perpenna et Alfen(a) 4 erit simile, quod alterum nomen virum, alterum mulierem significat. Quare quoniam ubi similitudo esse debeat nequeunt ostendere, impudentes sunt qui dicunt esse analogias. XXII. 42. Alterum illud quod dixi, quemad- modum simile (s)pectari 1 oporteret, ignorare apparet ex eorum praecepto, quod dicunt, cum transient e 4 GS.,for analogiam ; cf. viii. 43. 5 Added by Vertranius. % 40. 1 For nichil. 2 Laetus, for illae. §41. 1 Aug., for dissimile. 2 For ex ex. 3 Ed. Veneta, for qui. 4 GS. ; Alphena L. Sp. ; Alphaena Rhol. ; Alfaena Laetus ; for Alfaen. Victorias, for expectari. § 41. ° These names were often used by the philosophers as a typical pair in their discussions ; the accusatives Diona and Theona in the text, instead of the nominative, are assimil- ness is wont to be recognized. Since they are ignorant of these matters, it follows that we ought not to follow them, inasmuch as they are unable to pro- nounce with authority on the subject of Regularity. 4-0. For I ask whether by a * word ' they mean the spoken word which consists of syllables, that word which we hear, or that which the spoken word indi- cates, which we understand, or both. If the spoken word must be like another spoken word, it makes no difference whether what it indicates is male or female, and whether it is a proper name or a common noun ; and yet the supporters of Regularity say that these factors do make a difference. 41. But if that which is denoted by like words ought to be like, then Dion and Tkeon, a which they themselves say are almost identical, are found to be unlike, if the one is a boy and the other an old man, or one is white and the other an Ethiopian 6 ; and likewise if they are unlike in some other respect. But if the word must be like in both directions, there will not quickly be found one that is not defective in one respect or the other, nor will Perpenna and Alfena prove to be alike, because the one name denotes a man and the other a woman. Therefore, since they are unable to show wherein the likeness must exist, those who assert that Regularities exist are utterly shameless. XXII. 42. The other matter that I have men- tioned, how the likeness is to be recognized, they clearly fail to appreciate in that they set up a precept that only when the passage is made from the nomina- ated to the immediately following relative. b For the same contrast, yatic. et XXXII. 57. The words which are made from verbs are such as scriptor ' writer ' from scribere 1 to write * and lector ' read er * from legere ' to read * ; that those also do not preserve a likeness can be seen from the following : although amator * lover ' from amare * to love ' and salutator * saluter * from salutare ' to salute * are formed in like manner, there is no cantator ° ' singer * from cantare * to sing * ; and § 56. a Wrong forms, formed for purposes of argument. * Not Libyatici, but Libyci was the form in use. § 57. a Up to V.'s time, only cantor was used ; can- tator is a later word. V. cum dicatur lassus sum metendo ferendo, ex his voca- bula non reddunt proportionem, quo(niam) 2 non fit ut messor fertor. Multa sunt item in hac specie in quibus potius consuetudinem sequimur quam ra- tionem verborum. 58. Pr^eterea cum sint ab eadem origine ver- borum vocabula dissimilia superiorum, quod simul habent casus et tempora, quo vocantur participia, et multa sint contraria ut amo amor, lego legor, 1 ab amo et eiusmodi omnibus verbis oriuntur praesens et futurum ut 2 amans et amaturus, 3 ab eis verbis tertium quod debet fingi praeteriti, in lingua Latina reperiri non potest : non ergo est analogia. Sic ab awor 4 legor et eiusmodi verbis 5 vocabulum eius generis praeteriti te(m)poris fit, ut amatus, 6 neque praesentis et futuri ab his fit. 59. Non est ergo analogia, praesertim cum tantus numerus vocabulorum in eo genere interierit 1 quod dicimus. In his verbis quae contraria non habent, (ut) 2 loquor et venor, tamen dicimus loquens et venans, locuturus (et venaturus, 3 locutus et venatus), 4 quod secundum analogias non est, quoniam dicimus 2 L. Sp., for quo. § 58. 1 L. Sp. t /or amor amo seco secor. 2 Bentinus,for et. 3 H, B, Ixzetus, for ueta maturus. 4 Aug., for amabor. 5 Aug.> for uerbi est. 6 L. Sp.,for amaturus eram sum ero. § 59. 1 Laetus, for inter orierit. 2 Added by L. Sp. 3 Added by Laetus. 4 Added by Fay. b The corresponding noun of agency is lator. § 58. a,That is, active and passive voices. 6 Of the active voice. c Of the passive voice. d V. does not consider the gerundive amandus to be a future passive par- ticiple. though we say " I am tired with metendo * reaping ' and ferendo * carrying,' " the words from these do not represent a like relation, since there is no fertor b * carrier ' made like messor ' reaper.' There are like- wise many others of this class in which we follow usage rather than conformity to the verbs. 58. Besides these there are other words which also originate from verbs but are unlike those of which we have already spoken, because they have both cases and tenses, whence they are called participles. And as many verbs have opposite forms, such as amo ' I love,' amor * I am loved,* lego ' I read,' legor * I am read,' from amo and all verbs of this kind 6 there develop present and future participles, such as amans * loving ' and amaturus * about to love,' but from these verbs the third form which ought to be made, namely the past participle, cannot be found in the Latin language : therefore there is no Regularity. So also from amor * I am loved,' legor * I am read,' and verbs of this kind c the word of this class is made for past time, as amatus ' loved,' but from them none is made for the present and the future.* 59. Therefore there is no Regularity, especially since such a great number of words has perished in this class which we are mentioning. In these verbs which have not both voices, such as loquor ' I speak ' and venor 1 I hunt,' b we none the less say loquens 1 speaking ' and venans ' hunting,' locutarus * about to speak ' and venaturus * about to hunt,' locutus ' having spoken ' and venatus * having hunted.' This is not according to the Regularities, since we say § 59. That is, many verbs lack a complete paradigm that includes both active and passive forms. b Deponent verbs. loquor et venor, (non loquo et veno), 5 unde 8 ilia erant superiora ; e(o) minus 7 servantur, quod 8 ex his quae contraria verba non habent* alia efficiunt tenia, ut ea quae dixi, alia bina, ut ea quae dicam : currens ambulans, cursurus ambulaturus : tertia enim prae- teriti non sunt, ut cursus sum, ambulatus sum. 60. Ne in his quidem, quae saepius quid fieri ostendunt, servatur analogia : nam ut est a cantando cantitans, ab amando amitans non est et sic multa. Ut in his singularibus, sic in multitudinis : sicut enim cantitantes seditantes 1 non dicuntur. XXXIII. 61. Quoniam est vocabulorum genus quod appellant compositicium et negant conferri id oportere cum simplicibus de quibus adhuc dixi, de compositis separatim dicam. Cum ab tibiis et canendo tibicines dicantur, quaerunt, si analogias sequi opor- teat, cur non a cithara et psalterio et pandura dicamus citharicen et sic alia ; si ab aede et tuendo (aeditumus 5 Added by L. Sp. 6 venor unde Laetus, for uenerunt de. 7 L. Sp., for eminus. 8 Mue. deleted cum after quod. 9 Aug., with B,for habentur. § 60. 1 M, Laetus, for sed ettitantes. c That is, the deponent verbs, since they lack the active forms otherwise, should not have the active participles which actually they have. d Deponent verbs. e In- transitive verbs of active form, which naturally have no passive, and consequently no passive participle. / V.'s logic here deserts him, since the deponent verbs have a perfect participle of passive form and active mean- ing, and there is no reason why intransitive verbs of active form should not have a perfect participle passive in form and active in meaning : in fact, such a participle is sometimes found, like adultus * grown up,* from adoJescere 1 to grow up.' loquor and venor, not loquo and veno, whence came the forms given above. c The Regularities are the less preserved, because some of the verbs which have not both voices, make three participles each, like those which I have named, d and other make only two each,* such as those which I shall now name : currens * running * and ambulans 1 walking,' cursurus ' about to run ' and ambulaturus ' about to walk ' ; for the third forms, those of the past, do not exist/ as in cursus sum * I am run/ ambulatus sum 1 I am walked.' 60. But Regularity is not preserved even in those which indicate that something is done with greater frequency ; for though there is a cantitans ' repeatedly singing * from caniare 1 to sing,' there is no amiians 1 repeatedly loving ' from amare * to love/ and simi- larly with many others. The situation is the same in the forms of the plural as in those of the singular : though the plural caniitantes is used, seditantes* 1 sitting ' is not. XXXIII. 61. Since there is a class of words which they call compositional, saying that they ought not to be grouped in the same category with the simple words of which I have so far spoken, I shall deal separately with these compounds. Since from tibiae * pipes * and canere * to play * the tibicines 1 pipers ' are named, they ask, If we ought to follow the Regularities, why then from cithara * lute * and psalterium 1 psaltery ' and pandura * Pans strings * should we not say citharicen a * lute-player * and the rest in the same way ? If from aedes * temple ' and tueri ' to guard * the aedi- § 60. a The singular seditans also is not used, which is implied by V., but not stated. §61. • Citharista^ fern, citharistria, are used, both taken from Greek. 419 V. dicatur, cur non ab atrio et tuendo) 1 potius atritumus sit quam atriensis ; si ab avibus capiendis auceps dicatur, debuisse aiunt a piscibus capiendis ut aucu- pem sic pisci(cu)pem 2 dici. 62. Ubi lavctur aes aerarias, non aerelavinas nominari ; et ubi fodiatur argentum argentifodinas dici, neque (ubi) 1 fodiatur ferrum ferrifodinas ; qui lapides caedunt lapicidas, qui ligna, lignicidas non dici ; neque ut aurificem sic argentificem ; non doctum dici indoctum, non salsum insulsum. Sic ab hoc quoque fonte quae profluant, (analogiam non servare) 2 animadvertere est facile. XXXIV. 63. Reliquitur de casibus, in quo Aris- tarchei suos contendunt nervos. XXXV. Primum si in his esset 1 analogia, dicunt de&ttisse 2 omnis nomi- natus 3 et articulos habere totidem casus : nunc alios habere unum solum, ut litteras singulas omnes, alios tris, ut praedium praedii praedio, alios quattuor, ut §61. 1 The omission in F (and all codd.) was filled by Laetus with edituus est cur ab atrio et tuendo / Aldus inserted non after tuendo ; Mue. wrote aeditumus and (with B) set non after cur; A. Sp. proposed dicatur for sit. 2 Aug., with Btfor piscipem. §62. 1 Added by Laetus. 2 Added by Christ. § 63. 1 For essent. 2 Aldus, for de risse. 3 L. Sp. 9 for nominatiuos. b The regular word is piscator ; one inscription has piscicapus. §62. ° Regularly ferrariae * iron-mines.' b Regularly lignatores 4 wood-cutters.' c Regularly argentarius 4 silver- smith.' d The difference here consists in the change of the radical vowel of salsus, when it comes to stand in a medial syllable ; the process is called Vowel Weakening. § 63. n Aristarchus, of Samothrace, famous grammarian of Alexandria, lived about 216-144 b.c. He wrote many commentaries on Greek authors, and many works on gram- mar, in which he defended the principle of Regularity. tumus * sacristan * is named, why from atrium ' main hall * and tueri ' to guard ' is it not atriiumus ' butler ' rather than atriensis ? And if from avis caper e 4 to catch birds * the auceps 4 fowler * is named, they say, from pisds capere 4 to catch fish ' there ought to be a pisciceps b * fisherman ' named like the auceps. 62. They remark also that establishments where aes * copper * lavatur * is refined ' are called aerariae 4 smelters ' and not aerelavinae 4 copper-washery ' ; and places where argentum 4 silver 1 foditur 4 is mined ' are called argentifodinae ' silver-mines,* but that places where ferrum 4 iron ' is mined are not called ferrifodinae a ; that those who caedunt 4 cut * lapides * stones ' are called lapicidae * stone-cutters,' but that those who cut lign a * firewood ' are not called ligni- cidae b ; that there is no term argentifex e * silver- smith ' like aurifex * goldsmith ' ; that a person who is not doctus * learned ' is called indoctus, but one who is not salsus * witty ' is called insulsus. d Thus the words which come from this source also, it is easy to see, do not observe Regularity. XXXIV. 63. It remains to consider the problem of the cases, on which the Aristarcheans a especially exert their energies. XXXV. First, if in these there were Regularity, they b say that all names and articles ought to have the same number of cases ; but that as things are some have one only, c like all individual letters, others have three/ 1 like praedium praedii Among his pupils were important scholars of the next genera- tion. h Those who do not believe in the principle of Regu- larity. c These are the indeclinable nouns. d V. counts only different case-forms : where he finds three, the nom., acc., and voc. are identical, and the dat. and abl. are identical ; etc. 421 V. mel mellis melli melle, alios quinque, nt quintus quinti quinto quintum quinte, alios sex, ut unus unius uni unum line uno : non esse ergo in casibus analogias. XXXVI. 64. Secundo quod Crates, 1 cur quae singulos habent casus, ut litterae Graecae, non dican- tur alpha alphati alphatos, si idem mihi respondebitur quod Crateti, 2 non esse 3 vocabula nostra, sed penitus barbara, qucreram, cur idem nostra nomina et Per- sarum et ceterorum quos voeant barbaros cum easibus dica(n)t. 4 65. Quare si essent in analogia, aut ut Poenicum et ^/eg^ptiorum vocabula singulis easibus dicerent, aut pluribus ut Gallorum ae eeterorum ; nam dicunt alavda alauefcs 1 et sie alia. Sin 2 quod scrib?mt 3 dicent, quod Poenicum si(n)t, 4 singulis casibus ideo eas lit- teras Graecas nominari : sie Graeci nostra senis easibus non quinis 5 dicere debebant ; quod eum non faciunt, non est analogia. Quae si esset, 1 negant ullum casum duobus modis debuisse dici ; quod fit contra. Nam sine reprehensione vulgo alii dicunt in singulari hae § 64. 1 Laetus, for grates. 2 Laetus, for grateti. 3 Aug., with B, for essent. 4 Laetus, for dicat. § 65. 1 Scaliger, for alacco alaucus. 2 Popma, for alias in. 3 Popma, M, for scribent. 4 lihol., for sit. 6 Laetus transposed quinis non. § 66. 1 Laetus, for essent. § 64. ° Crates of Mallos, head of the Pergamene school of scholarship, was a contemporary and opponent of Aris- tarchus, and championed the principle of Anomaly. b Names of letters were indeclinable both in Greek and in Latin. § 65. a Not the Carthaginians, but the Phoenicians. 6 V. knew that neither language had a case system. praedio * farm,' others four, like mel mellis melli melle ' honey/ others five, like qidntus quinti quinto quintum quinie ' fifth,' others six, like units unius uni umim une uno * one ' ; therefore in cases there are no Regularities. Second, in reference to what Crates ° said as to why those which have only one case-form each are not used in the forms alpha, dat. alphati, gen. alphaios, because they are Greek letters b — if the same answer is given to me as to Crates, that they are not our words at all, but utterly foreign words, then I shall ask why the same persons use a full set of case- forms not only for our own personal names, but also for those of the Persians and of the others whom they call barbarians. 65. Wherefore, if these proper names were in a state of Regularity, either they would use them with a single case-form each, like the words of the Phoeni- cians a and the Egyptians, b or with several, like those of the Gauls and of the rest : for they say nom. alauda c * lark,' gen. alaudas, and similarly other words. But if, as they write, they say that the Greek letters received names with but one case-form each for the reason that they really belong to the Phoeni- cians, then in this way the Greeks ought to speak our words in six cases d each, not in five : inasmuch as they do not do this, there is no Regularity. If Regularity existed, they say, no case ought to be used in two forms ; but the opposite is found to occur. For without censure quite com- monly some say in the ablative singular ovi * sheep ' The text is desperate here; but at any rate alauda is Celtic. Greek had no form by which it might represent the Latin ablative. V. ovi et avi, alii hac ove et ave ; in multitudinis hae puppis restis et hae puppes restes ; item quod in patrico 2 casu hoc genus dispariliter dicuntur civitatum parentum et civitatium parentium, in accusandi hos montes fontes et hos montis fontis. Item cum, si sit analogia, debeant ab similibus verbis similiter declinatis sirnilia fieri et id non fieri ostendi possit, despiciendam earn esse rationem. Atqui ostenditur : nam qui potest similius esse quam gens, mens, 1 dens ? Cum horum casus patricus et accusativus in multitudine sint dispariles 2 : nam a primo fit gentium et gentis, utrubique ut sit {I), 3 ab secundo mentium et mentes, 4 ut in priore solo sit I, ab tertio dentum et dentes, ut in neutro sit. 68. Sic item quoniam simile est recto casu surus lupus lepus, rogant, quor non dicatur proportione 1 suro lupo lepo. Sin respondeatur sirnilia non esse, quod ea vocemus dissimiliter sure lupe lepus (sic enim respondere voluit Aristarc^us Crateti : nam cum scripsisset sirnilia esse Philomedes Heraclides Meli- certes, dixit non esse sirnilia : in vocando enim cum and that both kinds are present in our language also ? 32. For my part I have no doubt that you have observed the countless number of likenesses in speech, such as those of the three tenses of the verb, or its three persons. XXV. Who indeed can have failed to join you in observing that in all speech there are the three tenses lego 1 I read/ legebam ' I was reading/ legam I shall read/ and similarly the three persons lego 1 I read/ legis * thou readest/ legit ' he reads/ though these same forms may be spoken in such a way that sometimes one only is meant, at other times more ? Who is so slow-witted that he has not observed also those likenesses which we use in commands, those which we use in wishes, those in questions, those in the case of matters not peratives and subjunctives) exhibit certain regular resem- blances ; and so do those used in wishes, etc. in interrogando, quibus in infectis rebus, quibus in perfectis, sic in aliis discriminibus? Quare qui negant esse rationem 1 analogiae, non vide(n)t 2 naturam non solum ora- tionis, sed etiam mundi ; qui autem vident et sequi negant oportere, pugnant contra naturam, non contra analogian, et pugnant volsillis, non gladio, cum pauca excepta verba ex pelago sermonis (po)puli 3 minus (usu) 4 trita afferant, cum dicant propterea analogias non esse, similiter ut, si quis viderit mutilum bovem aut luscum hominem claudicantemque equum, neget in 5 bovum hominum et equorum natura similitudines proportione constare. Qui autem duo genera esse dicunt analogiae, unum naturale, quod ut ex satis 1 nascuntur (lentibus) 2 lentes 3 sic e.r (lupino) 4 lupinum, alterum voluntarium, ut in fabrica, cum vident sctfenam ut in dexteriore parte sint ostia, sic esse in sinisteriore simili ratione factam, de his duobus generibus naturalcm esse analogian, ut sit in motibus caeli, voluntariam non esse, quod ut quo(i)que 5 fabro lubitum sit possit facere partis scaenae : sic in homi- num partibus esse analogias, quod ea(s) 6 natura faciat, in verbis non esse, quod ea homines ad suam quisque voluntatem fingat, itaque de eisdem rebus alia verba habere Graecos, alia S?/ros, alia Latinos : ego declinatus verbornm et voluntarios et naturalis § 33. 1 For orationem. 2 For uidet. 3 Canal, for puli. 4 Transferred to this place by Fay ; added by GS. before populi. 5 Sciop, deleted cornibus after in. §34. 1 Vertranius, after Aug., for natis. 2 Added by L. Sp. 3 For lentis. 4 L. Sp. ; ex lupinis Aug., with B ; for et. 5 B, for quoque. 6 Laetus, for ea. § 34. a The expected continuation is, " They are in error." completed and those for matters completed, and similarly in other differentiations ? Therefore those who say that there is no logical system of Regularity, fail to see the nature not only of speech, but also of the world. Those who see it and say that it ought not to be followed, are fighting against nature, not against the principle of Regularity, and they are fighting with pincers, not with a sword, since out of the great sea of speech they select and offer in evidence a few words not very familiar in popular use, saying that for this reason the Regularities do not exist : just as if one should have seen a dehorned ox or a one-eyed man and a lame horse, and should say that the likenesses do not exist with regularity in the nature of cattle, men, and horses. XXVII. 34. Those moreover who say that there are two kinds of Regularity, one natural, namely that lentils grow from planted lentils, and so does lupine from lupine, and the other voluntary, as in the workshop, when they see the stage as "having an entrance on the right and think that it has for a like reason been made with an entrance on the left ; and say further, that of these two kinds the natural Regularity really exists, as in the motions of the heavenly bodies, but the voluntary Regularity is not real, because each craftsman can make the parts of the stage as he pleases : that thus in the parts of men there are Regularities, because nature makes them, but there is none in words, because men shape them each as he wills, and therefore as names for the same things the Greeks have one set of words, the Syrians another, the Latins still another a — I firmly think that there are both voluntary and natural esse puto, voluntarios quibus homines vocabula imposwerint 7 rebus quaedam, ut ab Romulo Roma, ab Tibure* TVburtes, naturales ut ab impositis vo- cabulis quae inclinantur in tempore* aut in casus, ut ab Romulo Romuli Romulum et ab dico dicebam dixeram. 35. Itaque in voluntariis declinationibus incon- stantia est, in naturalibus constantia ; quae utrasque quoniam iei non debeant negare esse in oratione, quom 1 in mundi partibus omnibus sint, et declina- tiones verborum innumerabilcs, dicendum est esse in his analogias. Neque ideo statim ea in omnibus verbis est sequenda : nam si qua perperam declinavit verba consuetudo, ut ea aliter (non possint efferri) 2 sine offensione multorum, hinc rationem 3 verborum praetermittendam ostendit loquendi ratio. XXVIII. 36. Quod ad universam pertinet cau- sam, cur similitudo et sit in oratione et debeat observari et quam ad finem quoque, satis dictum. Quare quod sequitur de partibus singulis deinceps expediemus ac singula crimina quae dicunt (contra) 1 analogias solvemus. 37. In quo animadvertito natura quadruplicem esse formam, ad quam in declinando accommodari debeant verba : quod debeat subesse res quae 1 7 For imposierint 8 For tybere. 9 For tempore. § 35. 1 Mtie., with a, for quam. 2 Added by GS., after Aldus efferri non possit (Aug., possint). 3 Sciop., a, for orationem. § 36. 1 Added by L. Sp. ; cf ix. 7. §37. 1 RhoL, for resque. That is, a regular form must be discarded in derivations of words, voluntary for the things on which men have imposed certain names, as Rome from Romulus and the Tiburfes ' men of Tibur ' from Tibur, and natural as those which are inflected for tenses or for cases from the imposed names, as genitive Romuli and accusative Eomulum from Romulus, and from dico ' I say ' the imperfect dicebam and the pluperfect dixeram. 35. Therefore in the voluntary derivations there is inconsistency, and in the natural derivations there is consistency. Inasmuch as they ought not to deny the presence of both of these in speech, since they are in all parts of the world, and the derivative forms of words are countless, we must say that in words also the Regularities are present. And yet Regularity does not for this reason have to be followed in all words ; for if usage has inflected or derived any words wrongly, so that they cannot be uttered without giving offence to many persons, the logic of speaking shows us that because of this offence the logic of the words must be set aside. XXVIII. 36. As far as concerns the general cause why likeness is present in speech and ought to be observed, and also to what extent this should be done, enough has now been said. Therefore in the following we shall set forth its several parts item by item, and refute the individual charges which they bring against the Regularities. 37. In this matter, you should take notice that by nature there are four elements in the basic situation to which words must be adjusted in inflection : there must be an underlying object or idea to be de- favour of an irregular form if the feeling (Sprachge/uhl) of the speakers rebels against it. vol. ii h 465 V. designetur, 2 et ut sit ea res 3 in usu, et ut vocis natura ea sit quae significavit, ut declinari possit, et simili- tude* figura(e) 4 verbi ut sit ea quae ex se declinatw 5 genus prodere certum posset. 6 38. Quo neque a terra terrus ut dicatur postu- landum est, quod natura non subest, ut in hoc alterum maris, alterum feminae debeat esse ; sic neque propter usum, ut Terentius significat unum, plures Terentii, postulandum est, ut sic dicamus faba et fabae : non enim in simili us(u) 1 utrumque ; neque ut dicimus ab Terentius Terentium, sic postulandum ut inclinemus ab A et B, quod non omnis vox natura habet declinatus. 39. Neque in forma collata quaerendum solum, quid habeat in figura simile, sed etiam nonnunquam in eo quern habeat effectum. Sic enim lana Gallicana et Apula videtur imperito similis propter speciem, cum peritus Apulam emat pluris, quod in usu firmior sit. Haec nunc strictim dicta apertiora fient infra. Incipiam hinc. Quod rogant ex qua parte oporteat simile esse verbum, a voce an a 1 significatione, re- spondemus a voce ; scd tamen nonnunquam quaerimus genere similiane sint quae significantur ac nomen 2 Laetus, for design entur. 3 G, IJ, a, Laetus^ for cares. 4 Mite., for figura. 5 L. Sp.,for declinata. 6 Aug for passu nt. § 38. 1 L. Sp., for similius. § 40. 1 After J^aetus, ab voce an, for aboceana. The singular faba was used also collectively for the plural or mass idea ; cf. Priscian, ii. 176 Keil. b Names of letters. § 39. a Cf. § 92. § 40. ° Cf viii. 40. signated ; this object or idea must be in use ; the nature of the utterance which has designated it, must be such that it can be inflected ; and the re- semblance of the word s form to other words must be such that of itself it can reveal a definite class in respect to inflection. 38. Therefore it is not to be demanded that from terra * earth * there should be also a terms, because there is no natural basis that in this object there ought to be one word for the male and another for the female. Similarly, with respect to usage, while Terentius designates one person of the name and Terentii designates several, it is not to be demanded that in this way we should say faba * bean ' and Jabae ' beans/ for the two are not subject to the same use. a Nor is it to be demanded that as we say acc. Tereniium from nom. Terentius, we should make case-forms from A and B, b because not every utter- ance is naturally fitted for declensional forms. 39. The likeness which the word has in its shape must be investigated not in the comparison of the basis merely, but also sometimes in the effect which it has. For thus the Gallic wool and the Apulian wool seem alike to the inexperienced on account of their appearance, though the expert buys the Apulian at a higher price because in use it lasts better. These matters, which have been touched upon hastily here, will become clearer in a later discussion. Now I shall start. XXIX. 40. To their question in what respect a word ought to be similar, sound or meaning, we answer that it should be so in sound. But yet some- times we ask whether the objects designated are like in kind, and compare a man's name with a man's, V. virile cum virili conferimus, feminae cum muliebri : non quod id quod significant vocem commoveat, sed quod nonnunquam in re dissim(ili par)ilis 2 figurae formas in simile' 3 imponunt dispariles, 4 ut calcei mulie- bres sint an viriles dicimus ad similitudinem figurae, cum tamen sciamus nonnunquam et mulierem habere calceos viriles et virum muliebris. 41. Sic dici virum Perpennam ut AZ/enam 1 muliebri forma 2 et contra parietem ut abietem esse forma 8 similem, quo(m) 4 alterum vocabulum dicatur virile, alterum muliebre et utrumque natura neutrum sit. 5 Itaque ea virilia dicimus non quae virum' significant, sed quibus proponimus hie et hi, et sic muliebria in quibus dicere posswmus 7 haec aut hae. XXX. 42. Quare nihil 1 est, quod dicunt Theona et Diona non esse similis, si alter est Jethiops, alter al6us, 2 si analogia rerum dissimilitudines adsumat ad discernendum vocis verbi figuras. XXXI. 43. Quod dicunt simile sit necne nomen nomini impudenter AristarcAum praecipere opor- tere spectare non solum ex recto, sed etiam ex eorum vocandi casu, esse 1 enim deridiculum, si similes 2 GS. ; dissimilis Mue. ; for dissimilis. 3 GS. ; §41. 1 ut Alfenam Mue., for aut plenam ; cf viii. 41. 2 Laetus, for formam. 3 Aldus, for formam. 4 Mue. ; cum Aug.; for quo. 5 Ant. Miller and Reiter, for sic. 6 Aldus, for utrum. 7 M, Laetus,for possimus. For nichil. 2 Mue., for galhis / cf viii. 41. § 43. 1 L. Sp., C. F. W. Mueller, Madvig, for esset. § 41. a Cf viii. 41. 6 The forms of hie haec hoc are regularly used by the grammarians to indicate the case, number, and gender of a word. in simili Mue. ; for indissimiles. a woman's name with a woman's : not because that which they designate affects the word, but because sometimes in case of an unlike thing they set upon it forms of an equivalent appearance, and on a like thing they set unequal forms, as we call shoes women's shoes or men's shoes by the likeness of the shape, although we know that sometimes a woman wears men's shoes and a man wears women's shoes. 41. In like fashion, we say, a man is called Perpe?ina f like Alfena, with a feminine form ° ; and on the other hand paries ' house-wall ' is like abies ' fir-tree ' in form, although the former word is used as a masculine, the latter as a feminine, and both are naturally neuter. Therefore those which we use as masculines are not those which denote a male being, but those before which we employ hie and hi, and those are feminines with reference to which we can say haec or hae. b XXX. 42. For this reason it amounts to nothing, that on the premise that Regularity adopts the unlikenesses of the objects as a criterion for difference in the forms a of the spoken word, 6 they say that Theon and Dion are not alike if the one is an Ethiopian and the other is a white man. c XXXI. 43. As to what they say, a that Aristarchus was shameless in his instructions that to see whether one name was like another you should view it not only from the nominative, but also from the vocative — for the same persons say that it is absurd to judge § 42. ° One of the rare examples of the accusative of the gerund with an object. b The word as sound is vox, while the word as symbol of meaning is verbum ; the vox verbi is therefore the sound, or series of sounds, which represent the symbol of meaning. Cf. viii. 40. e Cf. viii. 41. § 43. a Cf. viii. 42. V. inter se parentes sint, de filiis iudicare 2 : errant, quod non ab eo(rum) 3 obliquis casibus fit, ut recti simih' 4 facie ostendantur, sed propter eos facilius perspici similitudo potest eorum quam vim habeat, 5 ut lucerna in tenebris allata non facit (ut) 6 quae ibi sunt posita similia sint, sed ut videantur, quae sunt quoius (mo)di sint. 7 44. Quid similius videtur quam in his est extrema littera crux Phryx 1 ? Quas, qui audit voces, auribus discernere potest nemo, cum easdem non esse similes ex (declin)atfs 2 verbis intellegamus, quod cum sit cruces et Phryges* et de his extremis syllabis exemp- tum* sit E, ex altero fit ut ex C et S crux, ex altero G et S Phryx, 1 Quod item apparet, cum est demp- tum S : nam fit unum cruce, 5 alterum Phryge* XXXII. 45. Quod aiunt, cum in maiore parte orationis non sit similitudo, non esse analogian, dupliciter stulte dicunt, quod et in maiore parte est et si in minore parte 1 sit, tamen sit, 2 nisi etiam nos calceos negabunt habere, quod in maiore parte corporis calceos non habeamus. 2 L. Sp. deleted qui after iudicare. 3 L. Sp., for eo. 4 Laetus, for simile. 5 Laetus, for habeant. 6 Added by L. Sp. 1 L. Sp., for dissint. §44. 1 Aldus, for frix. 2 GS„ for aliis. 3 Aldus, for friges. 4 Aldus, for exemplum. 6 L. Sp., for cruci. 6 Phruge L. Sp., Phrj'gi Aldus ; for frigi. § 45. 1 Here L. Sp., following other slightly different deletions, deleted a repeated est et si in minore. 2 After sit, L. Sp. deleted in maiore. . § 44. a For Phryx and its forms, Augustinus (with B) read frux, etc. ; but nom. frux was no longer used in V.'s from the children whether the parents are alike : those who say this are mistaken, for it does not come about from their oblique cases that the nominatives are shown to be of like appearance, but through the oblique cases can be more easily seen what evidential force lies in the likeness of the nominatives — even as a lamp in the dark, when brought, does not cause that the things which are there should be "alike, but that they should be seen in their real character. 44. What seems more closely alike than the last letter in the words crux ' cross ' and Phryx * Phry- gian ' ? a No one who hears the spoken words can by his ears distinguish the letters, 6 although we know from the declined forms of the words that though alike they are not identical ; because M'hen the plurals cruces and Phryges are taken and E is removed from the last syllables, from the one there results crux, with X from C and S, and from the other comes Phryx, from G and S. And the difference is likewise clear, when S is removed ; for the one be- comes cruce, the other Pkryge. c XXXII. 45. As to what they say, a that since likeness does not exist in the greater part of speech, Regularity does not exist, they speak foolishly in two ways, because Regularity is present in the greater part of speech, and even if it should exist only in the smaller part, still it is there : unless they will say that we do not wear any shoes, because on the greater part of our body we do not wear any. time, cf. ix. 75-76. b The usual confusion of letters and sounds. * Abl. sing. ; the manuscript has forms ending in -i, which are datives, but the removal of s from cruces and Phryges leaves forms ending in e, not in i. § 45. a Cf viii. 37. 471 V. Quod dicunt nos dissimilitudinem (potius gratam aceeptamque habere quam simili- tudinem) 1 : itaque in vestitu in supellectile delectari varietate, non paribus subuculis uxoris, respondeo, si varietas iucunditas, magis varium esse in quo alia sunt similia, alia non sunt : itaque sicut abacum argento ornari, ut alia (paria sint, alia) 2 disparia, sic orationem. 47. Rogant, si similitudo sit sequenda, cur malimus habere lectos alios ex ebore, alios ex testudine, sie item genere aliquo alio. Ad quae dico non dis(simili- tudines solum nos, sed) 1 similitudines quoque sequi saepe. Itaque ex eadem supellectili licet videre : nam nemo facit triclinii lectos nisi paris et materia et altitudine et figura. Qui(s) 2 facit mappas trielinaris non similis inter se ? Quis pulvinos ? Quis denique eetera, quae unius generis sint plura ? 48. Cum, inqui(un)t, 1 utilitatis causa introducta sit oratio, sequendum non quae habebit similitudinem, sed quae utilitatem. Ego utilitatis causa orationem factam coneedo, sed ut vestimenta : quare ut hie similitudines seqm'mur, 2 ut virilis tunica sit virili similis, item toga togae, sic mulierum stola ut sit stola(e) 3 proportione et pallium pallio simile, sie § 46. 1 Added by GS., following other attempts {Aug., with B, inserted sequi after nos / but cf. § 47, where sequi is actually found). 2 Added by Aug., with B. § 47. 1 Added by Mve. 2 Aldus, for qui. § 48. 1 Vertranius, for in quit. 2 Sciop., for sequere- mur. 3 Aug., for stola. As to what they say, a that we find unlikeness pleasing and acceptable rather than likeness, and therefore in clothing and in furniture we take pleasure in variety, and not in having our wives* undertunics all identical : I answer, that if variety is pleasure, then there is greater variety in that in which some things are alike and others are not ; and just as a side-table is adorned with silver in such a way that some ornaments are alike and others are unlike, so also is speech adorned. They ask why, if likeness is to be followed, we prefer to have some couches inlaid with ivory, others with tortoise-shell, and so on with some other kind of material. To which I say that unlikenesses are not the only thing which we follow, but often we follow likenesses. And this may be seen from the same piece of furniture ; for no one makes the three couches of the dining-room other than alike in material and in height and in shape. Who makes the table- napkins not like each other ? Or the cushions ? And finally the other things which are several in number but of one sort ? 48. Since speech, they say,° was introduced for the sake of utility, we should follow not that kind of speech which has likeness, but that which has utility. I grant that speech has been produced for utility's sake, but in the same way as garments have : there- fore as in the latter we follow the likenesses, so that a man's tunic is like a man's, and a toga like a -toga, and a woman's dress is like a dress regularly and a cloak like a cloak, so also, as words that are names § 46. a Cf. viii. 31-32. § 48. • C/. viu. 28-29. V. cum sint nomina utilitatis causa, tamen virilia inter se similia, item muliebria inter se sequi debemus. XXXIV. 49. Quod aiunt ut persedit et perstitit sic (periacuit et) 1 percubuit quoniam non si(n)t, 2 non esse analogian, et 3 in hoc e(r)rant 4 : quod duo posteriora ex prioribus declinata non sunt, cum analogia polliceatur ex duobus similibus similiter declinatis similia fore. Qui dicunt quod sit ab Romulo Roma et non Romula neque ut ab ove ovih'a 1 sic a bove bovih'a, 2 (non) 3 esse analogias, errant, quod nemo pollicetur e vocabulo vocabulum declinari recto casu singulari in rectum singularem, sed ex duobus vocabulis similibus casus similiter declinatos similes fieri. XXXVI. 51. Dicunt, quod vocabula litterarum Latinarum non declinentur in casus, non esse analo- gias. Hi ea quae natura declinari non possunt, eorum declinatus requirunt, 1 proinde et non eo(rum) 2 dicatur esse analogia quae ab similibus verbis simili- ter esse(nt) 3 declinata. Quare non solum in vocabu- lis litterarum haec non requirenda analogia, sed (ne) 4 in syllaba quidem ulla, quod dicimus hoc BA, huius BA, sic alia. §49. 1 Added by Canal. 2 Kent, for sit. 3 Aug., for ut. 4 B, Bhol.,for erant. § 50. 1 Aug., for ovilla. 2 Aug., for bovilla. 3 Added by Stephanus. § 51. 1 B, G, II, a, Aug., for sequirunt. 2 L. Sp., for eo F 1, ea F 2 . 3 L. Sp. ; esset M, a, Aug. ; for esse. 4 Added by Aldus. § 49. Referring to a passage now lost. b The two verbs are not attested in any form. § 50. Cf. viii. 54 and 80. of persons exist for the purpose of utility, ue ought still to employ men's names that are like one another, and women's names that also have mutual resem- blances. XXXIV. 49. As to the fact that they say a that Regularity does not exist because there are no perfects periacuit ' remained lying ' .and percubuit ' remained lying,' like persedit 1 remained sitting ' and perstitit ' remained standing,' in this also they are mistaken : for the two perfects have no presents 6 from which to be inflected, whereas Regularity promises only that from two like words inflected in like manner there will be like forms. XXXV. 50. Those who say that there are no Regularities because from Romulus there is Roma and not Romala and there is no bovilia ' cow-stables ' from bos * cow ' as there is ovilia * she epf olds ' from ovis * sheep,' are in error ; because nobody professes that one word is derived from another word, from nominative singular to nominative singular, but only that from two like words like case-forms develop when they are inflected in like manner. XXXVI. 51. They say that because the words denoting the Latin letters are not inflected into case-forms the Regularities do not exist. Such persons are demanding the declension of those words which by nature cannot be inflected ; just as if Regularity were not said b to belong merely to those forms which had already been inflected in like fashion from like words. Therefore not only in the names of the letters must this kind of Regularity not be sought, but not even in any syllable, because we say nomina- tive ba, genitive ba, and so on. § 51. a Of. viii. 64. 6 Cf. viii. 23. Quod si quis in hoc quoque velit dicere esse analogias rerum, tenere potest : lit eni(m) 1 dicunt ipsi alia nomina, quod quinque habeant figuras, habere quinque casus, alia quattuor, sic minus alia, dicere poterunt esse litteras ac syllabas in voce quae singulos habeant casus, in rebus pluris 2 ; quemad- modum inter se conferent ea quae quaternos habe- bunt vocabulis casus, item ea inter se qua(e) ternos, 3 sic quae* singulos habebunt, ut conferant inter se dicentes, ut sit hoc A, huic A, esse hoc E, 5 huic E. Quod dicunt esse quaedam verba quae habeant declinatus, ut caput (capitis, nihil nihili), 1 quorum par reperiri quod non possit, non esse analogias, respondendum sine dubio, si quod est singulare verbum, id non habere analogias : minimum duo esse debent verba, in quibus sit similitudo. Quare in hoc tollunt esse analogias. 54. Sed nikilum 1 vocabulum recto casu apparet in hoc : Quae dedit ipsa, 2 cap/t 3 neque dispendi facit hilum, § 52. 1 For eni. 2 GS. ; plureis Canal ; for plurimis. 3 Koeler, for quaternos. 4 For sicque. 5 After hoc E, L, Sp. deleted huiusce E. § 53. 1 Added by Reitzenstein. § 54. 1 Lachmann ; in nihil Sciop. ; for initium. 2 Sciop., for ira. 3 Seal ig er t for caput. § 52. a Cf. viii. 63. 6 That is, words indeclinable in form have only one case-form, but still have all the case-uses. § 53. There is no corresponding passage in Book VIII. 6 That is, when they select a unique word as basis for argu- ment. But if any one should wish to say that in this also there are Regularities in the things, he can maintain it. For as they themselves say a that some nouns, because they have five forms, have five cases, and others have four, and others fewer in like manner, they will be able to say that the letters and syllables which have one case-form apiece in sound, have several in connexion with the things h ; as they will compare only with each other those which have four case-forms for the words, and likewise those which have three apiece, so let them compare with each other those which have only one form each, saying that nominative E, dative E is like nominative A, dative A. As to the fact that they say a that there are certain words which have declensional forms, like caput ' head,* genitive capitis, and nihil * nothing,* genitive nihili, a match for which cannot be found, and therefore the Regularities do not exist, answer must be made that unquestionably any word which is the only one of its kind is outside the systems of Regularity ; there must be at least two words for a likeness to be existent therein. Therefore, in this case, et they eliminate the possible existence of the Regularities. 54. But the word nihilum * nothing ' is found in the nominative in the following a : The body she's given Earth doth herself take back, and of loss not a whit does she suffer, §54. ° Ennuis, Ann. 14 Vahlen 2 ; R.O.L. i. 6-7 War- mington ; cf. v. 60 and 111. The neuter accusative, having the same form as the nominative, is used as a proof of the nominative form. quod valet nec dispendii facit quicquam. Idem hoc obliquo apud Plautum : Video enim 4 te nihili 5 pendere prae Philolacho* omnis homines, quod est ex ne et hili : quare dictus est nihili 5 qui non hili erat. Casus tautum 1 commutantur de quo dici- tur, (ut) 8 de homine : clicimus cnim hie homo nihili 9 et huius hominis nihili et hunc hominem nihili. Si in illo commutaremus, dicercmus ut hoc linum et li£>um, 10 sic nihilum, non hie nihili, et (ut) 11 huic lino et li&o 12, sic nihilo, non huic nihili. Potest dici patricus casus, ut ei praeponantur 13 nomina 14 plura, ut hie casus Terentii, hunc casum Terentii, hie miles legionis, huius militis legionis, hunc militem legionis. Negant, cum omnis natura sit aut mas aut femina aut neutrum, (non) 1 debuisse ex singulis vocibus ternas figuras vocabulorum fieri, ut albus alba album ; nunc fieri in multis rebus binas, ut Metellus Metella, 2 Aemi(]\)us ^e?wt(li)a, 3 nonnulla singula, ut tragoedws, com(o)edtt$ 4 ; sic esse Marcum, Numerium, at Marcam, at Numeriam 4 Enim is V.'s addition; it is not found in the manu- scripts of Plautus. 5 For nichili. 6 The manuscripts of Plautus have Philolache. 7 Fay, for turn cum. 8 Added by GS. 9 After nihili, L. Sp. deleted est. 10 Mue., for limum, 11 et ut Mue. ; ut L. Sp. ; for et. 12 Mue., for Hmo. 13 Mue., for praeponuntur. 14 Kent, for praenomina. § 55. 1 Added by Mue. 2 Ixietus, for metelle. 3 Wackernagel ; Ennius Ennia Laetus ; for enuus enua. 4 Christ, for tragoedia comedia. which is the same as ' nor of loss does she suffer anything/ This same word is found in an oblique case in Plautus 6 : I see, beside Philolaches you count all men as nothing. The word is from ne 1 not ' and genitive hilt ' whit ' ; therefore he has been called nihili ' of naught ' who was not kill * of a whit ' in value. Change is made only in the case-forms of that about w hich the speak- ing is done, as about a man ; for we say a man nihili ' of no account ' in nominative, in genitive, in accusa- tive, changing the forms of homo but not changing the form nihili. If we were to make changes in it, then we should say not hie nihili c but nihilum as the nominative, like linum ' flax * and libum ' cake,' and dative not huic nihili d but nihilo like lino and libo. The genitive case * can however be said with various nouns set before it, like nominative casus ' mishap ' Terentii ' of Terence,' accusative casum Terentii, and nominative miles 'soldier* legionis 1 of the legion/ genitive militis legionis, accusative militem legionis. They say a that since every nature is either male or female or neuter, from the individual spoken words there should not fail to be forms of the words in sets of three, like albus, alba, album ' white ' ; that now in many things there are only two, like Metellus and Metella, Aemilius and Aetnilia, and some with only one, like tragoedus * tragic actor ' and comoedus ' comic actor ' ; that there are the names Marcus and Numerius, but no * Plautus, Most. 245. c The genitive nihili depending on a nominative. d The genitive nihili depending on a dative. * Such as the form nihili. § 55. a Cf. viii. 47. 479 V. non esse ; dici coruum, 5 turdum, non 6 dici coruam, 5 turdam ; contra dici pantherarn, merulam, non dici pantherum, merulum ; nullius nostrum 7 filium et filiam non apte 8 discerni marem ac feminam, ut Terentium 9 et Terentiam, contra deorum liberos et servorum non i/idem, 10 ut Iovis filium et filiam, Iovem 11 et Iovam ; item magnum numerum vocabu- lorum in hoc genere non servare analogias. 56. Ad haec dicimus, omnis orationis quamvis res naturae subsit, tamen si ea in usu(m) 1 non pervenerit, eo non pervenire verba : ideo equus dicitur et equa : in usu enim horum discrimina 2 ; corvus et corva non, quod sine usu id, quod dissimilis natura(e). 3 Itaque quaedam al(i)ter ohm ac nunc : nam et turn omnes mares et feminae dicebantur columbae, quod non erant in eo usu domestico quo nunc, (ct nunc) 4 contra, propter domesticos usus quod internovimus, appellatur mas columbus, femina columba. 57. Natura cum tria genera transit et id est in usu discriminat*/(m), turn 1 denique apparet, ut est in doctus 2 et docta et doctum : doctrina enim per tria haec transire potest et usus docuit discriminare doctam rem ab hominibus et in his marem ac feminam. In mare et femina et neutro neque natura mans 3 6 Aldus, for corbum and corbam. * Aldus, for non non. 7 Aug., for neutros. 8 Aug., with B, for apta. 9 For terentium et terentium. 10 Ed. Veneta, for ididem. 11 For iouem iouem. § 56. 1 Aug., with B, for usu. 2 Aug., for discrimine. 3 Vertranius, for natura. * Added by L. Sp. § 57. 1 Reiter, for discrimina totum. 2 Aug., with B, for docto. 3 L. Sp., for mares. b Numeria is in fact found, but as a divine name. c Cf. §59. § 56. a For the expression, cf. ix. 37. Marca and Numeria 6 ; that corvus ' raven ' and turdus * thrush ' are said, but the feminines corva and turda are not said ; that on the other hand pantkera * panther * and merula 1 blackbird ' are used, but the masculines pantherus and merulus are not ; that there is no one of us whose son and daughter are not suit- ably distinguished as male and female^ as Terentius and Terentia ; that on the other hand the children of gods and slaves are not distinguished in the same way, c as by Iovis and Iova for the son and the daughter of Jupiter ; that likewise a great number of common nouns do not in this respect preserve the Regularities. 56. To this we say that although the object is basic a for the character of all speech, the words do not succeed in reaching the object if it has not come into our use ; therefore equus ' stallion ' and equa * mare ' are said, but not corva beside corvtts, because in that case the factor of unlike nature is without use to us. But for this reason some things were for- merly named otherwise than they are now : for then all doves, male and female, were called columbae, because they were not in that domestic use in which they are now, and now, on the other hand, because we have come to make a distinction on account of their uses as domestic fowl, the male is called colnmbus and the female columba. 57. When the nature goes through the three genders and this distinction is made in use, then finally it is seen, as it is in doctus 4 learned man ' and docta * learned woman ' and doctum 4 learned thing ' ; for learning can go across through these three, and use has taught us to differentiate a learned thing from human beings, and among the latter to distinguish the male and the female. But in a male or a female transit neque feminae neque neutra, et ideo non dicitur fcminus femina feminum, sic reliqua : itaque singularibus ac secretis vocabulis appellati sunt. 58. Quare in quibus rebus non subest similis natura aut usus,in his vocabulis huiusce modi ratio quaeri non debet : ergo dicitur ut surdus vir, surda mulier, sic surdum theatrum, quod omnes tres (res) 1 ad auditum sunt comparatae ; contra nemo dicit cubiculum surdum, (quod) 2 ad silentium, non ad auditum ; at si fenestram non habet, dicitur caecum, ut coccus et caeca, quod omnia (non) 3 habent (quod) 3 lumen habere debent. 59. Mas et femina habent inter se natura quandam societatem, (nullam societatem) 1 neutra cum his, quod sunt diversa ; inter se 2 quoque de his perpauca sunt quae habeant quandam co(m)munitatem. Dei et servi nomina quod non item ut libera nostra trans- eunt, eadem e(s)t 3 causa, quod ad usum attinct (et) 4 institui opus fuit de liberis, de reliquis nihil attinuit, quod in servis gentilicia natura non subest in usu, in nostri(s) nominibus qui sumus in Latio et liberi, necessaria. Itaque ibi apparet analogia ac dicitur Tcrentius vir, Terentia femina, Terentium genus. § 58. 1 tres res Mve. ; res Bentinus ; for tres. 2 Added by Canal ; quod id Mae. ; quod sit Sciop. 3 Added by Fay. § 59. 1 Added by A. Sp., after L. Sp. and Mue. 2 B, G, II, Aug., for interest. 3 L. Sp., for et. 4 Added by L. Sp. ' § 58. a V. means a theatre in which it is difficult to hear ; but the term is applicable also to an audience which is inattentive. b Rather, things are called 4 blind ' because they hinder vision by darkness or by walls without openings, such as windows and doors. or what is neither, the nature of the male does not shift, nor that of the female, nor the neuter nature, and for this reason there is no saying of feminus, femina.) Jemirrum, and so with the rest. Therefore they are called by special and separate words. 58. Wherefore in the names of those things in which there is no likeness of nature or of use as the basis, a relation of this sort ought not to be sought. Accordingly, as a surdus * deaf * man is a current term, and a surda woman, so also is a surdum theatre,* 1 because all three things are equally intended for the act of hearing. On the other hand, nobody says a surdum sleeping-room, because it is intended for silence and not for hearing ; but if it has no window, it is called caecum 1 blind/ as a man is called caecus and a woman caeca, because not all sleeping-rooms have the light which they ought to have. b 59. The male and the female have by nature a certain association with each other ; but the neuters have no association with them, because they are different from them in kind, and even of these neuters there are very few which have any elements in common with other neuters. As for the fact that the names of a god and of a slave do not vary like our free names, there is the same reason, namely that the variation is connected with use, and had to be established with reference to free persons, but as to the rest had no consequence, because among slaves the clan quality has no foundation in practice, but it is necessary in the names of us who are in Latium and are free. Therefore in that class Regularity makes its appearance, and we say Terentius for a man, Terentia for a woman, and Terentium for the genus * stock.' V. In praenominibus ideo non fit item, quod haec instituta ad usum singularia, quibus discernerentur nomina gentilicia, ut ab numero Secunda, Tertia, Quarta (in mulieribus), 1 in viris ut Quintus, Sextus, Decimus, sic ab aliis rebus. Cum essent duo Terentii aut plures, discernendi causa, ut aliquid singulare haberent, notabant, forsitan ab eo, qui mane natus diceretur, ut is Manius esset, qui luci, Lucius, 2 qui post patris mortem, Postumus. 61 . E quibus (ae)que 1 cum item accidisset feminis, proportione ita appellata declinarant praenomina mulierum antiqua, Mania, Lucia, Postuma : videmus enim Maniam matrem Larum dici, Luciam Voht- mniam 2 Saliorum Carminibus appellari, Postumam a multis post patris mortem etiam nunc appellari. 62. Quare quocumque progressa est natura cum usu vocabul?, 1 similiter proportione propagata est analogia, cum in quibus declinatus voluntarii 2 maris et feminae et neutri, quae voluntaria, non debeant similiter declinari, sed in quibus naturales, sint de- § 60. 1 Placed here by GS. ; added before Secunda by L. Sp. 2 p t Aldus^for lucilius. § 61. 1 A. for que. 2 Aug., for Volaminiam. § 62. 1 Aug. y with i?, for vocabula. 2 L. Sp., for declinationibus voluntariis. § 60. a Seemingly a contamination of ab eo quod with sic . . . ut. b Properly, as the * last ' child ; but not to be associated with post kit mum * after (burial in the) earth,' though this popular etymology gave a later spelling post- humus and the English posthumous, § 61. a Mania is perhaps not related etymologieally to Manius ; see Marbach in Pauly-Wissowa's Encyc. d. cl. Alt.- wiss, xiv. 1110. b More probable than the Volaminia of F, In first names the situation is not the same, because these were in practice established as in- dividual names, by which the clan names might be differentiated ; from the numerals came Secunda, Tertia, Quarta for women, Quintus, Sextus, Decimus for men. and similarly other names from other things. When there were two or more persons of the name Terentius, then that they might liave something individual to distinguish them they marked them perhaps in this way,° that he should be Manius who was said to have been born mane ' in the morning,' and he who has been born luci * at dawn ' should be Lucius, and he who was born post ' after ' his father's death should be Postumus. 6 61. When any of these things happened to females as well, they derived the first names of women regularly in this manner — that is, in former times — and called them by them, for example, Mania, Lucia, Postuma : for we see that the mother of the Lares is called Mania, a that Lucia Volumnia b is addressed in the Hymns of the Salians, c and that even now many give the name Postuma to a daughter born after the death of her father. 62.Therefore as far as the nature and the use of  a word have jointly advanced, so far has Regularity  been extended in like manner by a corresponding  relationship, since of the words in which there are  voluntary inflections of male and female and neuter,  those which are voluntary in inflection ought not to be  inflected in similar manner, but in those in which  there are natural inflections there are those regular   not found elsewhere ; several members of the gens Volumnia  are mentioned at Rome during V.'s time. e Frag. 5,  page 336 Maurenbrecher ; page 4 Morel.    clinatus hi qui esse reperiuntur. Quocirca in tribus  generibus nominum in(i)que 3 tollunt analogias.   XXXIX. 63. Qui autem eas reprehendunt, quod  alia vocabula singularia sint solum, ut cicer, alia multi-  tudinis solum, ut scalae, cum debuerint omnia esse  duplicia, ut equus equi, analogiae fundamentum esse  obliviscuntur naturam et usu(m). 1 Singulare est  quod natura unum significat, ut equus, aut quod  coniuncta quodammodo ad unum usu, 2 ut bigae :  itaque (ut) 3 dicimus una Musa, sic dicimus unae  bigae.   64«. Multitudinis vocabula sunt unum infinitum,  ut Musae, alterum finitum, ut duae, tres, quattuor :  dicimus enim ut hae Musae sic unae bigae et binae  et trinae bigae, sic deinceps. Quare tarn unae et uni  et una quodammodo singularia sunt quam unus et una  et unum ; hoc modo mutat, quod altera in singu-  laribus, altera in coniunctis rebus ; et ut duo tria sunt  multitudinis, sic bina trina.   65. Est tertium quoque genus singulare ut in  multitudine, uter, in quo multitudinis ut utrei 1 ; uter   3 Aldus, for inquae.   §63. 1 p t Mue., for usu. 2 A. Sp., for usum.  3 Added by h. Sp.   §65. 1 A. Sp.,for utre   § 62. a Crates and his followers, who uphold Anomaly.  § 63. ° Cf. viii. 48. b Cf. x. 54.   § 64. B The first is the generic or collective, without speci-  fication of the number or of the individuals ; the second is  numerical, in which the number of the individuals is given or  their identity is clearly implied. 6 A word like bigae, inflections which are actually found to exist. There-  fore in the matter of the three genders they a are  unfair in setting aside the Regularities.   XXXIX. 63. Moreover those who find fault a  with the Regularities, because some words are  singulars only, like cicer ' chickpea,' and others are  plural only, like scalae ' stairs,' et although all ought  to have the two forms, like equus ' horse ' and equi  ' horses,' forget that the foundation of Regularity  is nature and use taken in combination. That is  singular which by nature denotes one thing, like  equus ' horse/ or which denotes things that by use  are joined together in some way, like bigae * two-horse  team.' Therefore just as we say una Musa * one  Muse,' we say unae bigae * one two-horse team/   64. Plural words are of two sorts, a the one in-  definite, like Musae * Muses/ the other definite, like  duae ' two/ tres * three/ quattuor 1 four ' ; for as we  say Musae in the plural, so also we say unae bigae ' one  two-horse team/ and binae ' two ' and trinae b bigae  1 three two-horse teams/ and so on. Wherefore  unae and the masc. uni and the neut. una are in  a certain manner as much singulars as unus and una  and unum : the word changes in this way because  the one set of forms is said of individual things, the  other of things joined together in sets ; and just as  duo and tria are plurals, so also are bina and trina.   65. There is also a third class which is singular  though expressed by a plural form, namely uter  1 which of two,' in which the plural form is for ex-   already plural in form, can be pluralized in meaning only by  the use of a numerical modifier ; for this purpose, distribu-  tive numerals such as bini are used. For the singular idea,  the plural form of unus is used.   487     V.     poeta singulari, utri poetae multitudinis est. Qua  explicata natura apparet non debere omnia vocabula  multitudinis habere par singulare : omnes enim  numeri ab duobus susum versus multitudinis sunt  neque eorum quisquam habere potest singulare  compar. Iniuria igitur postulant, si qua sint singu-  laria, oportere habere multitudinis.   XL. 66. Item qui reprehendunt, quod non dicatur  ut unguentum unguenta vinum vina sic acetum aceta  garum gara, faciunt imperite : qui ibi desidcrant  multitudinis vocabulum, quae sub mensuram ac pon-  dcra potius quam sub numerum succedunt : nam in  plumbo, 1 a(r)ge(n)to, a cum incrementum accessit,  dicimus 3 multum, 4 sic multum plumbum, argentum ;  non 5 plumba, argenta, cum quae ex hisce fiant, dica-  mus plumbea et argentea (aliud enim cum argenteum :  nam id turn cum iam vas : argent(e)um 6 enim, si  pocillum aut quid item) : quod pocilla argentea  multa, non quod argentum multum.   67. Ea, natura in quibus est mensura, non  numerus, si genera in se habe(n)t 1 plura et ea in  usum venerunt, a genere multo, sic vina et unguenta,  dicta : alii generis enim vinum quod Chio, aliuc? 2   § 66. 1 After phimbo, L. Sp. deleted oleo. 2 Aug., for  aceto. 3 After dicimus, Aldus deleted enim. 4 After  rnultum, L. Sp. deleted oleum. 5 After non, L. Sp. deleted  multa olea. 6 Aug., with B t for argentum.   § 67. 1 Laetus, for habet. 2 For aliut.     § 65. ° The old spelling of the nominative plural, still  more or less in use in V.'s time, though rarely attested in  the manuscripts.   § 66. a Cf § 67. b Derivative adjectives, ' made of  lead ' and * made of silver * ; supply vasa 4 utensils.' ample utrei ° : uter poeta ' which of two poets ' in the  singular, utri poetae 4 which of two sets of poets ' in  the plural. Now that the nature of this has been  explained it is clear that plural nouns are not all  under obligations to have a like singular form ; for  all the numerals from two upwards are plural, and  no one of them can have a singular to match it.  Therefore it is quite wrongly that they demand that  all singulars that there are, must have a correspond-  ing plural form.   XL. 66. Likewise those who find fault because  there are no plurals aceta and gara to acetum ' vinegar '  and garum * fish-sauce ' like unguenia to unguentum  ' perfume ' and vtna to vinum ' wine/ a act ignorantly ;  they are looking for a plural name in connexion  with things which come under the categories of  quantity and weight rather than under that of  number. For in plumbum 4 lead ' and argentum * sil-  ver,' when there has been added an increase, we say  multum * much ' : thus multum plumbum or argentum,  not plumba ' leads ' and argenta ' silvers/ since articles  made of these we call plumbea and argentea b (silver  is something else when it is argenteum, for that is  what it is when it has now become a utensil ; thus  argenteum if it is a small cup or the like), because in  this case we speak of many argentea ' silver ' cups,  and not of much argentum ' silver/   67. But if those things which have by nature the  idea of quantity rather than that of number, exist in  several kinds and these kinds have come into use,  then from the plurality of kinds they are spoken of  in the plural, as for example vina 1 wines ' and un-  guenia ' perfumes.' For there is wine of one kind,  which comes from Chios, another wine which is from quod Lesbo, 3 sic ex regionibus aliis. (Ae)que 4 ipsa  dicuntur nunc melius unguenta, 5 cui nunc genera  aliquot. Si item discrimina magna essent olei et  aceti et sic ceterarum rerum eiusmodi in usu co(m)-  muni, dicerentur sic olea et (aceta ut) 6 vina. Quare  in titraque re (i)nique 7 rescindere conantur analogias,  et 8 cum in dissimili usu similia vocabula quaerant* et  cum item ea quae metimur atque ea quae numcramus  dici putent oportere.   XLI. 68. Item reprehendunt analogias, quod  dicantur multitudinis nomine publicae balneae, non  balnea, contra quod privati dicant unum balneum,  quo?/* 1 plura balnea (non) 2 dicant. Quibus respon-  ded' 3 potest non esse reprehendendum, quod scalae  et aquae caldae, pleraque* cum causa, multitudinis  vocabulis sint appellata neque eorum singularia in  usum venerint ; idemque item contra. Primum  balneum (nomen e(s)t 5 Graecum), (cum) 6 introiit in  urbem, publice ibi consedit, ubi bina essent con-  iuncta aedificia lavandi causa, unum ubi viri, alterum  ubi mulieres lavarentur ; ab eadem ratione domi  suae quisque ubi lavatur balneum dixcrunt et, quod  non erant duo, balnea dicere non consuerunt, cum   3 V, p, Aldus, for Lesbio. 4 A. Sp., for quae. 5 For unguentia. 6 Added by L. Sp. 7 Canal, for denique. 8 Aug., for analogiam set. * L. Sp.,for querunt. §68. 1 Canal, for quod. 2 Added by Popma. 3 Al- dus, for respondere. 4 After pleraque, L. Sp. deleted quae. 6 GS., for et. 6 Added by GS. §68. ° The word is a heteroclite in form, with a different Lesbos, and so on from other localities. Likewise unguenta 1 perfumes ' themselves are now properly spoken of in the plural, for of perfume there are now a number of kinds. If in like fashion there were great differences in olive-oil and vinegar and the other articles of this sort, in common use, then we should employ the plurals olea and aceta, like vina. There- fore in both these matters their attempt to destroy the Regularities is unfair, since they expect that the words will be alike though their uses are different, and since they think that articles which we measure and objects which we count should be spoken of in the same way. XLI. 68. Likewise they find fault with the Regu- larities, because public baths are spoken of as balneae, with the form in the plural, and not as balnea, in the singular ; and on the other hand they speak of one bal- neum of a private individual, though they do not use the plural balneal To them answer can be made, that fault ought not to be found because scalae * stairs ' and aquae caldae ' hot springs/ mostly with good reason, have been called by plural names and the corresponding singulars have not come into use : and vice versa* The first balneuvi * bath-room ' (the name is Greek), when it was brought into the city of Rome, was as a public establishment set in a place where two connected buildings might be used for the bathing, in one of which the men should bathe and in the other the women. From the same logical reasoning each person called the place in his own house where baths were taken, a balneum ; and they were not accustomed to speak of balnea in the plural, meaning in the two numbers. But the plural balnea began to be used in the time of Augustus. 6 C/. § 69. V. hoc antiqui non balneum, sed lavatrinam 7 appellare consuessent. 8 69- Sic aquae caldae ab loco et aqua, quae ibi scateret, cum ut colerentur venissent in usum nostris, cum aliae ad alium morbum idoneae essent, eae cum plures essent, ut Puteolis ct in Tuscis, quibus uteban- tur, multitudinis potius quam singulari vocabulo appellarunt. Sic scalas, quod ab scandendo dicuntur et singulos gradus scanderent, magis erat quaeren- dum, si appellassent singulari vocabulo scalam, cum origo nominatus ostcnderet contra. XLII. 70. Item reprehendunt de casibus, quod quidam nominatus habent rectos, quidam obliquos, quod dicunt utrosque in vocibus oportere. Quibus idem responderi potest, in quibus usus aut natura non subsit, ibi non esse analogiam. Sed ne in his (quidem) 1 vocabulis quae declinantur, si transeunt e recto casu in rectum casum : quae tamcn fere non discedunt ab ratione sine iusta causa, ut hi qui gladiatores Faustina* : nam quod plerique dicuntur, ut tris extremas syllabas 7 Aug., with B, for lauiatrinam. 8 2?, Ed. Veneta,for consuescent. § 71. 1 Added here by L. Sp. ; added after vocabulis by Madvig. 2 Mtie. t for faustinos. c More commonly in the contracted form latrina, and in V.'s time meaning ' water-closet, privy.' § 69. ° At least nine places in Etruria bore the name Aquae. % 70. ° Cf. viii. 49. b There seems to be a lacuna here, as examples illustrating this point of the refutation are lack- ing. § 71. c That is, by derivation with suffixes, not merely by because they did not have two in one house — though our forbears were accustomed to call this not a balneum, but a lavatrina c ' wash-room.* 69. So also, the hot springs, on account of the locality and the water which gushed out there, came to be frequented for our use, since some of the springs were beneficial to one disease and others to another ; and because those which they used were several in number, as at Puteoli and in Etruria, they called them by a plural word rather than by a singular. So also with the scalae ' stairs ' ; because they are named from scandere ' to mount ' and there were separate steps to be mounted, it would be a more difficult problem to answer if they had called them scala, in the singular, inasmuch as the origin of the name shows their plural nature. XLII. 70. Likewise they find fault a about the cases, because some nouns have nominative forms only, and others have only oblique forms : whereupon they say that all words ought to have both the nominative and the oblique forms. To them the same answer can be given, that there is no Regularity in those instances which lack a relationship in use or in nature. . . . b 71. But they should not look for complete Regu- larity even in these names which are derived by passage from one nominative form to another. Still, such words do not in general depart from the path of logic without valid reason, such as there is for those gladiators who are called Faustini b ; for though most gladiators are spoken of in such a way that they case-inflection. b The troops of gladiators were designated by adjectives of this sort which were derived from the names of the owners. habeant easdem, Cascelliani, (Caeciliani), 3 Aquiliani, animadvertant, 4 unde oriuntur, nomina dissimilia Cascellius, 5 Cflecilius, Aquilius, (Faustus : quod si esset) 8 Faustius, recte dicerent Faustianos ; si(c) 7 a Scipione quidam male dicunt Scipioninos : nam est Scipionarios. Sed, ut dixi, quod ab huiuscemodi cognominibus raro declinantur cognomina neque in usum etiam perducta, natant quaedam. XLIIL 72. Item dicunt, cum sit simile stultus luscus et dicatur stultus stultior stultissimus, non dici luscus luscior luscissimus, sic in hoc genere multa. Ad quae dico ideo fieri, quod natura nemo lusco magis sit luscus, cum stultior fieri videatur. Quod rogant, cur (non) 1 dicamus mane manius manissimc, item de vesperi : in 2 tempore vere magis et minus esse non potest, ante et post potest. Itaque prius est hora prima quam secunda, non magis hora. Sed magis mane surgere tamen dicitur : qui primo mane surgit, (magis mane surgit) 3 quam qui non pri(m)o 4 : ut enim dies non potest esse magis quam (dies, sic mane non magis quam) 5 mane ; 3 Placed here by L. Sp. ; added after Aquiliani by Aug. 4 Aug., for animaduertunt. 5 Cascelius Aug., for Cas- sellius F. 6 Added by Mue. 7 M 9 Laetus.for si. § 73. 1 Added by Aug. 2 Popma, for uespertino. 3 Added by GS. 4 Stephanus, for prior. 5 Added by L. Sp. § 72. a Cf viii. 75. § 73. a Cf. viii. 76. b The usual phrase is multo mane ; evidently, to the Romans, mane was not completely an adverb like English* early. e The Latin corresponding to this (English) sentence should perhaps, as GS. suggest, be placed before the sentence beginning Itaque prlus ; the argument then develops more logically. have the last three syllables alike, Cascelliani, Cae- ciliani, AquilianiJ* let them take note that the names from which these come, Cascellius, Caecilius, Aquilius on the one hand, and Faustus on the other, are unlike : if the name were Faustius, they would be right in saying Faustiani. In the same way, from Scipio some make the bad formation Scipionini ; it is prop- erly Scipionarii. But, as I have said, since appella- tions are rarely derived from surnames of this kind and they are not fully at home in use, some such formations fluctuate in form. XLIII. 72. Likewise they say,° that although stultus * stupid ' and luscus * one-eyed * are like words, and stultus is compared with stultior and stultissimus, the forms lusrior and luscissimus are not used with luscus, and similarly with many words of this class. To which I say that this happens for the reason that by nature no one is more one-eyed than a one- eyed man, whereas he may seem to become more stupid. XLIV. 73. To their question a why we do not say mane ' in the morning/ comparative manius, super- lative manissime. with a similar question about vesperi * in the evening/ I reply that in matters of time there is properly no ' more ' and ' less/ but there can be before and after. Therefore the first hour is earlier than the second, but not ' more hour/ But nevertheless to rise magis mane ' more in the morning * is an expression in use ; he who rises in the first part of the morning rises magis mane 6 * more in the morning ' than he who does not rise in that first part. For as the day cannot be said to be more than day, so mane cannot be said to be more than mane* Therefore that very magis ' more ' itaque ipsum hoc quod dicitur magis sibi non constat, quod magis mane significat primum mane, magis vespere novissimum vesper. XLV. 74. Item ab huiuscemodi (dis)similitu- dinibus 1 reprehenditur analogia, quod cum sit anus cadus simile et sit ab anu aniculaanicilla, a cado duo reliqua quod non sint propagata, sic non dicatur a piscina piscinula piscinilla. Ad (haec respondeo) 2 huiuscemodi vocabuh's 3 analogias esse, ut dixi, ubi magnitudo animadvertenda sit in unoquoque gradu eaquc 4 sit in usu co(m)muni, ut est cista cistula cistella et canis catulus catellus, quod in pecoris usu non est. Itaque consuetudo frequentius res in binas dividi partis ut maius et minus, ut lectus et lectulus, area et arcula, sic alia. XLVI. 75. Quod dicunt casus alia non habere rectos, alia obliquos et idco non esse analogias, falsum est. Negant habere rectos ut in hoc frugis frugi frugem, item cole(m) colis cole, 1 obliquos non habere ut in hoc Diespiter Diespitri Diespitrem, Maspiter Maspitri Maspitrem. § 74. 1 L. Sp., for similitudinibus. 2 Added by L. Sp. 3 L. Sp., for vocabula. 4 Mite., for ea quae. §75. 1 A. Sp. ; colis coli colem Mue. ; for role rolis role. § 74. a Cf viii. 79. b The diminutives are not ety- mological derivatives of cants, but are of quite distinct origin. e Curiously, none of the Latin words denoting sheep and goats, cattle and horses, had a diminutive in regular use in V.'s time or earlier, except that V. himself used equulus and equula. Plautus, Asin. 667, coined the words agnellns ' little lamb,' haedillus 4 little kid,' vitellus 4 little calf,' as terms of endearment, but they do not appear again. d The normal, undiminished object. § 75. ° Cf. viii. 49 ; the subject-matter of § 75 seems to come closely after that of § 70, but there seems to be no sure which is commonly said is not consistent with itself, because magis mane means the first part of the mane, and magis vespere the last part of the evening. XLV. 74. Similarly, Regularity is found fault with on account of unlikenesses of this sort," that although anus * old woman ' and cadus * cask ' are like words, and from anus there are the diminutives aniatla and anicilla, the other two are not formed from cadus, nor from piscina ' fish-pond * are piscinula and piscinilla made. To this I answer that words of this kind have the Regularities, as I have said, only when the size must be noted in each separate stage, and this is in common use, as is cista * box/ cistula, cistella, and canis b 1 dog,' catulus * puppy,' catellus * little puppy ' ; this is not indicated in the usage connected with flocks.* Therefore the usage is more often that things be divided into two sets, as larger d and smaller, like lectus * couch * and lectulus, area ' strong-box * and arcula, and other such words. XLVL 75. As to their saying a that some words lack the nominative and others lack the oblique cases, and that therefore the Regularities do not exist, this is an error. For they say that the nomina- tive is lacking in such words as frugis frugi frugem b * fruit of the earth * and colem colis cole c 1 plant- stalk/ and the oblique cases are lacking in such as Diespiter * Jupiter,' dat. Diespitri, acc. Diespitrem, and Maspiter ' Mars,' Maspitri, Maspitrem* way of rearranging the order of the text. * Gen., dat., acc. c Acc, gen., abL, unless the manuscript readings are to be more seriously altered ; the word is more properly caul- % but Cato and V. prefer the country forms, with o from au. d For Dies pater and Mars pater ; the addition of pater is found only in nom. and voc. (Iuppiter, older Iuplter % is a voc. form). VOL. II K 497 V. 76. Ad haec respondeo et priora habere nominandi et posteriora obliquos. Nam et frugi rectus est natura frux, at secundum consuetudinem dicimus ut haec avis, haec ovis, sic haec frugis ; sic secundum naturam nominandi est casus cols, 1 secundum con- suetudinem colis, 2 cum utrumque conveniat ad analo- gian, quod et id quod in consuetudine non est cuius modi debeat esse apparet, et quod est in consuetu- dine nunc in recto casu, eadem est analogia ac plera- que, quae ex multitudine cum transeunt in singulare, difficulter efFeruntur ore. Sic cum transiretur ex eo quod dicebatur haec oves, una non est dicta ovs sine J, 3 sed additum I ac factum ambiguum verbum nominandi an patrici esse(t) 4 casus. Ut ovis, et avis. 77. Sic in obliquis casibus cur negent esse Diespitri Diespitrem non video, nisi quod minus est tritum in consuetudine quam Diespiter ; quod in nihil argumentum est : nam tarn casus qui non tritus est quam qui est. Sed est(o) 1 in casuum serie alia vocabula non habere nominandi, alia de obliquis aliquem: nihil enim ideo quo minus siet 2 ratio per- cellere poterit hoc crimen. § 76. 1 Mi*e., for rois. 2 Hue., for rolis. 3 L. &/>., for una. 4 L, Sp., for esse. § 77. 1 L. Sp., for est. 2 Mue., for si et ; on the possi- bility of the use of siet in V.'s time, cf Cicero, Orator 47. 157. § 76. ° Frux is found in Ennius, Ann. 314 (' honest man ') and 431 Vahlen 2 = R.O.L. i. 1 16-1 17 and 150-151 Warming- ton ; but nom. frugis is not quotable from a text. b Colis may be cited from Lucilius, 135 Marx, and V., R. R. i. 41 . 6. 4 c V. is speaking on the basis that the relation is nom. sing, ending in -s, nom. pi. in -es, as in dux^ pi. duces. d Haec before oves is the sign of the nom. pi. fern. ; V. appears to use hae before consonants, haec To this I answer that the former have nomina- tives and the latter have oblique case-forms. For the nominative of fntgi is by nature frux, but by usage we say fntgis, a like avis * bird * and ovis ' sheep * ; so also, the nominative of the other word is by nature cols and by usage colis. b Both of these agree with the principle of Regularity, because it is perfectly clear of what sort that form ought to be which is not in use, and in that which is now in use in the nominative there is the same kind of Regularity as most words have that are hard to pronounce when they pass from the plural to the singular. So when the passage was made from the spoken plural oves, d the form which was pronounced was not ovs without I, but an I was added and the word became ambiguous as to whether the case was nominative or genitive.* Like the nominative ovis is also the nominative amis. 77. Thus I do not see why they say that in the oblique cases Diespitri and Diespitrem are lacking, except because they are less common in use than Diespiter. But the argument amounts to nothing ; for the case-form which is uncommon is just as much a case-form as that which is common. But let us grant that in the list of case-forms some words lack the nominative and others lack some one of the oblique cases ; for this charge will not for that reason be able in any way to destroy the existence of a logical relationship a among the forms. before vowels as here (and at the sentence-end, as at v. 75). * V. is of course unaware of the fact that some nouns of the third declension had stems ending in i and therefore had a right to nominatives in is, while others had stems ending in consonants and could have the ending is only by analogy with the «-stems. § 77. ° That is, Regularity. Nam ut signa quae non habent caput 1 aut aliquam aliam partem, nihilo minus 2 in reliquis mem- bris eorum esse possunt analogiae, sic in vocabulis casuum possunt item fieri (iacturae. Potest etiam refingi) 3 ac reponi quod aberit, ubi patietur natura et consuetudo : quod nonnunquam apud poetas invenimus factum, ut in hoc apud Naevium in Clas- tidio : Vita insepulta laetus in patriam redux. XLVII. 79. Itemreprehendunt,quoddicaturhaec strues, hie Hercules, 1 hie homo : debuisset enim dici, si esset analogia, hie Hercul, haec strus, hie hom(en. N)on 2 haec ostendunt no(mi)?*a 3 non analogian esse, sed obliquos casus non habere caput ex sua analogia. Non, ut si in Alexandri statua imposueris caput Philippi, membra conveniant ad rationem, sic* et Alexandri membrorum simulacro 5 caput quod re- spondeat item sit ? Non, si quis tunicam in usu ita consult, ut altera plagula 6 sit angustis clavis, altera latis, utraque pars in suo genere caret analogia. XLVIII. 80. Item negant esse analogias, quod § 78. 1 After caput, M and Laetus deleted et. 2 For nihil hominus. 3 Added by GS. ; but the lost part may be some what longer. % 79. 1 p, Laetus, for Herculis. 2 GS. ; homen Canal ; for homon. 3 Kent, for noua. 4 G, H, Aug., for sit. 5 A. Sp.yfor simulacrum. 6 Aldus, for placula. § 78. a By regular formation. b Tray. Rom. Frag., Praet. II Ribbeck 3 . c Redux, not elsewhere found in the nom. sing. § 79. If the nominatives were of the usual types, which replace the .genitive ending -IS by -S or by nothing at all, like $11$, animal, nomen, genitives suis, animalis, nominis. b That is, the nominatives are not formed ' regularly ' from the oblique cases, but from these nominatives of variant types For as some statues lack the head or some other part without destroying the Regularities in their other limbs, so in words certain losses of cases can take place, with as little result. Besides, what is lacking can be remade a and put back into its place, where nature and usage permit ; which we sometimes find done by the poets, as in this verse of Naevius, in the Clastidium b : With life unburied, glad, to fatherland restored.* XLVII. 79. Likewise they find fault with the nominatives strues 1 heap,' Hercules, homo * man ' ; for if Regularity actually existed, they say, these forms should have been strus, Hercul, homen. a These nouns do not show that Regularity is non-existent, but that the oblique cases do not have a head or starting-point according to their type of Regularity. b Is it not a fact that, if you should put a head of Philip on a statue of Alexander and the limbs should be proportionately symmetrical, then the head which does correspond to the statue of Alexander's limbs c would likewise be symmetrical ? And it is not a fact that if one should in practice sew together a tunic in such a way that one breadth of the cloth has narrow border-stripes and the other has broad stripes, each part lacks regular conformity within its own class. d XLVIII. 80. Likewise they say that the Regu- the oblique cases are formed regularly. c That is, the heads or nominatives may be varied, but the limbs or oblique cases are of uniform type. d For there are tunics with the broad stripe, worn by senators, and tunics with the narrow stripe, worn by knights ; therefore, though the two halves in the example do not belong together, each has its regular precedent. alii dicunt cupressus, alii cupressi, item dc ficis platanis et plerisque arboribus, dc quibus alii ex- tremum US, alii EI faciunt. Id est falsum : nam debent dici E et I, fici ut nummi, quod est ut num- mi^) fici(s), 1 ut nummorum ficorum. Si essent plures ficus, essent ut manus ; diceremus ut manibus, sic ficibus, et ut manuum, sic ficuum, neque has ficos diceremus, sed ficus, ut non manos appellamus, sed (manus, nec) 2 consuetude* diceret singularis obliquos casus huius fici neque hac fico, ut non dici(t) 3 huius mani, 4 sed huius manus, (n)ec 5 hac mano, sed hac manu. XLIX. 81. Etiam illud putant esse causae, cur non sit 1 analogia, quod Lucilius scribit : Dccuis, 2 Sive decusibus est. Qui errant, quod Lucilius non debuit dubitare, quod utrumque : nam in aere usque ab asse ad centussis numerus aes significat, et eius numero finiti casus omnes 3 ab dupondio sunt, quod dicitur a multis duobus modis hie dupondius et hoc dupondium, ut § 80. 1 L. Sp., for nummi fici. 2 Added by Mue. ; manus neque L. Sp. 3 Aug., for dici. 4 M, Laetus,for manui. 5 L. Sp., for et. §81. 1 After sit, Aldus deleted in. 2 Lachmann ; decussi Mue. ; for decuis. 3 For omnis. § 80. ° As belonging to the fourth and the second de- clensions respectively. b This shows that V. wrote the nominative plural of the second declension with EI, and not with I ; but it would be pedantic to substitute such spellings throughout 4 his works, or even merely in this section. c As type of the second declension. d As type of the fourth declension. larities do not exist, because some say cupressus ' cypress-trees ' in the plural and others say cupressif and similarly with fig-trees, plane-trees, and most other trees, to which some give the ending US and others give EI. This is wrong ; for the tree-names ought to be spoken with E and l 9 b Jici like nummi c ' sesterces,* because the ablative is jicis like nummis, and the genitive is ficorum like nummorum. If the plural were Jicus, then it would be like mantis d * hand ' ; we should say ablative Jicibus like manibus, and genitive jicuum like manuum 9 and we should not say accusative Jicos, but Jicus, just as we do not say accusative vianos but manus ; nor would usage speak the oblique cases of the singular genitive Jici and ablative Jico, just as it does not say genitive mani but manus, nor ablative mono but manu. XLIX. 81. Moreover, they think that there is proof of the non-existence of Regularity, in the fact that Lucilius writes a ; Priced a teiww, or else we may say at ten-asses. b They are in error, because Lucilius should not have been uncertain as to the form, since both are right. For in copper money, from the as to the hundred-a-y, the number adds to itself the meaning of the copper coin, and all its case-forms are limited by its numerical value, starting from the dupondius * two-as piece,' which is used by many in two ways, masculine dupondius and neuter dupondium, like gladius and §81. ° Lucilius, 1153-4 Marx. "Or decussis, decus- sibus; but the single S is elsewhere attested in these words, and Lucilius may well have followed the older orthography, which doubled no consonants. On the as, cf. v. 169* c As first element in the compound. hoc gladium et hie gladius ; ab tressibus virilia multi- tudinis hi tresses et " his tressibus confido," singulare " hoc tressis habeo " et " hoc tres(s)is 4 confido," sic deinceps a(d) 5 centussis. Deinde numerus aes non significatf. 6 82. Numeri qui aes non significant, usque a quat- tuor ad centum, triplicis habent formas, quod dicun- tur hi quattuor, hae quattuor, haec quattuor ; cum perventum est ad mille, quartum assumit singulare neutrum, quod dicitur hoc mille denarium, a quo multitudinis fit milia denarii. 1 S3. Quare gwo(nia)m 1 ad analogias quod pertineat non (opus) 2 est ut omnia similia dicantur, sed ut in suo quaeque genere similiter declinentur, stulte quaerunt, cur as et dupondius et tressis non dicantur proportione, cum as 3 sit simple^, 4 d?*pondius 5 fictus, quod duo asses pendebat, 6 tressis ex tribus aeris quod sit. Pro assibus nonnunquam aes dicebant antiqui, a 4 For tresis. 5 Aug., for a. 6 Aug., for significans. § 82. 1 Aug.) for denaria. § 83. 1 Mue., for cum. 2 Added by GS. 3 as sit Aldus, for adsit. 4 For simples. 5 For dipondius. 6 Aug., for pendebant. d Cf. v. 116 and viii. 45. "The value-names tressis to centussis were invariable in the singular, but had a full set of cases in the plural, without multiplying the value of the term ; thus tresses in the plural still means ' three asses ' precisely like the singular. § 82. ° One invariable form serves for three genders. b Mille is not only an indeclinable plural adjective, of three genders, but also a neuter noun in the singular, upon which a genitive depends ; and in this last capacity it has a plural, which is declinable. c The denarius was a Roman silver coin, equivalent to the Greek drachma, and in modern times gladium* From tressis 4 three-as ' there is a mascu- line plural 3 tresses in the nominative and tressibus in the ablative, as in "I trust in these three asses," singular tressis as in " I have this three-flj " and " I trust in this three-as." The same usage is followed all the way to centussis 4 hundred-^. ' e From here on, the numeral does not denote money any more than other things. 82. The numerals which do not signify money, from quaiiuor 4 four ' to centum 4 hundred/ have forms of triple function, because quaituor is masculine, feminine, and neuter. When mille 4 thousand ' is reached, it takes on a fourth function, 6 that of a singular neuter, because the expression in use is mille 4 thousand * of denarii, c from which is made a * plural, milia 1 thousands * of denarii. 83. Since therefore so far as concerns the Regu- larities it is not essential that all words that are spoken should be alike in their systems, but only that they should be inflected alike each in its own class, those persons are stupid who ask why as and dupondius and tressis are not spoken according to a regular scheme ; for the as is a single unit, the dupondius is a compound term indicating that it pendebat 1 weighed ' duo 1 two ' asses, and the tressis is so called a because it is composed of tres 4 three ' units of aes 4 copper.' Instead of asses, the ancients used sometimes to say aes 6 ; a usage which survives when we hold an as in to the Swiss franc (about Is. 4d. English, or 32 cents U.S.A., in 1936). § 83. ° From tres and as, not from tres and aes. b But in the genitive, if with a numeral ; just as we say " four o'clock," = " four (hours) of the clock " ; in the singular, aes might mean * money ' collectively, like the French argent, and sometimes even a * copper piece.' quo dicimus assem tenentes " hoc 7 aere aeneaque libra " et " mille aeris legasse." 84. Quare quod ab tressis usque ad centussis 1 numeri ex (partibus) 2 eiusdem modi sunt compositi, eiusdem modi habent similitudinem : dupondius, quod dissimilis est, ut debuit, dissimilem habet rationem. Sic as, quoniam simplex est ac principium, et unum significat et multitudinis habet suum in- finitum : dicimus enim asses, quos cum finimus, dicimus dupondius et tressis et sic porro. 85. Sic videtur mihi, quoniam finitum et infinitum habeat dissimilitudinem, non debere utrumque item dici, eo magis quod in ipsis vocabulis 1 ubi additur certus numerus miliar(i)is 2 aliter atque in reliquis dicitur : nam sic loquontur, hoc mille denarium, non hoc mille denari(orum), 3 et haec duo milia denarn/m, 4 non duo milia denari(orum). 5 Si esset denarii in recto casu atque infinitam multitudinem significaret, tunc in patrico denariorum dici oportebat ; et non solum in denariis, victoriatis, drachmis,* nummis, sed etiam in viris idem servari oportere, cum dicimus 7 After hoc, Brissonius deleted ab. § 84. 1 Aug., for ducentussis. 2 Added by GS. % 85. 1 M 9 Laetus, for vocalibus. 2 Miie. ; milliards L. Sp. ; for militaris. 3 L. Sp.,for denarii. 4 Aug., for denaria. 5 Christ, for denarii. 6 Rhol^for et rachmis. c A legal survival used in symbolic sales, cf. v. 163; for the ancient as UbraUs (cf v. 169) had long since been decreased in weight and was not coined after 74 b.c. § 84. ° Even as dies and annus were not modified by the lower numerals ; for such phrases the Romans substituted biduum, triduum, biennium, triennium> etc. So for sums the hand and say " with this aes * copper piece ' and aenea libra ' pound of copper/ " c and also in the legal formula " to have bequeathed a thousand (asses) of aes * copper.* '* 84. Therefore, because the numerals from tressis to centussis are compounded of parts of the same kind, they have a likeness of the same kind ; but the word dupondius, because it is different in formation, has a different system of declension, as it should have. So also the as, because it is a single unit and is the beginning, means one and has its own in- definite plural, for we say asses ; but when we limit them numerically, we say dupondius and tressis and so on. a . Thus it seems to me that since the definite and the indefinite have an inherent difference, the two ought not to be spoken in the same fashion, the more so because in the words themselves, when they are attached to a definite number in the thousands, a form is used which is not the same as that used in other expressions. For they speak thus : mille dena- rium a * thousand of denarii,' not denariorum, and two milia denarium ' thousands of denarii,* not denariorum. If it were denarii in the nominative and it denoted an indefinite quantity, then it ought to be denariorum in the genitive ; and the same distinction must be pre- served, it seems to me, not only in denarii, victoriati, h drachmae, and nummi, but also in viri, when we say from 2 to 100 asses, the compound words were used, and not asses with the numeral. § 85. a For names of weights and measures, and for some other words, the old genitive in -um continued in use long after the new form in -onim had been generalized. 6 The vktoriatus was a silver coin stamped with a figure of Victory, and worth half a denarius. iudicium fuisse triumvirum, decem(virum, centum)- wum, 7 non (triumvirorum, decemvirorum), 8 centum- virorum. 86. Numeri antiqui habent analogias, quod omni- bus est una 1 regula, duo actus, tres gradus, sex de- curiae, qua(e) 1 omnia similiter inter se respondent. Regula 3 est numerus novenarius, quod, ab uno ad novem cum pervenimus, rursus redimus ad unum et V(IIII) 4 ; hinc et LX(XXX) 6 et nongenta 6 ab una sunt natura novenaria ; sic ab octonaria, et deo(r)sum versus ad singularia perveniunt. 87. Actus primus est ab uno (ad) 1 DCCCC, se- cundus a mille ad nongenta* milia ; quod idem valebat unum et mille, utrumque singulari nomine appellatur : nam ut dicitur hoc unum, haec duo, (sic hoc mille, haec duo) 3 milia et sic deinceps multitudinis in duobus actibus reliqui omnes item numeri. Gradus singu- laris est in utroque actu ab uno ad novem, denariws 4 gradus (a) 5 decern ad LX(XXX), 6 centenarius a cen- tum (ad) 7 DCCCC. Ita tribus gradibus sex decuriae fiunt, tres miliariae, tres 8 minores. Antiqui his numeris fuerunt contenti. Added by L. Sp. 8 Added by A. Sp., after Aldus. §86. 1 After una, L. Sp. deleted non novenaria (Aug. deleted non). 2 Rhol., for qua. 3 Sciop., for regulae. 4 novem L. Sp., for V. 5 nonaginta Aldus, for LX. 6 L. Sp. ; nongenti G, H ; for nungenti. § 87. 1 Added by Aug. 2 For nungenta. 3 Added by Gronov. 4 Aug., for denarios. 5 Added by Aug. 6 nonaginta Aug., for LX. 7 Added by Aug. 6 L. Sp., for miliaria etres. c The tresviri or triumviri capitales, in charge of prisons and that there has been a decision of the triumvirs, c the decemvirs, d the centum virs, e all of which have the genitive virum and not virorum. 86. The old numbers have their Regularities, because they all have one rule, two acts, three grades, and six decades, all of which show regular internal correspondences. The rule is the number nine, because, when we have gone from one to nine, we return again to one and nine ° ; hence both ninety and nine hundred are of that one and the same nine- containing nature. So there are numbers of eight- containing nature, 6 and going downwards they arrive at those which are merely ones. 87. The first act ° is from one to nine hundred, the second from one thousand to nine hundred thousand. Because one and thousand are alike unities, both are called by a name in the singular ; for as we say 1 this one ' and ' these two,* so we say 1 this thousand ' and ' these two thousands/ and after that all the other numbers in the two acts are likewise plural. The unitary grade is found in both acts, from one to nine ; the denary grade extends from ten to ninety ; the centenary grade from hundred to nine hundred. Thus from the three grades, six decades are made, three in the thousands, and three in the smaller numbers. The ancients were satisfied with these numerals. executions. *The decemviri stlitibus iudicandis, a per- manent board with jurisdiction over cases involving liberty or citizenship. * The centumviri or board of judges with jurisdiction over civil suits, especially those involving in- heritances. § 86. As multiples of ten ; and then as multiples of one hundred. 6 But these do not constitute the 4 rule.* § 87. Technical term, taken from the drama. Ad 1 hos tertium et quartum actum (addcntes) 2 ab decie(n)s (et ab deciens miliens) 2 minores im- posuerunt vocabula, neque rationc, sed tamen non contra est earn de qua scribimus analogiam. Nam 3 deciens 4 cum dicatur hoc deciens ut mille hoc mille, ut sit utrumque sine casibus vocis, dicemus ut hoc mille, huius mille, sic hoc deciens, huius deciens, neque eo minus in altero, quod est mille, praeponemus hi mille, horum mille, (sic hi deciens, horum deciens). 5 L. 89. Quoniam in eo est nomen co(m)mune, quam vocant ofnovvfuav, 1 obliqui casus ab eodem capite, ubi erit ofuavvfiia, 2 quo minus dissimiles fiant, analogia non prohibet. Itaque dicimus hie Argus, cum hominem dicimus, cum oppidum, Graec(e Graec)an(i)ceve 3 hoc Argos, cum Latine (hi) 4 Argi. Item faciemus, si eadem vox nomen et 5 verbum significant, 6 ut et in casus et in tempora dispariliter declinetur, ut faciemus a Meto quod nomen est Metonis Metonem, quod verbum estmetammetebam. § 88. 1 For ab. 2 Added by Kent, after Mue. (actum ab deciens minorem, (a deciens miliens maiorem addentes), imposuerunt). 3 A fter nam, L. Sp. deleted ut. 4 Aug., for decienis. 6 Added by L. Sp. ; there may have been other text also in the lacuna. § 89. 1 For omonimyan. 2 For omonimya / after which Aug. deleted obliqui casus. 3 Fay, cf. x. 71 ; graecanice Pius ; for graecancaene. 4 Added by Vertranius ; (hei) Aug. 6 Pius, for nominet. 6 Pius, for significavit. Elliptic for decies centena milia ' ten times a hundred thousands.* b Similarly elliptic for decies milies centena milia. c V. seems not to know the abl. sing. milll, found in Plautus, Bac. 928 (assured by the metre), and in Lucilius, 327 and 506 Marx (assured by Gellius, i. 10. 10-13). To these, their descendants added a third and a fourth act, imposing names which started from deciens a ' million ' and deciens miliens b ' thousand million ' ; and though the names were not formed by logical relation with the lower numerals, still their for- mation is not in conflict with the Regularity about which we are writing. For inasmuch as deciens is used as a neuter singular like mille, so that both words are without change of form for the various cases, 6 we shall use deciens unchanged as nominative and as genitive, even as we do mille ; and none the less shall we set before mille the signs of nominative and of genitive plural, because mille is also in the other number — and so also shall we speak of* these deciens ' in the same cases. L. 89. When a noun is the same in the nomina- tive though it has more than one meaning, in which instance they call it a homonymy, Regularity does not prevent the oblique cases from the same starting form in which the homonymy is, from being dis- similar. Therefore we say Argus in the masculine, when we mean the man, but when we mean the town we say, in Greek or in the Greek fashion, Argos a in the neuter, though in Latin it is Argi, masculine plural. Likewise, if the same word de- notes both a noun and a verb, we shall cause it to be inflected both for cases and for tenses, with different inflection for noun and verb, so that from Melo as a noun, a man's name, we form gen. Metonis, acc. Metonem, but from meto as a verb, * I reap/ we form the future metam and the imperfect metebam. § 89. ° The homonymy is not perfect, since the forms are Argus and Argos ; the neuter Argos is found in Latin only in nom. and acc. Reprehendunt, cum ab eadem voce plura sunt vocabula declinata, quas a-vvtawfitas 1 appellant, ut 2 Alc(m)#eus 3 et Alc(m)«eo, 3 sic Gen/on, Ger?/o- n(e)us, 4 Ger^ones. In hoc genere quod casus per- peram permutant quidam, non reprehendunt ana- logiam, sed qui eis utuntur imperite ; quod quisque caput prenderit, sequi debet eius consequenti(s) 5 casus in declinando ac non facere, cum dixerit recto casu Alc(m)aeus, 6 in obliquis 7 Alc(m)«eoni 6 et Alc(m)aeonem 6 ; quod si miscuerit et non secutus erit analogias, reprehendendum. LII. 91. (Reprehendunt) 1 Aristarchum, quod haec nomina Melicertes et Philomedes similia neget esse, quod vocandi casus habet alter Melicerta, alter Philomede(s), 2 sic qui dicat lepus et lupus non esse simile, quod alterius vocandi casus sit lupe, alterius lepus, sic socer, macer, quod in transitu fiat ab altero triss/llabum soceri, ab altero bisyllabum macri. 92. De hoc etsi supra responsum est, cum dixi de lana, hie quoque 1 amplius adiciam similia non solum §90. 1 For synonimyas. 2 After ut, Aug. deleted sapho et. 3 Kent, for alceus and alceo, usually corrected to Alcaeus, Alcaeo, though a variant nominative Alcaeo is unknown ; whereas Alcumeus occurs in Plant us* Capt. 562, and Alcmaeo in Cicero, Acad. Priora ii. 28. 89, and else- where. 4 Mue., for gerionus. 6 L. Sp.,for consequenti. • Kent, for alceus, alceoni, alceonem ; cf. crit. note 3. 7 After obliquis, Mue. deleted dicere. §91. 1 Added by L. Sp„ after Aug. 2 Mue., for philomede. § 92. 1 For hie hie quoque. Son of Amphiaraus and Eriphyle, who killed his mother at the command of his father, because she tricked him into going to a war in which he was destined to die ; cf. also the critical note. b The three-bodied giant whom Hercules They find fault when from the same utterance two or more word-forms are derived, which they call synonymns, such as Alcmaeus and Alanaeo, a and also Geryon, Geryoneus, GeryonesS* As to the fact that in this class certain speakers interchange the case-forms wrongly — they are not finding fault with Regularity, but with the speakers who use those case- forms unskillfully : each speaker ought to follow, in his inflection, the case-forms which attend upon the nominative which he has taken as his start, and he ought not to make a dative Alcmaeoni and an accusative Alcmaeonem when he has said Alcmaeus in the nominative ; if he has mixed his declensions and has not followed the Regularities, blame must be laid upon him. LII. 91. They find fault a with Aristarchus for saying that the names Meliceries and Pkilomedes are not alike, because one has as its vocative Melicerta, and the other has Pkilomedes b ; and likewise with those who say that lepus * hare ' and lupus ' wolf * are not alike, because the vocative case of one is lupe and of the other is lepus, and with those who say the same of socer ' father-in-law * and macer ' lean/ because in the declensional change there comes from the one the three-syllabled genitive soceri and from the other the two-syllabled genitive macri. 92. Although the answer to this was given above when I spoke about the kinds of wool, I shall make here some further statements : the likenesses of overpowered and robbed of his cattle ; all three forms are known in Greek, but only Geryon and Geryones in Latin. §91. a Cf. viii. 68. b The Greek nominatives end in -17s, but the vocatives end in -a and -€s respectivelv. § 92. a C/. ix. 39.a facie dici, sed etiam ab aliqua coniuncta vi et potestate, quae et oculis et auribus latere soleant : itaque saepe gemina facie mala negamus esse similia, si sapore sunt alio ; sic equos eadem facie nonnullos negamus esse similis, (s)i 2 natione s(unt) 3 ex procreante dissimiles. 4 93. Itaque in hominibus emendis, si natione alter est melior, emimus pluris. Atque in hisce omnibus similitudines non sumimus tantum a figura, sed etiam aliu for externi. Present imperative, future imperative, present subjunctive. b The indicative mood. c V. dis- regards the, plural forms in this calculation. § 102. ° Meaning 1 mood ' ; cf. § 95, note a. b Cf ix. 75-79. used to say present esum es est, imperfect eram eras erat, future ero eris erit. In this same fashion you will see that the other verbs of this kind preserve the principle of Regularity. Besides, they find fault with Regu- larity in this matter, that certain verbs have not the three persons, nor the three tenses ; but it is with lack of insight that they find this fault, as if one should blame Nature because she has not shaped all living creatures after the same mould. For if by nature not all forms of the verbs have three tenses and three persons, then the divisions of the verbs do not all have this same number. Therefore when we give a com- mand, a form which only the verbs of uncompleted time have — when we give a command to a person present or not actually present, three verb-forms a are made, like lege ' read (thou)/ legito ' read (thou) * or ' let him read/ legal ' let him read 1 : for nobody gives a command with a form denoting action already completed. On the other hand, in the forms which denote declaration, 6 like lego ' I read/ legis * thou readest/ legit ' he reads/ there are nine verb-forms of uncompleted action and nine of completed action. LIX. 102. For this and similar reasons the question that should be asked is not whether one kind ° disagrees with another kind, but whether there is anything lacking in each kind. If to these there is added what I said above b about nouns, all difficulties will be easily resolved. For as the nomina- tive case-form is in them the source for the derivative cases, so in verbs the source for other forms is in the form which expresses the person of the speaker and the present tense : like scribo * I write/ lego ' I read.' Quare ut illic fit, si 1 hie item acciderit, in formula ut aut caput non sit aut ex alieno genere sit, proportione eadem quae illic dicimus, cur nihilominus 2 servctur analogia. Item, sicut illic caput suum habebit et in obliquis casibus transitio erit in ali(am) quam 3 formulam, qua assumpta reliqua facilius possint videri verba, unde sint declinata (fit enim, ut rectus casus nonnunquam sit ambiguus), ut in hoc verbo volo, quod id duo significat, unum a voluntate, alterum a volando ; itaque a volo intellegimus et volare et velle. LX. 101. Quidam reprehendunt, quod pluit et luit dicamus in praeterito et praesenti tempore, cum analogize sui cuiusque temporis verba debeant dis- criminare. Falluntur : nam est ac putant aliter, quod in praeteritis U dicimus longum pluit (luit), 1 in praesenti breve pluit luit : ideoque in lege vendi- tions fundi " ruta caesa " ita dicimus, ut U produ- camus. LXI. 105. Item reprehendunt quidam, quod putant idem esse sacrifico 1 et sacrificor, lavat 2 et lavatur ; quod sit an non, nihil commovet analogian, dum sacrifico 3 qui dicat servet sacrificabo et sic per § 103. 1 Mite.,, for sic. 2 For nichilominus. 3 Mue., for aliquam. Added by Aug. § 105. 1 Aug.> for sacrificio. 2 L. Sp. ; sacrificor et lavat Aug. ; for sacrifico relauat. 3 Aug,) for sacrifici. § 103. ° Cf ix. 76. § 104. a Found in older Latin, but seemingly shortened by about V.'s time. 6 One might exempt from inclu- sion in the sale of a property all things dug up (sand, chalk, ete.) and ail things cut down (timber, etc.), even though they were still unwrought materials. c The u is short in the compounds erutus^ obrutus, etc. Wherefore, if it has happened in verbs as it does happen in nouns, that in the pattern the starting- point is lacking or belongs to a different kind, we give the same arguments here which we gave there, with suitable changes in application, as to why and how Regularity is none the less preserved. And as in nouns the word will have its own peculiar starting- point and in the oblique cases there will be a change to some other pattern, on the assumption of which it can be more easily seen from what the word-forms are derived (for it happens that the nominative case-form is sometimes ambiguous), so it is in verbs, as in this verb volo, because it has two meanings, one from wishing and the other from flying ; therefore from volo we appreciate that there are both volare ' to fly ' and velle * to wish/ LX. 104. Certain critics find fault, because we say pluit * rains ' and luit * looses ' both in the past tense and in the present, although the Regularities ought to make a distinction between the verb-forms of the two tenses. But they are mistaken ; for it is otherwise than they think, because in the past tense we say pluit and luit with a long U, a and in the present with a short U ; and therefore in the law about the sale of farms we say rata caesa ' things dug up and things cut,' 6 with a lengthened u. c LXI. 105. Likewise certain persons find fault, because they think that active sacrifico ' I sacrifice ' and passive sacrificor, active lav at * he bathes ' and passive lavatur, are the same ° : but whether this is so or not, has no effect on the principle of Regularity, provided that he who says sacrifico sticks to the future § 105. ° With the same meaning ; but the passive of these verbs sometimes has true passive meaning. totam formam, ne dicat sacrificatur 4 aut sacrificatus sum : haec cnim inter se non conveniunt. 106. Apud Plautum, cum dicit : Piscis ego credo qui usque dum vivunt lavant Diu minus lavari 1 quam haec lavat Phronesium, ad lavant lavari non convenit, ut I 2 sit postremum, sed E ; ad lavantur analogia lavari reddit : quod Plauti aut librarii mendum si est, non ideo analogia, sed qui scripsit est reprehendendus. Omnino et lavat 3 et lavatur dicitur separatimrecte in rebus certis, quod puerum nutrix lava(t), 4 puer a nutrice lavatur, nos in 6alneis et lavamus et lavamur. 107. Sed consuetudo alterum utrum cum satis haberet, in toto corpore potius utitur lavamur, in partibus lavamus, quod dicimus lavo manus, sic pedes et cetera. Quare e balneis non recte dicunt lavi, lavi manus recte. Sed quoniam in balneis lavor lautus sum, scquitur, ut contra, quoniam est soleo, oporte(a)ti dici solui, ut Cato et Ennius scribit, non ut dicit volgus, solitus sum, debere dici ; neque propter haec, quod discrepant in sermone pauca, minus est analogia, ut supra dictum est. 4 L. Sp. f /or sacrificaturus. § 106. 1 Plautus has minus diu lavare. 2 II, for T. 3 II, for lauant. 4 For laua. § 107. 1 Mue.,for oportet. § 106. ° True. 322-323. § 107. °\The passive form as a middle or reflexive, but the active form as a transitive requiring an object. b Frag, inc. 54 Jordan. e Frag. inc. 26 Vahlen 2 .' * Cf. ix. 33. sacrificabo and so on in the active, through the whole paradigm, avoiding the passive sacrificatur and sacrificatus sum : for these two sets do not harmonize with each other. 106. In Plautus, when he says a : The fish, I really think, that bathe through all their life, Are in the bath less time than this Phronesium, lavari * are in the bath/ with final I instead of E, does not attach to lavant * bathe ' : Regularity refers lavari to lavantur, and whether the error belongs to Plautus or to the copyist, it is not Regularity, but the writer that is to be blamed. At any rate, lavat and lavatur are used with a difference of meaning in certain matters, because a nurse lavat 1 bathes ' a child, the child lavatur ' is bathed ' by the nurse, and in the bathing establishments we both lavamus * bathe * and lavamur ' are bathed.' 107. But since usage approves both, in the case of the whole body one uses rather lavamur * we bathe ourselves,' and in the case of portions of the body lavamus * we wash,' in that we say lavo * I wash ' my hands, my feet, and so on.° Therefore with reference to the bathing establishments they are wrong in saying lavi * I have bathed,' but right in saying lavi * I have M ashed * my hands. But since in the bathing establishments lavor * I bathe ' and lauius sum * I have bathed,' it follows that on the other hand from soleo 1 I am wont,' which is in the active, one ought to say solui 4 I have been wont,' as Cato 6 and Ennius c write, and that solitus sum, as the people in general say, ought not to be used. But as I have said above,** Regularity exists none the less for these few in- consistencies which occur in speech. Item cur non sit analogia, a^erunt, 1 quod ab similibus similia non declinentur, ut ab dolo et colo : ab altero enim dicitur dolavi, ab altero colui ; in quibus assumi solet aliquid, quo facilius reliqua dicantur, ut i(n) 2 M^rmecidis 3 operibus minutis solet fieri : igitur in verbis temporalibus, quo(m) 4 simili- tudo saepe sit confusa, ut discerni nequeat, nisi trans- ieris in aliam personam aut in tempus, quae pro- posita sunt no(n e)sse 5 similia intellegitur, cum trans- itum est in secundam personam, quod alterum est dolas, alterum colis. 109. Itaque in reliqua forma verborum suam utr(um)que 1 sequitur formam. Utrum in secunda (persona) 2 forma verborum temporalz(um) 3 habeat in extrema syllaba AS (an ES) an IS a(u)t IS, 4 ad discernendas similitudines interest : quocirca ibi potius index analogiae quam in prima, quod ibi abstrusa est dissimilitudo, ut apparet in his meo, neo, ruo : ab his enim dissimilia fiunt transitu, quod sic dicuntur meo meas, neo nes, ruo ruis, quorum unumquodque suam conservat similitudinis formam. LXIII. 110. Analogiam item de his quae appel- lantur participia reprehendunt multz 1 ; iniuria : nam non debent dici terna ab singulis verbis amaturus amans amatus, quod est ab amo amans et amaturus, § 108. 1 adferunt Aug., for asserunt. 2 Aug., for uti. 3 Plus, for murmecidis. 4 Aug., for quo. 5 Vertranius, for nosse. § 109. 1 Schp.,for uterque. 2 Added by L. Sp. 3 h. Bp., for temporale. 4 L. Sp. (aut ES Canal), for as anis at si. § 110. 1 GS.,for multa. § 108. Just as we nowadays take the infinitive to show the conjugation, adding the perfect active and the passive Likewise, they present as an argument against the existence of Regularity the fact that like forms are not derived from likes, as from dolo 4 1 chop ' and colo 4 I till ' ; for one forms the perfect dolavi and the other forms colui. In such instances some- thing additional is wont to be taken to aid in the making of the other forms, a just as we do in the tiny art-works of Myrmecides b : therefore in verbs, since the likeness is often so confusing that the distinction cannot be made unless you pass to another person or tense, you become aware that the words before you are not alike when passage is made to the second person, which is dolas in the one verb and colis in the other. 109. Thus in the rest of the paradigm of the verbs each follows its own special type. Whether in the second person the paradigm of verbs has in the final syllable AS or ES or IS or IS, is of importance for distinguishing the likenesses. Wherefore the mark of Regularity is in the second person rather than in the first, because in the first the unlikeness is concealed, as appears in meo 4 I go/ neo 4 I sew,' ruo 4 1 fall ' ; for from these there develop unlike forms by the change from first to second person, because they are spoken thus : meo meas, neo nes, ruo rids, each one of which preserves its own type of likeness. Likewise, many find fault with Regularity in connexion with the so-called parti- ciples ; wrongly : for it should not be said that the set of three participles comes from each individual verb, like amaturus 4 about to love,' amans ' loving,' amaius 4 loved,' because amans and amaturus are from participle to make up the "principal parts" which are our guide. » Cf. vii. 1. ab amor 2 amatus. Illud analogia quod praestare debet, in suo quicque genere habet, casus, ut amatus amato et amati amatis ; et sic in muliebribus amata et amatae ; item amaturus eiusdem modi habet declinationes, amans paulo aliter ; quod hoc genus omnia sunt in suo genere similia proportione, sic virilia et muliebria sunt eadem. De eo quod in priore libro extremum est, ideo non es(se) analogia(m), 1 quod qui de ea scripserint aut inter se non conveniant aut in quibus conveniant ea cum consuetudinis discrepant 2 verbis, utrumque (est leve) 3 : sic enim omnis repudiandum erit artis, quod et in medicina et in musica et in aliis multis discrepant scriptores ; item in quibus conveniunt m 4 scriptis, si e(a) tam(en) 5 repudiat 6 natura : quod ita ut dicitur non sit ars, sed artifex reprehendendus, qui (dici) 7 debet in scribendo non vidisse verum, non ideo non posse scribi verum. 112. Qui dicit hoc monti et hoc fonti, cum alii dicant hoc monte et hoc fonte, sic alia quae duobus modis dicuntur, cum alterum sit verum, alterum falsum, non uter peccat tollit analogias, sed uter recte dicit confirmat ; et quemadmodum is qui 1 peccat in his verbis, ubi duobus modis dicuntur, non 2 Aug. ; amaturus ab amabar Rhol. ; for ab amaturus amabar. §111. 1 Mue. 9 for est analogia. 2 Mue., for dis- crepant. 3 Added by GS. ; falsum A, Sp. ; falsum est Popma. 4 A. Sp., for ut. 5 GS., for etiam. 6 For repudiant. 7 Added by GS. § 112. 1 L. Sp.,for quicum. fl C/. viii. 66. the active amo, and amatus is from the passive amor. But that which Regularity can offer, which the parti- ciples have, each in its own class, is case-forms, as amatus, dative amato, and plural amati, dative amatis ; and so in the feminine, amata and plural amatae. Likewise amaturus has a declension of the same kind. Amans has a somewhat different declension ; because all words of this kind have a regular likeness in their own class, amans, like others of its class, uses the same forms for masculine and for feminine. LXIV. 111. About the last argument in the pre- ceding book, that Regularity does not exist for the reason that those who have written about it do not agree with one another, or else the points on which they agree are at variance with the words of actual usage, both reasons are of little weight. For in this fashion you will have to reject all the arts, because in medicine and in music and in many other arts the writers do not agree ; you must take the same attitude in the matters in which they agree in their writings, if none the less nature rejects their conclusions. For in this way, as is often said, it is not the art but the artist that is to be found fault with, who, it must be said, has in his writing failed to see the correct view ; we should not for this reason say that the correct view cannot be formulated in writing. 112. As to the man who uses as ablatives monti ' hill ' and fonti * spring ' while others say monie and fontef along with other words which are used in two forms, one form is correct and the other is wrong, yet the person who errs is not destroying the Regu- larities, but the one who speaks correctly is strength- ening it ; and as he who errs in these words where they are used in two forms is not destroying logical vol. n m tollit rationem cum sequitur falsum, sic etiam in his (quae) 2 non 3 duobus dicuntur, si quis aliter putat dici oportere atque oportet, non scientiam tollit orationis, sed suam inscientiam denudat. Quibus rebus solvi arbitraremur posse quae dicta sunt priori libro contra analogian, ut potui brevi percucurri. Ex quibus si id confecissent 1 quod volunt, ut in lingua Latina esset anomalia, tamen nihil egissent 2 ideo, quod in omnibus partibus mundi utraque natura inest, quod alia inter se (similia), 3 alia (dissimilia) 3 sunt, sicut in animalibus dissimilia sunt, ut equus bos ovis homo, item alia, et in uno quoque horum genere inter se similia innumerabilia. Item in piscibus dissimilis murctena lupo, is 4 soleae, haec muraenae 5 et mustelae, sic aliis, ut maior ille numerus sit similitudinum earum quae sunt separatim in muraenis, separatim in asellis, sic in generibus aliis. Quare cum in inclinationibus verborum numerus sit magnus a dissimilibus verbis ortus, quod etiam vel maior est in quibus similitudines reperiun- tur, confYtendum 1 est esse analogias. Itemque 2 cum ea non multo minus quam in omnibus verbis patiatur uti consuetudo co(m)munis, fatendum illud quoquo 2 Added by Aug. 3 After non, Aug. deleted in. For conficissent. 2 Aug., for legissent. Added by Mue. 4 L. Sp.,for his. 5 G, II, Aldus, for nerene. §114. 1 Aug., for conferendum. 2 Aug., for item quae. 6 That is, wrong forms not recognized as having a limited currency, but practically individual with the speaker. § 113. a The identification of the various kinds of fish is system when he follows the wrong form, so even in those words which are not spoken in two ways, a person who thinks they ought to be spoken otherwise than they ought, b is not destroying the science of speech, but exposing his own lack of knowledge. LXV. 113. The considerations by which we might think that the arguments could be refuted which were presented against Regularity in the preceding book, I have touched upon briefly, as best I could. Even if by their arguments they had achieved what they wish, namely that in the Latin language there should be Anomaly, still they would have accom- plished nothing, for the reason that in all parts of the world both natures are present : because some things are like, and others are unlike, just as in animals there are unlikes such as horse, ox, sheep, man, and others, and yet in each kind there are countless individuals that are like one another. In the same way, among fishes, the moray is unlike the wolf-fish, the wolf-fish is unlike the sole, and this is unlike the moray and the lamprey, and others also ; though the number of those resemblances is still greater, which exist separately among morays, among codfish, and in other kinds of fish, class by class.* 1 114. Now although in the derivations of words a great number develop from unlike words, still the number of those in which likenesses are found is even greater, and therefore it must be admitted that the Regularities do exist. And likewise, since general usage permits us to follow the principle of Regularity in almost all words, it must be admitted that we ought in some instances uncertain, but is not important for V.'s argument. 7w{o)do* analogian sequi nos debere universos, singulos autem praeterquam in quibus verbis ofFen- sura sit consuetudo co(m)munis, quod ut dixi aliud debet praestare populus, aliud e populo singuli homines. 115. Ncque id mirum est, cum singuli quoque non sint eodem hire : nam liberius potest poeta quam orator sequi analogias. Quare cum hie liber id quod pollicitus est demonstraturum absolved/, 1 faciam finem ; proxumo deinceps de dcclinatorum verborum forma 2 scribam. 3 Canal ; quoque modo Mue. ; quodammodo Aug, ; for quo quando. § 115. 1 Aldus, for absoluerim. 2 Pius, for firma. as a body to follow Regularity in every way, and individually also except in words the general use of which will give offence ; because, as I have said, a the people ought to follow one standard, the in- dividual persons ought to follow another. 115. And this is not astonishing, since not all individuals have the same privileges and rights ; for the poet can follow the Regularities more freely than can the orator. Therefore, since this book has completed the exposition of what it promised to set forth, I shall bring it to a close ; and then in the next book I shall write about the form of inflected words. §114. °C/. ix. 5. DE LINGUA LATINA AD CICERONEM LIBER Villi EXPLICIT ; INCIPIT. In verborum declmationibus disciplinaloquendi dissimilitudinem an similitudinem sequi deberet, multi quaesierunt. Cum ab his ratio quae ab simili- tudine oriretur vocaretur analogia, reliqua pars appellaretur anomalia : de qua re primo libro quae dicerentur cur dissimilitudinem ducem haberi opor- teret, dixi, secundo contra quae dic(er)entur J 1 cur potius similitudinem 2 eonveniret praeponi : quarum rerum quod nee fundamenta, ut deb(u)it, 3 posita ab ullo neque ordo ae natura, ut res postulat, explicita, ipse eius rei formam exponam. 2. Dieam de quattuor rebus, quae continent deelinationes 1 verborum : quid sit simile ac dissimile, quid ratio quam appellant \6yov, quid pro portione 2 §1. 1 Aldus, for dicentur. 2 Aldus, for dissimili- tudinem. 3 Aug., for debita. § 2. 1 L. Sp., for declinationibus. 2 Plasberg* for pro- portione. § 1. ° Book VIII., which begins a fresh section of the entire work. b Book IX. Addressed to Cicero book ix ends, and here begins BOOK X I. 1. Many have raised the question whether in the inflections of words the art of speaking ought to follow the principle of unlikeness or that of likeness. This is important, since from these develop the two systems of relationship : that which develops from likeness is called Regularity, and its counterpart is called Anomaly. Of this, in the first book, I gave the arguments which are advanced in favour of con- sidering unlikeness as the proper guide ; in the second, 6 those advanced to show that it is proper rather to prefer likeness. Therefore, as their founda- * tions have not been laid by anyone, as should have been done, nor have their order and nature been set forth as the matter demands, I shall myself sketch an outline of the subject. 2. I shall speak of four factors which limit the inflections of words : what likeness and unlikeness are ; what the relationship is which they call logos ; what " by comparative likeness "is, which they call 53$ V. quod 3 dicunt dva Aoyov, 4 quid consuetudo ; quae explicatae declarabunt analogiam et anomalia(m), 5 unde sit, quid sit, cuius modi sit. II. 3. De similitudine et dissimilitudine ideo primum dicendum, quod ea res est fundamentum omnium declinationum ac continet rationem ver- borum. Simile est quod res plerasque habere videtur easdem quas illud cuiusque simile : dissimile est quod videtur esse contrarium huius. Minimum ex duobus constat omne simile, item dissimile, quod nihil potest esse simile, quin alicuius sit simile, item nihil dicitur dissimile, quin addatur quoius sit dis- simile. 4. Sic dicitur similis homo homini, equus equo, et dissimilis homo equo : nam similis est homo homini ideo, quod easdem figuras membrorum habent, quae eos dividunt ab reliquorum animalium specie. In ipsis hominibus simili de causa vir viro similior quam vir mulieri, quod plures habent easdem partis ; et sic senior seni similior quam puero. Eo porro similiores sunt qui facie quoque paene eadem, habitu corporis, filo : itaque qui plura habent eadem, dicuntur similiores ; qui proxume accedunt ad id, ut omnia habeant eadem, vocantur gemini, simillimi. 5. Sunt qui tris naturas rerum putent esse, simile, dissimile, neutrum, quod alias vocant non simile, alias 3 Aug., for quid. 4 Plasberg, for analogon. 6 Pius, for anomalia. § 2. Cf. x. 37. " according to logos " a ; what usage is. The explana- tion of these matters will make clear the problems connected with Regularity and Anomaly : whence they come, what they are, of what sort they are. II. 3. The first topic to be discussed must be like- ness and unlikeness, because this matter is the foundation of all inflections and set limits to the relationship of words. That is like which is seen to have several features identical with those of that which is like it, in each case : that is unlike, which is seen to be the opposite of what has just been said. Every like or unlike consists of two units at least, because nothing can be like without being like some- thing else, and nothing can be unlike without associa- tion with something to which it is unlike. 4. Thus a human being is said to be like a human being, and a horse to be like a horse, and a human being to be unlike a horse ; for a human being is like a human being because they have limbs of the same shape, which separate human beings from the cate- gory of the other animals. Among human beings themselves, for a like reason a man is more like a man than a man is like a woman, because men have more physical parts the same ; and so an elderly man is more like an old man than he is like a boy. Further, they are more like who are of almost the same features, the same bearing of person, the same shape of body ; therefore those who have more points of identity, are said to be more like ; and those who come nearest to having them all alike, are called most like, as it were, twins. 5. There are those M*ho think that things have three natures, like, unlike, and neutral, which last they sometimes call the not like, and sometimes the 537 V. non dissimile (sed quamvis tria sint simile dissimile neutrum, tamen potest dividi etiam in duas partes sic, quodcumque conferas aut simile esse aut non esse) ; simile esse et dissimile, si videatur esse ut dixi, neu- trum, si in neutram partem praeponderet, ut si duae res quae conferuntur vicenas habent partes et in his denas habeant easdem, denas alias ad similitudinem et dissimilitudinem aeque animadvertendas : hanc naturam plerique subiciunt sub dissimilitudinis nomen. 6\ Quare quoniam fit 1 ut potius de vocabulo quam de re controversia esse videatur, illud est potius advertendum, quom simile quid esse dicitur, cui 2 parti simile dicatur esse (in hoc enim solet esse error), quod potest fieri ut homo homini simih's 3 non sit, 4 ut multas partis habeat similis et ideo dici possit similis habere oculos, nianus, pedes, sic alias res separatim et una plures. 7. Itaque quod diligentcr videndum est in verbis, quas partis et quot modis oporteat similis habere (quae similitudinem habere) 1 dicuntur, ut infra apparebit, is locus maxime lubricus est. Quid enim similius potest videri indiligenti quam duo verba haec suis et suis ? Quae non sunt, quod alterum 2 sig- nificat suere, alterum suem. Itaque similia vocibus § 6. 1 Aug., for fuit. 2 quoi L. Sp., for quin cui. 3 V 9 p, C. F. W. Mueller, for simile. 4 non sit Rhol.,for sit non sit. § 7. 1 Added by GS., cf § 12 end ; quae similia esse, added by L\ Sp. ; ut similia, by Canal. 2 After alterum, p and Aug. deleted non. 538 ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, X. 5-7 not unlike ; but although there are the three, like, unlike, neutral, there can also be a division into two parts only, in such a way that whatever you compare with something else either is like or is not. They think that a thing is like and is unlike if it is seen to be of such a kind as I have described, and neutral, if it does not have greater weight on one side than on the other ; as if the two things which are being com- pared have twenty parts each, and among these should have ten to be noted as identical and ten likewise to be noted as different, in respect to likeness and unlikeness. This nature most scholars include under the name of unlikeness. 6. Therefore since it happens that the question in dispute seems rather to be about the name than about the thing, attention must rather be directed, when something is said to be like, to the problem to what part it is said to be like ; for it is in this that any mistake ordinarily rests. This must be noted, I say, because it can happen that a man may not be like another man even though he has many parts like the other's, and can be said therefore to have like eyes, hands, feet, and other physical features in consider- able number, separately and taken together, like the other man's. 7. Therefore because careful watch must be kept in words to see what parts those words which are said to show likeness ought to have alike, and in what ways, the inquirer is on this topic especially likely to slip into error, as will appear below. For to the careless person what can seem more alike than the two words suis and suis ? But they are not alike, because one is from suere 1 to sew ' and means ' thou sewest,' and the other is from sus and means * of a swine.' There- 539 V. esse ac syllabis confitemur, dissimilia esse partibus orationis videmus, quod alterum habet tempora, alterum casus, quae duae res vel maxime discernunt analogias. 8. Item propinquiora genere inter se verba similem s^epe pariunt errorem, ut in hoc, quod nemus 1 et lepus videtur esse simile, quom 2 utrumque habeat eundem casum rectum ; sed non est simile, quod eis 3 certae similitudines opus sunt, in quo est ut in genere nominum sint eodem, quod in his non est : nam in virili genere 4 est lepus, ex neutro nemus ; dicitur enim hie lepus et hoc nemus. Si eiusdem generis esse(n)t, 5 utrique praeponeretur idem ac diceretur aut hie lepus et hie nemus aut hoc nemus, hoc lepus. 9. Quare quae et cuius modi sunt genera simili- tudinum ad hanc rem, perspiciendum ei qui declina- tiones verborum proportione sintne quaeret, Quern 1 locum, quod est difficilis, qui de his rebus scripserunt aut vitaverunt aut inceperunt neque adsequi potu- erunt. 10. Itaque in eo dissensio neque ea unius modi apparet : nam alii de omnibus universis discriminibus posuerunt numerum, ut D/onysius S/donius, qui scripsit ea 1 esse septuaginta unwm, 2 alii parti's 3 eius quae habet 4 casus, cuius eidem hie cum dicat esse § 8. 1 H 9 JthoL, for numerus. 2 Mue., for quod cum. 3 Aug., for eas. 4 After genere, Aug, deleted nominum sint eodem, repeated from the previous line, 5 Aug., for esset. § 9. 1 Mue^for quod. § 10. 1 L. Sp.,for eas. 2 L. Sp.,for unam. 3 Mue. y for partes. 4 Mue.,for habent. § 8. a That is, so far as the termination is concerned. § 10. a That is, schemes of inflection. b A pupil of Aristarchus. fore we admit that they are alike as spoken words and in their separate syllables, but we see that they are unlike in their parts of speech, because one has tenses and the other has cases ; and tenses and cases are the two features which in the highest degree serve to distinguish the different systems of Regularity. 8. Likewise, words that are even nearer alike in kind often cause a similar mistake, as in the fact that nemus ' grove ' and lepus * hare ' seem to be alike since both have the same nominative a ; but it is not an instance of likeness, because they stand in need of certain factors of likeness, among which is that they should be in the same noun-gender. But these two words are not, for lepus is masculine and nemus is neuter ; for we say hie * this ' with lepus and hoc with nemus. If they were of the same gender, the same form would be set before both, and we should say either hie lepus and hie nemus, or hoc nemus and hoc lepus. 9. Therefore he who asks whether the inflections of words stand in a regular relation, must examine to see what kinds of likenesses there are and of what sort they are, which pertain to this matter. And just because this topic is difficult, those who have written of these subjects either have avoided it or have begun it without being able to complete their treatment of it. 10. Therefore in this there is seen a lack of agree- ment, and not merely of one kind. For some have fixed the number of all the distinctions a as a whole, as did Dionysius of Sidon, 6 who wrote that there were seventy-one of them ; and others set the number of those distinctions which apply to the words which have cases : the same writer says that of these there are discrimina quadnzginta 5 septem, Aristocles re/tulit 6 in litteras XII II, Parmeniscus VIII, sic alii pauciora aut plura. 11. Quarum similitudinum si esset origo recte capta et inde orsa ratio, minus erraret(ur) 1 in de- clinationibus v(er)borum. 2 Quarum ego principia prima duum generum sola arbitror esse, ad quae 3 similitudines exigi 4 oporteat : e quis unum positum in verborum materia, alterum ut in materiac figura, quae ex declinatione fit. 12. Nam debet esse unum, ut verbum verbo, unde declinetur, sit simile ; alterum, ut e verbo in verbum declinatio, ad quam conferetur, eiusdem modi sit : alias enim ab similibus verbis similiter declinantur, ut ab erus 1 ferus, ero 2 fero, alias dissimiliter erus 1 ferus, eri 3 ferum. Cum utrumque et verbum verbo erit simile et declinatio declinationi, turn denique dicam esse simile 4 ac duplicem et perfectam simili- tudinem habere, id quod postulat analogia. 5 13. Sed ne astutius videar posuisse duo genera esse similitudinum sola, cum utriusque inferiores species sint plures, si de his reticuero, ut mihi relin- 5 My Laetus, for quadringenta. 6 Mue. ; retulit Laetus ; for rutulit. §11. 1 Vertranius, for erraret. 2 For ubo rum. 3 Al- dus, for atque. 4 For exegi. For herus. 2 For hero. 3 For heri. 4 L. Sp. t for similem. 5 For analogiam. Probably Aristocles of Rhodes, a contemporary of V.. d A pupil of Aristarchus. forty-seven, Aristocles c reduced them to fourteen headings, Parmeniscus d to eight, and others made the number smaller or larger. 11. If the origin of these likenesses had been correctly grasped and their logical explanation had proceeded from that as a beginning, there would be less error in regard to the inflections of words. Of these likenesses there are, I think, first principles of two kinds only, by which the likenesses ought to be tested ; of which one lies in the substance of the words, the other lies, so to speak, in the form 6 of that substance, which comes from inflection. 12. For there must be one, that the word be like the word from which it is inflected, and two, that in comparison from word to word the inflectional form with which the comparison is made should be of the same kind. * For sometimes there are like forms reached by inflection from like words, such as datives ero and fero from eras ' master * and Jerus ' wild,* and sometimes unlike forms, such as genitive eri and accusative Jerum, from erus and Jerus. When both principles are fulfilled and word is like word and inflectional form like inflectional form, then and not before will I pronounce that the word is like, and has a twofold and perfect likeness to the other — which is what Regularity demands. 13. But I wish to avoid the appearance of tricki- ness in having declared that there are only two kinds of likenesses when both have a number of sub-forms — if I say nothing about these, you may think that I am intentionally leaving myself a place of refuge ; I §11. a That is, its form and ending, in the form which is the starting point for inflection. 6 The inflectional form. quam latebras, repetam ab origine similitudinum quae in conferendis verbis et inclinandis sequendae aut vitandae sint. 14. Prima divisio in oratione, quod alia verba nusquam declmantur, 1 ut haec vix mox, alia decli- nantur, ut ab lima limae, 2 a fero ferebam, et cum nisi in his verbis quae dcclinantur non possit esse analogia, qui dicit simile esse mox et nox errat, quod non est eiusdem generis utrumque verbum, cum nox suc- cedere debeat sub casuum ratione(m), 3 mox neque debeat neque possit. 15. Secunda divisio est de his verbis quae de- clinari possunt, quod alia sunt a voluntate, alia a natura. Voluntatem appello, cum unus quivis a nomine aliae (rei) 1 imponit nomen, ut Romulus Romae ; naturam dico, cum universi acceptum nomen ab eo qui imposuit non requirimus quemadmodum is velit declinari, sed ipsi declinamus, ut huius Romae, hanc Romam, hac Roma. De his duabus partibus voluntaria declinatio refertur ad consuetudinem, naturalis ad rationem. 2 16. Quare proinde ac simile conferre 1 non oportet ac dicere, ut sit ab Roma Romanus, sic ex Capua dici oportere Capuanus, quod in consuetudine vehementer natat, quod declinantes imperite rebus nomina im- ponunt, a quibus cum accepit consuetudo, turbulenta § 14. 1 For declimantur. 2 OS., for limabo. 3 Lach- mann y for ratione. § 15. 1 Added by GS. 2 Aug., for orationem. §16. 1 Stephanus, for conferri. shall therefore go back and start from the origin of the likenesses which must be followed or avoided in the comparison of words and in their inflections. The first division in speech is that some words are not changed into any other form whatsoever, like vix 'hardly' and mox soon/ and others are inflected, like genitive limae from lima file,' imperfect ferebam from fero * I bear ' ; and since Regularity cannot be present except in words which are inflected, he who says that mox and nox * night * are alike, is mistaken, because the two words are not of the same kind, since nox must come under the system of case- forms, but mox must not and cannot. 1 5. The second division is that, of the words which can be changed by derivation and inflection, some are changed in accordance with will, and others in accordance with nature. I call it will, when from a name a person sets a name on something else, as Romulus gave a name to Roma ; I call it nature, when we all accept a name but do not ask of the one who set it how he wishes it to be inflected, but our- selves inflect it, as genitive Romae } accusative Romam, ablative Roma. Of these two parts, voluntary deriva- tion goes back to usage, and natural goes back to logical system. 16. For this reason we ought not to compare Romanus * Roman ' and Capuanus ' Capuan ' as alike, and to say that Capuanus ought to be said from Capua just as Romanus is from Roma ; for in such there is in actual usage an extreme fluctuation, since those who derive the words set the names on the things with utter lack of skill, and when usage has accepted the words from them, it must of necessity speak confused names variously derived. Therefore vol. ii n 545 V. necesse est dicere. Itaque neque Aristarchd 2 neque alii in analogiis defendendam eius susceperunt cau- sam, sed, ut dixi, hoc genere declinatio in co(m)- muni consuetudine verborum aegrotat, quod oritur e populo multiplici (et) 3 imperito : itaque in hoc genere in loquendo 4 magis anomalia quam analogia. 17. Tertia divisio est : quae verba declinata natura ; ea dividwntur 1 in partis quattuor : in unam quae habet casus neque tempora, ut docilis et facilis ; in alteram quae tempora neque casus, ut docet facit ; in tertiam quae utraque, ut doccns faciens ; in quartam quae neutra, ut docte et facete. Ex hac divisione singulis partibus tres reliquae 2 dissimiles. Quare nisi in sua parte inter se collata erunt verba, si 3 conveniunt, non erit ita simile, ut debeat facere idem. 18. Unius cuiusque part/s 1 quoniam species plures, de singulis dicam. Prima pars casualis dividitur in partis duas, in nominatus scilicet 2 (et articulos), 3 quod aeque 4 finitum (et infinitum) 5 est ut hie et quis ; de his generibus duobus utrum sumpseris, cum 2 Kent, for Aristarchii ; cf. viii. 63. 3 Added by Groth. 4 For loquenda.§17. 1 L. Sp., for dividitur. 2 Mve. % for reliquere. 3 After si, Canal deleted non. § 18. The text of this § stands in the manuscripts between § 90 and § 21 ; the shift of position was made by Mueller \ who left unius cuiusque partis at the end of § 20 ; A. Spengel transferred these words also. 1 Sciop., for partes. 2 Laetus^for s ( =sunt). 3 Added by Mue* 4 L. Sp., for neque. 6 Added by L. Sp. ; cf. viii. 45. § 1 6. This is shown even to-day in the new technical terminology of some near-sciences. b V. is somewhat neither the followers of Aristarchus nor any others have undertaken to defend the cause of voluntary derivation as among the Regularities ; but, as I have said, this kind of derivation of words in common usage is an ill thing, because it springs from the people, which is without uniformity and without skill. Therefore, in speaking, there is in this kind of derivation rather Anomaly than Regularity. 6 17. There is a third division, the words which are by their nature inflected. These are divided into four subdivisions : one which has cases but not tenses, like docilis ' docile ' and facilis ' easy ' ; a second, which has tenses but not cases, 6 like docet * teaches/ facit * makes ' ; a third which has both, c like docens 1 teaching/ faciens * making ' ; a fourth which has neither,*" like docte * learnedly * and facete * wittily.' The individual parts of this division are each unlike the three remaining parts. Therefore, unless the words are compared with one another in their own subdivision, even if they do agree the one word will not be so like the other that it ought to make the same inflectional scheme. 18. Since there are several species in each part, I shall speak of them one by one. The first sub- division, characterized by the possession of cases, is divided into two parts, namely into nouns and articles, which latter class is both definite and in- definite, as for example hie * this ' and quis 4 who.' Whichever of these two kinds you have taken, it must not be compared with the other, because they belong unfair here, since derivation by suffixes, though varied, is not without its regular principles. § 17. a Nouns, pronouns, adjectives (except participles). 6 Finite verbs. e Participles. d Adverbs. reliquo non conferendum, quod inter se dissimiles habent analogias. 19. In articulis vix adumbrata est analogia et magis rerum quam vocum ; in nomin(at)ibus 1 magis expressa ac plus etiam in vocibus ac (syllabarum) 2 similitudinibus quam in rebus suam optinet rationem. Etiam illud accedit ut in articulis habere analogias ostendere sit difficile, quod singula sint verba, hie contra facile, quod magna sit copia similium nomina- tuum. Quare non tarn hanc partem ab ilia 8 dividen- dum quam illud videndum, ut satis sit verecundi(ae) 4 etiam illam in eandem arenam vocare pugnatum. 20. Ut in articulis duae partes, finitae et infinitae, sic in noyninaitibus 1 duae, vocabulum et nomen : non enim idem oppidum et Roma, cum oppidum sit vocabulum, Roma nomen, quorum discrimen in his reddendis rationibus alii discernunt, alii non ; nos sicubi opus fuerit, quid sit et cur, ascribemus. 2 21. Nominatm' 1 ut similis sit nominatus, habere debet ut sit eodem genere, specie eadem, sic casu, exitu eodem 2 : specie, 8 ut si nomen est quod conferas, cum quo conferas sit nomen ; genere, 4 ut non solum (unum sed) 5 utrumque sit virile ; casu, 6 ut si alterum sit dandi, item alterum sit dandi ; exitu, ut quas § 19. 1 L. Sp., for nominibus. 2 Added by GS. 3 After ilia, Aug. deleted ab. 4 Kent, for uerecundi. § 20. 1 L. Sp., for uocabulis. 2 Sciop., for ascribimus. § 21. 1 Mve., for nominatus (Sciop. changed the second nominatus to -tui). 2 Mue., for eius. 8 Liibbert, for genere, transposing with specie (note 4). 4 Liibbert, for specie (cf preceding note) ; after this, L. Sp. deleted simile. fi Added by Mite. ; sed added by Aug. 6 After casu, L. Sp. deleted simile. § 21. Here, as often in V., including adjective as well as substantive. to schemes of Regularity which are different from each other. 19. In the articles, Regularity is hardly even a shadow, and more a Regularity of things than of spoken words ; in nouns, it comes out better, and consummates itself rather in the spoken words and the likeness of the syllables than in the things named. There is also the additional fact that it is difficult to show that Regularities reside in the articles, because they are single words ; but in nouns it is easy, because there is a great abundance of like name-words. Therefore it is not so much a matter of dividing this part from that other part, as of see- ing to it that the investigator should be too much ashamed even to call that other part into the same arena to do battle. 20. As there are two groups in the articles, the definite and the indefinite, so there are in the nouns, the common nouns and the proper names ; for oppidum ' town ' and Roma * Rome * are not the same, since oppidum is a common noun, and Roma is a proper name. In their account of the systems, some make this distinction, and others do not ; but we shall enter in our account, at the proper place, what this difference is and why it has come to be. 21 . That noun a may be like noun, it ought to have the qualities of being of the same gender, of the same kind, also in the same case and with the same ending : kind, that if it is a proper name which you are com- paring, it be a proper name with which you compare it ; gender, that not merely one, but both words be masculine ; case, that if one is in the dative, the other likewise be in the dative ; ending, that what- unum habeat extremas littcras, easdem alterum habcat. 22. Ad hunc quadruplicem fontem ordines derigun- tur bini, uni transversi, alteri derecti, ut in tabula solet in qua latrunculzs 1 ludunt. Transversi sunt qui ab recto casu obliqui declinantur, ut albus albi albo ; dcrecti sunt qui ab recto casu in rectos declinantur, ut albus alba album ; utrique sunt parti- bus senis. Transversorum ordinum partes appellan- tur 2 casus, derectorum genera, 3 utrisque inter se implicatis forma. 4 23. Dicam prius de transversis. Casuum voca- bula alius alio modo appellavit ; nos dicemus, qui nominandi causa dicitur, nominandi vel nomina- tivum. .HIC DESUNT TRIA FOLIA IN EXEMPLARI (dicuntur una)e 1 scopae, non dicitur una scopa : alia enim natura, quod priora simplicibus, Bentinus, for latrunculus. 2 Aldus, for expel- lantur. 3 Aug., for genere. 4 Aug., for formam. § 23. 1 There is blank space here in F, for the rest of the page (18 lines), all the next page (39 lines), and the first part of the following (8 lines). 2 F 2, in margin. § 24. 1 Added and altered by Kent, for et ; cf viii. 7. § 22. ° The * men ' in a game like draughts or checkers were called latrunctdi ' brigands ' by the Romans. 6 V. did not arrange his paradigm of adjectives as we do, but set the cases of the same number and gender in one line across the page, while the other genders followed in the next two lines, and then the three genders of the plural in the succeed- ing lines. - c V. counts his six genders by considering the genders of the plural as additional genders. § 23. ° The cases. b V.'s names for the remaining 550 ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE, X. 21-24 ever last letters the one has, the other also have the same. 22. To this fourfold spring two sets of lines are drawn up, the ones crosswise and the others vertical, as is the regular arrangement on a board on which they play with movable pieces. Those are cross- wise which are the oblique cases formed from a nomi- native, et like albus ' white,' genitive albi, dative albo ; those are vertical which are inflected from one nominative to other nominatives, as masculine albus, feminine alba, neuter album. Both sets of lines are of six members. 6 Each member of the crosswise lines is called a case ; each member of the vertical lines is a gender ; that which belongs to both in their crossed arrangement, is a form. 23. I shall speak first of the crosswise lines. Scholars have given various sets of names to the cases ; we shall call that case which is spoken for the purpose of naming, the case of naming or nomina- tive ... HERE AT LEAST THREE LEAVES – BUT MAYBE MORE -- ARE LACKING Iff THE MODEL COPY c 24-. . . . To indicate one * broom * the plural scopae is used, not the singular scopa. a For they b are different by nature, because the names first men- cases, Ayhich were listed in the lost text, are : casus patriots or pat ri us, casus dandi, casus accusandi or accusativus, casus vocandi, casus sextus. The names genetivus, dativus, voca- tivus, ablativus appear in Quintilian and Gellius. e In the lost text stood the remainder of the discussion of cases, a U the discussion of gender, and almost all concerning number, which is concluded in § 30. § 24. 8 Cf. viii. 7. 5 The nouns in the preceding dis- cussion, of which scopae alone is preserved in the text. posteriora in coniunctis rebus vocabula ponuntur, sic bigae, sic quadrigae a coniunctu dictae. Itaque non dicitur, ut haec una lata ct alba, sic una biga, sed unae bigae, neque 2 dicitur ut hae duae latae, albae, sic hae duae bigae et quadrigae, (sed hae binae bigae et quadrigae). 3 25. Item figura verbi qualis sit rcfert, quod in figura vocis alias commutatio fit in primo 1 verbo suit 2 modo suit, 2 alias in medio, ut curso 3 cursito, alias in extrcnio, ut docco docui, alias co(m)munis, ut lego legs'. 4 Refert igitur ex quibus litteris quodque verbum constet, maxime extrema, quod ea in plerisque commutatur. 5 26. Quare in his quoque partibus similitudines ab aliis male, ab aliis bene quod solent sumi in casibus conferendis, recte an perperam videndum ; sed ubicumque commoventur litterae, non solum eae sunt animadvertendae, sed etiam quae proxumae sunt neque moventur : haec enim vicinitas aliquan- tum potes(t) 1 in verborum declinationibus. 27. In quis figuris non ea similia dicemus quae 2 After neque, p and Sciop. deleted ut. 3 Added by L. Sp., cf. ix. 64. § 25. 1 Mue., for uno. 2 Mue. added the signs of quantity ; cf. ix. 104. 3 Aug., for cursu. 4 Aug., for lege. 5 L. Sp. for commutantur. § 26. 1 Aldus, for potes. c These are all lost. d Scopae, as * twigs ' done in a bundle ; bigae and quadrigae, because of the number of horses in- volved. e The distributive numeral is used to multiply ideas whose singular is denoted by a plural form: cf. ix. 64. § 25. ° I have added the signs of quantity in lego and legi, to make clear V.'s point. tioned c are set upon simple objects, and those men- tioned later apply to compounded objects d ; thus bigae ' two-horse team ' and quadrigae ' four-horse team ' are employed in the plural because they denote a union of objects. Therefore we do not say one biga, like one lata 1 broad 1 and alba ' white,' but one bigae, with the numeral also in the plural ; nor do Ave say duae ' two ' with reference to bigae and quadrigae, as we say duae ' two ' with application to the plural forms laiae and albae, but we say binae * two sets ' of bigae and quadrigae. 6 25. Likewise the character of the form of a word is important, because in the form of the spoken word a change is sometimes made in the first part of the word, as in suit ' sews ' and suit ' sewed ' ; some- times in the middle, as in curso ' I run to and fro/ and cursito, of the same meaning ; sometimes at the end, as in doceo 1 I teach ' and docui * I have taught ' ; sometimes the change is common to two parts, as in Ugo ' I read,' legi 1 I have read.' a It is important therefore to observe of what letters each word con- sists ; and the last letter is especially important, because it is changed in the greatest number of in- stances. 26. Because of this, since the likenesses in these parts also are wont to be used in the comparison of case-forms, and this is done ill by some and well by others, we must see whether this has been done rightly or wrongly. Yet wherever the letters are altered, not only the altered letters must be noted, but also those which are next to them and are not affected ; for this proximity has considerable influence in the inflections of words. 27. Among these forms we shall not call those similis res significant, sed quae ea forma sint, ut eius modi res similis 1 ex instituto significare plerum- que sole(a)nt, 2 ut tunicam virilem et muliebrem dicimus non earn quam habet vir aut mulier, sed quam habere ex instituto debet : potest enim mulie- brem vir, virilem mulier habere, ut in scaena ab actoribus haberi videmus, sed earn dicimus muliebrem, quae de eo genere est quo indutui mulieres ut uteren- tur est institutum. Ut actor stolam muliebrem sic Perpenna et Ctfecina et (S)purinna 3 figura muliebria dicuntur habere nomina, non mulierum. 28. Flexurae quoque similitudo videnda ideo quod alia verba quam vi(a)m x habeant ex ipsis verbis, unde declinantur, apparet, 2 ut quemadmodum oporteat ute 3 praetor consul, praetori consuli ; alia ex transitu intelleguntur, ut socer macer, quod alterum fit socerum, alterum macrum, quorum utrum- que in reliquis a transitu suam viam sequitur et in singularibus et in multitudinis declinationibus. Hoc fit ideo quod naturarum genera sunt duo quae inter se conferri possunt, unum quod per se videri potest, ut homo et equus, alterum sine assumpta aliqua re § 27. 1 Mite., for similia. 2 Aldus, for solent. 3 Aug., for purinna. § 28. 1 Schoell (marginal note in his copy of A. SpSs ed.), for uim. 2 Pius, for appellant. 3 A. Sp.,for ut a. § 27. ° With eius modi, understand figurae ; cf in eius modi, v. 128. b Cf ix. 48. c Cf viii. 41, 81, ix. 41. § 28. a That is, the nominative is the stem to which the case-endings are added. 6 That is, the stem is seen in an words like which denote like things, but those which are of such a stamp that such forms a are in most instances wont by custom to denote like things, as by a man's tunic or a woman's tunic we mean not a tunic that a man or a woman is wearing, but one which by custom a man or a woman ought to wear. 6 For a man can wear a woman's tunic, and a woman can wear a man's, as we see done on the stage by actors ; but we say that that is a woman's tunic, which is of the kind that women customarily use to dress themselves in. As an actor may wear a woman's dress, so Perpenna and Caecina and Spurinna are said to have names that are feminine in form ; they are not said to have women's names. c 28. The likeness of the inflection also must be watched, because the way which some words take is clear from the very words from which their inflection starts, as how it is proper to use praetor and consul, dative praetori and considi. Others are properly appreciated only as a result of the change seen in the inflections, as in socer 1 father-in-law ' and macer 1 lean,' because the one becomes socerum in the accusative, and the other macrum ; after making this change, each of them follows its own way in the remaining forms, 6 both in the inflections of the singular and in those of the plural. This method is employed c because in the inflections there are two kinds of natures which can be compared with each other, one which can be seen in the word itself, such as homo 1 man ' and equus ' horse,' but the second cannot be seen through without bringing in some- oblique case rather than in the nominative; cf. ix. 91-94. e V.'s logical sequence is here at fault, for he brings in derivative stems, after speaking only of noun declensions. extrinsecus perspici non possit, ut eques et equiso : uterque enim dicitur ab equo. 29. Quare hominem homini similem esse aut non esse, si contuleris, ex ipsis homini(bus) 1 animadversis scies ; at duo inter se similiterne sint longiores quam sint eorum fratres, dicere non possis, si illos breviores cum quibus conferuntur quam longi sint ignores 2 ; si(c) 3 latiorum atque altiorum, item cetera eiusdem generis sine assumpto extrinsecus aliquo perspici similitudines non possunt. Sic igitur quidam casus quod ex hoc genere sunt, non facile est dicere similis esse, si eorum singulorum solum animadvertas voces, nisi assumpseris alterum, quo flectitur in trans- eundo 4 vox. 30. Quod ad nominatuom 1 similitudines animad- vertendas arbitratus sum satis es(se) tangere, 2 hctec sunt. Relinquitur de articulis, in quibus quaedam eadem, quaedam alia. De quinque enim generibus duo prima habent eadem, quod sunt et virilia et muliebria et neutra, et quod alia sunt ut significent unum, (alia) 3 ut plura, et de casibus quod habent quinos : nam vocandi voce notatus non est. Pro- prium illud habent, quod partim sunt finita, et hie haec, partim infinita, ut quis et quae, 4 quorum quod adumbrata et tenuis analogia, in hoc libro plura dicere (non) 5 necesse est. §29. 1 Canal, for homini. 2 Aldus, for ignorent. 3 Aug., for si. 4 Aug., for transeundum. §30. 1 L.. Sp. ; -tuum Aug., for nominatiuom. 2 Aug., for est angere. 3 Added by Aug. 4 After quae, Aug. deleted et. 5 Added by Aug. thing from outside, as in eques ' horseman ' and equiso 1 stable-boy * — for both are derived from equus 1 horse. ' d 29. By this method, you will, on making a compari- son, know that of men observed in person one is or is not like the other; but you could not say that the two are in like fashion taller than their brothers, if you should not know how tall those shorter brothers are with whom they are compared. In this way the likenesses of things broader and higher, and others of the same kind, cannot be examined without bringing in some help from outside. So therefore, inasmuch as certain case-forms are of this kind, it is not easy to say that they are like, if you observe the spoken words in one case only ; to make a correct judgement, you will have to bring in another case-form to which the spoken word passes as it is inflected. 30. These considerations are what I have thought enough to touch upon, for observing the likenesses of nouns. It remains to speak of the articles, of which some are like nouns and others are different. For of the five classes the first two have the same properties, because they have forms for masculine, feminine, and neuter, they have some forms to denote the singular and others to denote the plural, and they have five cases ; the vocative is not indicated by a separate spoken form. They have this of their own, that some are definite, like hie ' this/ feminine haec, and others are indefinite, like quis 4 which,' feminine quae. But since their system of Regularity is shadowy and thin, it is not necessary to speak further of it in this book. a d Cf. viii. 14. § 30. • Cf. x. 19-20. 31. Secundum genus quae verba tempora habent neque casus, sec? 1 habent personas. Eorum declina- tuum species sunt sex : una quae dicitur temporalis, ut legebam gemebam, lego 2 gemo ; altera perso- narum, ut sero meto, seris metis ; tertia rogandi, ut scribone legone, scribisne legisne. Quarta respon- dendi, ut fingo pingo, fingis pingis ; quinta optandi, ut dicerem facerem, dicam faciam ; sexta imperandi, ut cape rape, capito rapito. 32. Item sunt declinatuum species quattuor quae tempora habent sine personis : in rogando, ut fodi- turne seriturne, et fodieturne sereturne. Ab re- spondendi specie eaedem figurae fiunt extremis syllabis demptis ; op(t)andi species, ut vivatur ametur, viveretur amaretur. Imperandi declinatus sz'ntne habet 1 dubitationem et eorum sitne 2 haec ratio : paretur pugnetur, parafor pugna/or. 3 33. Accedunt ad has species a copulis divisionum quadrinis : ab infecti et perfecti, (ut) 1 emo edo, emi § 31. 1 Aug., for si. 2 For logo. § 32. 1 Aug., for sum ne habent. 2 Aug.,, for sint ne. 3 Canal, for parari pugnari. § 33. * x Added by L. Sp. §31. ° Cf. x. 17. 6 Respectively tense, person, inter- rogative (indicative), declarative indicative, subjunctive, imperative ; the technical vocabulary was not fully developed in V.'s time. Corresponding to the last four of the categories in § 31 ; V. shows a good understanding of the impersonal passive. §33. a C/.x. 14-17. The second subdivision a consists of those words which have tenses but not cases, and have persons. The categories of their inflections are six et : one which is that of the tenses, as legebam 1 I was reading,' gemebam * I was groaning,' lego ' I read,' gemo * I groan ' ; the second is that of the persons, as sero * I sow,' meto ' I reap,' seris ' thou sowest,' metis ' thou reapest ' ; the third is the interrogative, as scribone 1 do I write ? ', legone * do I read ? ', scribisne, legisne ; the fourth is that of the answer, as Jingo * I form,' pingo * I paint, ' Jingis, pingis ; the fifth that of the wish, as dicerem * would I were saying,' facerem * would I were making,* dicam * may I say,' faciam ' may I make * ; the sixth that of the command, as cape ' take,' rape ' seize,' capito, rapito. 32. Likewise there are four categories of inflec- tions which have tenses without persons a : in the interrogative, as foditume ' is digging going on ? ', seriturne ' is sowing going on ? ' and fodieturne 4 will digging be done ? ', sereiurne ' will sowing be done ? * ; of the category for the answer the same forms are used, but without the last syllable ne ; the category for the wish, as vivatur * may there be living,' ameiur ' may there be loving,* viveretur * would there were living,' amaretur * would there were loving.* Whether the inflections for the impersonal command exist, is somewhat doubtful ; there is also doubt about the scheme of the forms, which is given as parehir * let there be preparation,' pugneiur * let there be fight- ing,' or parator, pugnator. 33. There are added to these categories those which proceed from the four sets of pairs a consisting of the divisions : from that of the incomplete and the completed, as emo ' I buy ' and edo * I eat,' emi * I edi ; ab semel et saepius, ut scribo lego, scriptito lectito 2 ; (a) 3 faciendi et patiendi, ut uro ungo, uror ungor ; a singulari et multitudinis, ut laudo culpo, laudamus culpamus. Huius generis verborum cuius species exposui quam late quidque pateat et cuius modi efficiat figuras, in libris qui de formulis verborum erunt diligentius expedietur. 34. Tertii generis, quae declinantur cum tem- poribus ac casibus ac vocantur a multis ideo partici- palia, sunt hoc ge(nere) HIC DESUNT FOLIA III IN EXEMPLARI quemadmodum declinemus, 1 quaerimus casus eius, etiamsi siqui 2 finxit poeta aliquod vocabu- lum et ab eo casu(m) 3 ipse aliquem perperam de- clinavit, potius eum reprehendimus quam sequimur. Igitur ratio quam dico utrubique, et in his verbis quae imponuntur et in his quae declinantur, neque non etiam tertia ilia, quae ex utroque miscetur genere. 36. Quarum una quaeque ratio collata cum altera 2 L. Sp.,for scriptitaui lectitaui. 3 Added by L. Sp. § 34. 1 Added by Rhol. ; F here leaves blank the rest of the page (a little more than 28 lines) and all the next page (39 lines). 2 F 1, in margin. § 35. 1 L. Sp., for declinamus. 2 L. Sp., for is qui. 3 L. Sp., for casu. b Verbs. c Not extant. Adjective to the more common term participia or participles; both meaning taking part in the features of two sets of words, nouns and verbs. For the form partkipalia (in F) rather than -pialia in p, Niedermann, Mnemosyne, lxiii. 267-268 (1936). b The lost text contained the discussion of participles, that of adverbs, and the be- ginning of that on ratio. . ° This is perhaps the simplest way of giving a mean- ing to the incomplete sentence. h Referring to the previous discussion, now almost entirely lost. c The independent have bought * and edi * I have eaten ' ; from that of the act done once and the act done more often, as scribo * I write ' and lego * I read/ scriptito 1 I am busy with writing,' and lectito * I read and reread ' ; from that of active and passive, as uro 1 I burn ' and ango ' I anoint,' uror * I am burned ' and ungor * I am anointed ' ; from that of singular and plural, as laudo ' I praise ' and culpo * I blame,' laudamus ' we praise * and culpamus ' we blame. ' With regard to the words of this class 6 whose categories I have described, the matter of how full an equipment of forms each has, and what sort of forms it makes, will be set forth with more attention to detail in the books c which are to be on the paradigms of verbs. 34. The words of the third subdivision, which are inflected with tenses and cases and are by many therefore called participials, a are of this kind HERE THREE – OR PERHAPS TWENTY-FIVE -- LEAVES ARE LACKING IN THE MODEL COPY When w T e meet a new word, a we ask about its case-forms, as to how we shall inflect them ; and yet if some poet has made up some word and has himself formed from it some case-form in an incorrect way, we blame him rather than follow his example. Therefore Ratio or Relation, of which I am speaking, is present in both 6 : in the words which are imposed upon things, 6 and in those which are formed by in- flection d ; and then also there is that third kind of Relation, which combines the characteristics of the two.* 36. Among these, each and every relation, when words. d The paradigms. e In derivatives formed by suffixes. aut similis aut dissimilis, aut saepe verba alia, ratio eadem, et nonnunquam ratio alia, verba eadem. Quae ratio in amor amori, eadem in dolor dolori, neque eadem in dolor dolorem, et cum eadem ratio quae est in amor et 1 amoris sit in amores et amorum, tamen ea, quod non in ea qua oportet confertur 2 materia, per se solum efficere non potest analogias propter disparilitatem vocis figurarum, quod verbum copulatum singulare 3 cum multitudine : ita cum est pro portione, ut candem habeat rationem, turn denique ea ratio conficit id quod postulat analogia ; de qua deinceps dicam. III. 37. Sequitur tertius locus, quae sit ratio pro portione ; (e)a Greece 1 vocatur 2 dva Xoyov ; ab analogo dicta analogia. Ex eodem genere quae res inter se aliqua parte dissimiles rationem habent aliquam, si ad eas duas alterae duae res allatae sunt, quae rationem habeant eandem, quod ea verba bina habent eundem Xoyov, dicitur utrumque separatim dvdXoyov, simul collata quattuor dvaXoy(t)a. z 38. Nam ut in geminis, cum simile(m) 1 dicimus esse Menaechmum Menaechmo, de uno dicimus ; cum similitudine(m) 2 esse in his, de utroque : sic cum dicimus eandem rationem habere assem ad § 36. 1 After et, a repeated amor et has been deleted. 2 After confertur, Aug, deleted a. 3 Aug., for singularem. 1 L. Sp., for agrece. 2 Aug., for uocantur. 3 OS. ; analogia Mue., with G ; for analoga. §38. 1 Mueller, for simile. 2 Aug., for similitudine. Because of the difference in number. § 37. a As in mathematics, two ratios of equal value make a proportion. § 38. a In the comedy of Plautus. compared with another, is either like or unlike ; and often the words are different but the relation is the same, and sometimes the relation is different but the words are the same. The same relation which is in amor ' love * and dative amort is in dolor 1 pain ' and dative dolori, but not in dolor and accusative dolorem. The same relation which is in amor and genitive amoris is in plural amores and genitive amorum ; and yet, because the subject-matter in it is not compared as it should be, a this relation cannot of itself effect Regularities, on account of the differences in the forms of the spoken word, because a singular word has been associated with a plural. So, when it is by a proportionate likeness that the word has the same relation, then and not until then does this relation achieve what is demanded by Analogia or Regularity ; of which I shall speak next. III. 37. There follows the third topic : What is Ratio or Relation that is pro portione ' by proportionate likeness ' ? This is in Greek called 4 according to logos * ; and from analogue the term Analogia or Regularity is derived. If there are two things of the same class which belong to some relation though in some respect unlike each other, and if alongside these two things two other things which have the same relation are placed, then because the two sets of words belong to the same logos each one is said separately to be an analogue and the comparison of the four constitutes an Analogia, 38. For it is as in a matter of twins : when we say that the one Menaechmus is like the other Menaech- mus, a we are speaking of one only ; but when we say that a likeness is present in them, we are speaking of both. So, when we say that a copper as has the same semissem quam habet in argento 3 libella ad simbeli&mf quid sit dvdXoyov ostendimus ; cum utrubique dici- mus et in aere et in argento esse eandem rationem, turn dicimus de analogia. 39. Ut sodalis et sodalitas, civis et civitas non est idem, sed utrumque ab eodem ac coniunctum, sic dvdXoyov et dvakoyta idem non est, sed item est con- generatum. Quare si homines sustuleris, sodalis sustuleris ; si sodalis, sodalitatem : sic item si sus- tuleris Xoyov, sustuleris dvdXoyov ; si id, dvaXoytav. 40. Quae cum inter se tanta sint cognatione, de- bebis suptilius audire quam dici expectare, id est cum dixero quid de utroque et erit co(m)mune, (ne) 1 expectes, dum ego in scribendo transferam in re- liquum, sed ut potius tu persequare ammo. 41. Haec fiunt in dissimilibus rebus, ut in numeris si contuleris cum uno duo, sic cum decern viginti : nam (quam) 1 rationem duo ad unum habent, eandem habent viginti ad decern ; in nummis in similibus sic est ad unum victoriatum denarius, si(cut) 2 ad alterum victoriatum alter denarius ; sic item in aliis rebus omnibus pro portione dicuntur ea, in quo est sic quadruplex natura, ut in progenie vois ' nature ' as an originating or moving power. * Properly, of sounds. § 56. ° Principia are the singular forms, in whichever direction the argument is carried ; but perhaps quam in singular} should be inserted between ordiri and quod. b Because the B and the C ending the stems can be seen in the deleted repeated from above. to two, should the conclusion be drawn that in teach- ing the later thing cannot be the clearer, for the purpose of beginning from it, to show what the prior thing is. Therefore even those who deal with the nature of the universe and are on this account called physici a ' natural philosophers,' proceed from nature as a whole and show by backward reasoning from the later things, what the beginnings of the world were. Though speech consists of letters, 6 it is nevertheless from speech that the grammarians start in order to show the nature of the letters. 56. Therefore in the explanation, since one ought rather to set out from that which is clearer than from that which is prior, and rather from the un- corrupted than from a corrupt original, from the nature of things rather than from the fancy of men, and since these three factors which are more to be followed are less present in the singulars than in the plurals, one can more easily commence from the plural than from the singular, because in the latter as starting-points ° there is less of a basis for relation- ship in the forming of words. That the singular forms of words can be more easily interpreted from plural forms than plural forms from the singular, is shown by these words 6 : plural trabes * beams,* singular trabs ; plural duces * leaders,' singular dux. 57. For we see that from the plural nominatives trabes and duces the letter E of the last syllable has been eliminated and thereby in the singular have been plural, but cannot be inferred with certainty from the nomi- native singular, especially if we read not trabs but traps (Roth, Philol. xvii. 176, and Mueller's note to § 57), which represents the actual pronunciation. Yet V. wrote trabs and not traps, according to Cassiodorus, Gram. Lat. vii. 159. 23 Keil. lari factum esse trabs dux. Contra ex singularibus non tam videmus quemadmodum facta sint ex B et S trabs 1 et ex C et S du#. 2 58. Si mwl(t)itudinis 1 rectus casus forte figura corrupta erit, id quod accidit raro, prius id corrigemus quam inde ordiemur ; (ab) 2 obliquis adsumere oportetf 3 figuras eas quae non erunt ambiguae, sive singulares sive multitudims, 4 ex quibus id, cuius modi debent esse, perspici possit. 5 59. Nam nonnunquam alterum ex altero videtur, ut Chn/sippus scribit, quemadmodum pater ex filio et filius ex patre, neque minus in fornicibus propter sinistram dextra stat quam propter dextraw 1 sinistra. Quapropter et ex rectis casibus obliqui et ex obliquis recti et ex singularibus multitudims 2 et ex multi- tudinis singulares nonnunquam recuperari possunt. 60. Principium id potissimum sequi debemus, ut in eo fundamentum sit 1 natura, quod in declina- tionibus ibi facilior ratio. Facile est enim animad- vertere, peccatum magis cadere posse in impositiones eas quae fiunt plerumque in rectis casibus singulari- bus, quod homines imperiti et dispersi vocabula rebus imponunt, quocumque eos libido invitavit : natura § 57. 1 Aug.,, for trabes. 2 Aug., for duces. § 58. 1 si multitudinis Mue.,for similitudinis. 2 Added by Canal. 3 L. Sp., for oportere. 4 Aug., for multi- tudines. 5 Sciop.,for possint. §59. 1 Laetu s, for dextras. 2 Vertranhis, for multitu- dines. § 60. 1 After sit, L. Sp. deleted in. § 59. a Frag. 1 55 von Arnim. made the nominatives trabs and dux. But on the other hand, if we start from the singulars we do not so easily see how they have become trabs, from B and S, and dux, from C and S. 58. If the nominative plural is by any chance a corrupted form, which rarely occurs, we shall correct this before we make it our starting-point ; it is proper to take from the oblique cases, either singular or plural, some forms which are not ambiguous, from which can be seen the make-up which the other forms ought to have. 59- For sometimes the one is seen from the other and at other times the other is seen from the one, as Chrysippus writes, as the father s qualities may be seen from the son, and the son's from the father, and in arches the right-hand side stands on account of the left-hand side, no less than the left on account of theright. Therefore the oblique forms can sometimes be regained from the nominatives, and sometimes the nominatives from the oblique forms ; sometimes the plural from the singular forms, and sometimes the singular forms from the plural. 60. The principle that we should most of all follow, is that in this the foundation be nature, because in nature a there is the easier relationship in inflections. For it is easy to note that error can more easily make its way into those impositions b which are mostly made in the nominative singular, because men, being unskilled and scattered/ set names on things just as their fancy has impelled them ; but nature d is of § 60. a Rather than in voluntas. b Or imposed word- names, characterized by voluntas, e For this point of the Stoic philosophy, cf. Cicero, de Inventione, i. 2. d The quality underlying the paradigms. incorrupta plerumque est suapte sponte, nisi qui earn usu inscio deprava&it. 61. Quarc si quis principium analogiae potius posuerit in naturalibus casibus quam in (im)positiciis, 1 non multa 2 (inconcinna) 3 in consuetudine occurrent et a natura libido humana corrigetur, non a libidine natura, quod qui impositionem sequi voluerint facient contra. 4 62. Sin ab singulari quis potius proficisci volet, inift'um 1 facere oportebit ab sexto casu, qui est pro- prius Latinus : nam eius casuis 2 litterarum dis- criminibus facilius reliquorum varietate(m) 3 discer- nere poterit, quod ei habent exitus aut in A, ut hac terra, aut in E, ut hac lance, aut in I, ut hac (c)lavi, 4 aut in O, ut hoc caelo, aut in U, ut hoc versu. Igitur ad demonstrandas declinationes biceps v?a 5 haec. 63. Sed quoniam ubi analogia, tria, 1 unum quod in rebus, alterum 2 quod in vocibus, tertium quod in utroque, duo priora simplicia, tertium duplex, ani- madvertendum haec quam inter se habeant rationem. 64-. Primum ea quae sunt discrimina in rebus, partim sunt quae ad orationem non attineant, partim quae pertineant. Non pertinent ut ea quae obser- vant in aedificiis et signis faciendis ceterisque rebus §61. 1 L. Sp. ; in impositivis Aug.; for in positiciis. 2 Aug., for multae. 3 Added by Christ. 4 Aug., for contraria. § 62. 1 Groth, for inillum. 2 A. Sp. ; cassuis Mue. ; for casus his. 3 Aug., for uarietate. 4 Groth^for leui; cf V., R. R. i. 22. 6. 5 Canal, for una. § 63. 1 Aldus, for atria. 2 alterum is repeated in F. e By making wrongly inflected forms. § 62. a The name 4 ablative ' had not come into use in itself for the most part uncorrupted, unless somebody perverts it by ignorant use.* 61. Therefore, if one has founded the principle of Regularity on the natural cases rather than on the imposed case-forms, not many awkwardnesses will be his to face in usage ; human fancifulness will be cor- rected by nature, and not nature by fancy, because those who have wished to follow imposition will in reality act in the opposite way. 62. But if one should prefer to start from the singular, he ought to start from the sixth case, a which is a case peculiar to Latin ; for by the differences in the letters b of this case-form he will be more easily able to discern the variation in the remaining cases, because the ablative forms end either in A, like terra * earth,* or in E, c like lance ' platter,' or in I, like clavi ' key/ or in O, like caelo * sky,' or in U, like versu ' verse.' Therefore, for the explaining of the declensions, there is this way, which may proceed from either of two starting-points. 63. But where there is Regularity, there are three factors, one which is in the things, a second which is in the spoken words, a third which is in both ; the first two are simple, the third is twofold. In view of this, attention must be given to the relation which they have to one another. 64% First, of the differences which exist in the things, there are some which have no bearing on speech, others which are connected with it. Those which are not connected with it are like those which the artificers observe in making buildings and statues V.'s time. b That is, the endings. e V. does not list separately the ablative of the fifth declension, ending in long E. artifices, e quis vocantur aliac Aarmonicae, sic item aliae nominibus aliis : scd nulla harum fit (in) 1 loquendo pars. 2 65. Ad orationem quae pertinent, res eae sunt quae verbis dicuntur pro portione neque a similitudine quoque vocum declinatus habent, ut Iupiter Mars- piter, Iovi Marti. Haec enim genere 1 nominum et numero et casibus similia sunt inter se, quod utraque et nomina sunt et virilia sunt et singularia et casu nominandi et dandi. 66. Alterum genus vocale est, in quo voces modo sunt pro portione similes, non res, ut biga bigae, nuptia nuptiae : neque enim in his res singularis subest una, cum dicitur biga quadriga, neque ab his vocibus quae declinata sunt, multitudinis significant quicquam, id 1 quod omnia multitudinis quae decli- nantur ab uno, ut a merula merulae : sunt (enim) 2 eius modi, ut singulari subiungatur, sic merulae duae, catulae tres, faculae quattuor. 67. Quare cum idem non possit subiungi, quod 1 (non) 2 dicimus biga una, 3 quadrigae duae, nuptiae tres, scd pro eo unae bigae, binae quadrigae, trinae nuptiae, apparet non esse a biga et quadriga 4 bigae et quadrigae, sed ut est huius ordinis una 5 duae tres Added by L. Sp. 2 Sentence division of Boot. § 65. 1 Mue.,for genera. § 66. 1 Fay, for ideo. 2 Added by Fay, §67. 1 Sciop., for cum. 2 Added by Sciop. 3 L. Sp. ; una b\g&Sciop. ; for bigae unae. 4 After quadriga, L. Sp. deleted et. 5 Aug., for unae. § 65. ° The unlikeness is in the forms of the nominative ; but both words denote male deities. § 66. a The two words belong to the same declension and both lack the singular forms ; but the objects denoted are entirely unlike. and other things, of which some are called harmonic, and others are called by other names ; but no one of these becomes an element in speaking. 65. The differences which pertain to speech, consist of those things which are expressed by the words in a proportionate way, and yet do not have a likeness of the spoken words also to help in forming the inflections : such as nominative Iupiter and Marspiter, dative Iovi and Marti. a For these are like one another in the gender of the nouns, and in the number, and in the cases ; because both are nouns, and are masculine, and singular, and nominative and dative in case. 66. The second kind has to do with the sounds, in which the spoken words only are similar in a proportionate way — and not the things — as in biga and bigae, nuptia and nuptiae. a For in these there is no underlying unit thing expressed by the singular when we say biga or quadriga, nor have the plural forms which are derived from these words any plural meaning. Yet all plurals which are derived from a unit singular, like merulae from merula ' blackbird,' do have such plural meaning ; for they are of such a sort that there is subordina- tion to a singular form : thus two merulae * black- birds,' three catulae 1 female puppies,' four Jaculae ' torches/ 67. Therefore since there cannot be the same sub- ordinating relation because we do not say una biga, duae quadrigae, ires nuptiae, but instead unae bigae ' one two-horse team/ binae quadrigae ' two teams of four horses/ trinae nuptiae ' three sets of nuptials,' it is clear that bigae and quadrigae are not from biga and quadriga, but belong to another series : the usual princip(i)um una, sic in hoc ordine altero unae binae trinae principium est unae. 68. Tertium genus est illud duplex quod dixi, in quo ct res et voces similiter pro portione dicuntur ut bonus malus, boni mali, de quorum analogia et Ari- stophanes et alii scripserunt. Etenim haec denique perfecta ut in oratione, illae duac simplices inchoatae analogiae, de quibus tamen separatim dicam, quod his quoque utimur in loquendo. 69- Sed prius de perfecta, in qua et res et voces quadam similitudine continentur, cuius genera sunt tria : unum vernaculum ac domi natum, alterum adventicium, tertium nothum ex peregrino hie natum. Vernaculum est ut sutor et pistor, sutori pistori ; adventicium est ut Hectores Nes tores, Hectoras Nestoras ; tertium ilium nothum ut Achilles et Peles. 70. De (his primo) 1 genere multi utuntur non modo poetae, sed etiam plerique omnes qui soluta oratione loquuntur. Haec primo 2 dicebant ut quaes- torem praetorem, sic Hectorem Nestorem : itaque Ennius ait : Hectoris natum de mnro iactari and lavo ' I wash,' perf. lavi, d pungo ' I prick/ perf. pupugi, tundo 1 1 pound/ perf. tutudi t e and pingo * I paint/ perf. pinxi. (7) And although/' he con- tinues, " from ceno ' I dine * and prandeo ' I lunch ' and poto * I drink * we form the perfects cenatus sum, pransus sum, and potus sum, f yet from destringor * I scrape myself and extergeor * I wipe myself dry * and lavor ' I bathe myself we make the perfects destrinxi * I am scraped * and extersi ' I am dried * and lavi ' I have had a bath.'* 7 Furthermore, although from Oscus ' Oscan/ Tuscus * Etruscan/ and Graecus ' Greek ' we derive the adverbs Osce ' in Oscan/ Tusce * in Etruscan/ 9 Active perfects of passive verbs, yet with passive (intransi- tive, reflexive) meaning : this meaning of the perfect lavi is regular in Plautus, but is nowhere attested for destrinxi and extersi. Osce Tusce Graece, a Gallo tamen et Mauro Gallice et Maurice dicimus ; item a probus probe, a doctus docte, sed a rarus non dicitur rare, sed alii raro dicunt, alii rarenter. Idem M. V. in eodem libro : " Sentior," inquit, " nemo dicit et id per se nihil est, adsentior tamen fere omnes dicunt. Sisenna unus adsentio in senatu dicebat et eum postea multi secuti, neque tamen vincere consuetudinem potuerunt. Sed idem V. in aliis libris multa pro dva- Xoyia. tuenda scribit. Librorum XI-XXIV Fragmenta XI Fr. 6. 1 Et ubi auctoritas maiorum genus tibi non de- monstraverit, quid ibi faciendum est ? Scripsit V. ad Ciceronem : " Potestatis nostrae est illis rebus dare genera, quae ex natura genus non habent." Fr. 7a. 1 Nunc de generibus dicamus. V. dicit " genera dicta a generando. Quicquid enim gignit aut gignitur, hoc potest genus dici et genus facere." Fr. 6. 1 Julianus Toletanus, Commentarius in Donatum> v. 318. 31-34 Keil. Fr. 7. 1 [Sergii] Explanat. in Donation, iv. 492. 37-493. 3 Keil. h Charisius, i. 217. 8 Keil, cites rare as used by Cicero,Cato, and Plautus (Budens 995) ; but editors usually replace  it by raro. * That is, not a deponent unless compounded ;  even in a passive meaning, the passive form of the un-  compounded verb is rare, though occasionally found, as in  Caesar, Bellum Civile i. 67 (sentiretur), where it is however  impersonal. > Notably in ix.  and Graece * in Greek/ yet from G alius ' Gaul * and  Maurus * Moor ' we have Gallice 1 in Gallic ' and  Maurice ' in Moorish ' ; also from probus * honest '  comes probe ' honestly/ from doctus * learned ' docte  ' learnedly/ but from rarus * rare ' there is no  adverb rare, but some say raro, others rarenter" h   (9) In the same book V. goes on to say : " No  one uses the passive sentior* and that form by itself is  naught, but almost every one says adsentior 1 1 agree/  Sisenna alone used to say adsentio in the senate, and  later many followed his example, yet could not  prevail over usage."   (10) But this same V. in other books 3 wrote a  great deal in defence of Regularity.   Fragments of Books XI -XX IV a  XI   Fr. 6. Where the authority of our ancestors has not  shown you the gender of a word, what in this instance  must be done ? V. wrote, in the treatise addressed  to Cicero : " We men have the right and power to  give genders to the names of those things which by  nature have no gender." °   Fr. 7a. Now let us speak of genders. V. says :  " Genera * genders ' are named from generare 1 to  generate.' For whatever gignit * begets * or gignitur  * is begotten/ that can be called a genus and can   XI.-XXIV. a On Books XI.-XIIL, see also vii. 110, viii.2,  20, 34, x. 33 ; and on Books XIV.-XXV., see vii. 110.   Fr. 6. ° V. uses genus both for grammatical gender  and for natural sex ; each is a * kind ' or 4 class/ cf. Frag. 7,  note a. Quod si verum est, nulla potest res integrum genus  habere nisi masculinum et femininum.   Fr. 7b. 2 Tractat de generibus. V. ait " genera  tantum ilia esse quae generant : ilia proprie dicuntur  genera." Quodsi sequemur auctoritatem ipsius, non  erunt genera nisi duo, masculinum et femininum.  Nulla enim genera creare possunt nisi haec duo.   Fr. 8. 1 Ostrea 2 si primae declinationis fuerit, sicut  Musa, feminino genere declinabitur, ut ad animaZ 3  referamus ; si 4 ad testam, ostreum 5 dicendum est  neutro genere et ad secundam declinationem, ut sit  huius ostrei, huic ostreo, 6 quia dicit 7 V. " nullam  rem animalem neutro genere declinari."   Fr. 9- 1 Ait Plinius Secundus secutus V.nem :  " Quando dubitamus principale genus, redeamus ad  diminutionem, et ex diminutivo cognoscimus princi-  pale genus. Puta arbor ignoro cuius generis sit :  fac diminutivum arbuscula, ecce hinc intellegis et  principale genus quale sit. Item si dicas columna, 2 Pompeius, Commentum Artis Donati. Keil. Fr. Cledonius, Ars Grammatica. Keil. For ostria. Keil, for animam. For sic. For  ostrium. Keil, for sicui ostri. For dicitur. Fr. Pompeius, Commentum Artis Donati Keil. The root gen- lies at the basis of all these words;  but genus has the weakened meaning kind, class, from which the idea of begetting has faded out. Donatus,  the eminent grammarian That is, kinds; Frag., note. Ft.. This distinction is not borne out by the use of the  words in the Latin authors. Almost precisely true for  Latin, though there are many exceptions in Greek and in the  Germanic languages tIkvov, German das Kind, and the neuter diminutives in -iqv, -chen, -lein., 7a-9 produce a genus a If this is true, the genus that a thing has is not perfect unless it is masculine or feminine.  Fr. He 6 treats of genders. V. says: Only  those are genera genders which generant generate; those are properly called genera. But if we follow his authority, there will be only two genders, masculine and feminine. For no genders e can procreate except these two. Fr. If ostrea oyster is of the first declension, like Musa Muse, it will be declined in the feminine  gender, so that we refer the word to the liying being; if we use it for the shell, the word must be ostreum, inflected in the neuter and according to the second declension, so that it is genitive ostrei, dative ostreo a: because V. says: No living creature has a name which is inflected in the neuter gender. Fr. Plinius Secundus a says, following V.: When we are in doubt about the gender of a main  word, let us turn to the diminutive form, and from the diminutive we learn the gender of the main word. Suppose that I do not know the gender of arbor tree; form the diminutive arbuscula, and lo! from this you observe as well the gender of the word  from which it comes. Again, if you say, What is the  Fr. a This and subsequent citations from Pliny are taken from the Elder Pliny's Dubitts Sermo, a work mentioned by the Younger Pliny, Epist. Diminutives have in Latin the gender of the words from  which they are derived; the exceptions are very few. In  Greek and in the Germanic languages, however, diminutives are commonly neuter without regard to their primitives cuius generis est? facis inde diminutivum, id est  columella, et inde intellegis quoniam principale  feminini generis est. Fr. Jiypocorismata semper generibus suis und(e oriuntur consonant, pauca dissonant, velut  haec rana) hie ranunculus, hie ung(u)is haec ungula,  hoc glandium haec glandula, hie panis hie pastillus et) hoc pastillum, ut V. dixit: haec beta hie betace(us, haec malva hie malvaceus, hoc pistrinum haec pistrilla, ut Terentius in Adelphis, hie ensis haec ensicula et hie ensiculus: sic in Rudente Plautus. Fr. Dies communis generis est. Qui masculino genere dicendum putaverunt, has causas reddiderunt, quod dies festos auctores dixerunt, non festas, et 2 quartum et quintum Kalendas, non quartam nec quintam, et cum hodie dicimus, nihil aliud quam hoc die intelligstur. Qui vero feminino, catholico utuntur, quod ablativo casu E non nisi producta finiatur, Fr. Charisius, Instit, Gram, Keil, The right-hand edge of the manuscript is destroyed, but the restorations are made with certainty from almost verbatim repetitions Charisius Keil, in which V. is not mentioned as the source. Hie pastillus, required by the space, was added by Keil from Fr. Charisius, Instit, Gram, KeiL For ut. For intellegatur.  Fr. As substantive, for pes betaceus: but betaceus is  an adjective, not a diminutive. Also an adjective; its application as substantive is not known. Adelphoe. Rudens. Fr. Dies was by origin a masculine; in Latin, because it was declined like the feminines of the fifth declension, possibly also because its counterpart nox was, gender of columna column, make from it the diminutive, that is, columella, and therefrom you understand that the word from which it comes is of the feminine gender. Fr. Diminutives always agree in gender with the words from which they come: a few differ, such as fern, rana ' frog,' diminutive masc. ranunculus  'tadpole'; masc. unguis 'nail (of finger or toe), 1 fern. ungula 'hoof, talon'; neut. glandium 'kernel of  pork fem. glandula tonsil; masc. panis loaf of bread, masc. pastillus and neut. pastillum 'roll,' as V. said; fem. beta 'beet,' masc. betaceus beet-root'; fem. malva' mallow,' masc. malvaceus h mallow-like vegetable'; neut. pistrinum 'pounding-mill,' fem. pistrilla 'small mill,’ as Terence says  in The Brothers e; masc. ensis 'sword,' fem. ensicula and masc. ensiculus 'toy-sword': so Plautus in The  Rope Fr. Dies 'day’ is of common gender. Those  who thought that it must be used as a masculine, offered these reasons: that their authorities said dies festi ‘holidays,’ with the masculine adjective, not the fem. festae; that they said the fourth and the fifth day before the Kalends, with the masculine and not the  feminine form of the adjective; and that when we  say hodie ‘to-day,’ it is understood as hoc die 'on this  day,' with the masculine article, and nothing else. On the other hand, those who regard dies as feminine, use the general argument, that in the ablative the feminine, it acquired use as a feminine in some meanings. Full phrase: ante diem quartum (quintum) Kalendas. A demonstrative is an article in the grammatical terminology of the Romans. et quod deminutio eius diecula sit, non dieculus, ut ait Terentius: Quod tibi addo dieculam. V. autem distinxit, ut A masculino genere unius diei cursum SIGNIFICARE (t), feminino autem temporis spatium; quod nemo servavit. A Catinus masculino genere dicitur et hinc deminutive catillus fit. Sed V. ad  Ciceronem "catinuli" dixit, non catilli. Fr. Naevus generis neutri, sed V. ad Ciceronem "hie naevus." Fr. Antiquissimi tamen et hie gausapes et haec gausapa et hoc gausape et plurale neutri haec gausapa quasi a nominativo hoc gausapum protulisse  inveniuntur V. vero de Lingua Latina-ait,  " talia ex Graeco sumpta ex masculino in femininum  transire et A litera finiri : 6 Ko\^ta unless the genitive is identical with the nomina-  tive, when the ablative ends in i ; an adjective also has the  ablative in i if it stands before a noun which it modifies. The  scientific formulation is that consonant-stems should have  short e in the ablative, and t-stems should have long % : a  status much disturbed by the encroachment of the ^-ending  on the t-ending. c Not all these should, by the ' rule,'  end in i ; for carbo, falx, mons,fons t pons, teges do not have  identical nom. and gen. ; and the nom. of asse is as, very  rarely assis. As to the actual forms of the ablative, igni is  commoner than igne ; orbi, turri,frni, strigili, avi, axi, navi\  said and wrote senatuis, domuis, and jluctuis as the  genitive case of the words senatus ' senate,' domus  ' house,' and Jluctus * wave,* and used senatui, domui,  fiuctui as the dative ; and that they used other simi-  lar words with the corresponding endings.   Fr. 18. Amni was used by Vergil a as ablative of  amnis river, as in  He drifts with the stream of the river. On this point, PLINIO in the same book says: " By the  old writers, whom V. criticizes adversely, all  observance of the rule 6 is disregarded, yet not  utterly. For we still say," says he, " canali ' canal,*  stti ' thirst,' tussi * cough,' febri ' fever * as the abla-  tive forms. But in most words the form has been  changed, and uses the ablative which ends in E : cane ' dog,' orbe 1 circle,' carbone ' charcoal, iurre tower,' falce ' sickle,' igne ' fire,' teste garment,'  fine limit,' monte mountain, fonie spring,* ponte   * bridge,* sirigile * scraper,* tegeie ' mat,' ave ' bird,'  asse ' as,' axe * axle,' nave ' ship,' classe * fleet.' " c   Fr. 19. V., whom Pliny mentions as having  said, in the eleventh book of his treatise addressed to  Cicero " a plantation of trees set in rows rare a 1 in  the country.' Fonteis * springs,' accusative plural spelled  with EIS : " The nouns which gain an I in the genitive  plural before the ending UM," says Pliny, " have the   classi are found in authors of the first century b.c, but are  less common than the forms with e, or are used to satisfy  metrical requirements ; ponti is found once in older Latin ;  monti and fonti are cited by V., ix. 112.   Fr. 19. Instead of the usual locative form ruri. accusativus," inquit Plinius, " per EIS loquetur,  montium monteis ; licet V.," inquit, " exemplis  hanc regulam confutare temptarit istius modi, falcium  falces, non falceis facit, nec has merceis, nec hos axeis  lmtreis ventreis stirpeis urbeis cor&eis 3 vecteis men-  teis. 4 Et tamen manus dat praemissae regulae  ridicule, ut exceptis his nominibus valeat regula."   Fr. Poematorum et in II et in III idem V.  adsidue dicit et his poematis, tarn quam nominativo  hoc poematum sit et non hoc poema. Nam et ad  Ciceronem, horum poematorum et his poematis  oportere dici.   Fr. 22. 1 Git : V. ad Ciceronem XI per omnes  casus id nomen ire dcberc conmeminit ; vulgo autem  hoc gitti dicunt.  Fr. Palpetras per T V. ad Ciceronem dixit. Sed Fabianus de Animalibus primo pal-  pebras per B. Alii dicunt palpetras genas, palpebras  autem ipsos pilos.   3 For curueis. 4 GS. t for inepteis. Fr. Charisius, Inst. Gram. i. 141. 29-31 Keil.  Fr. 22. 1 Charisius, Inst. Gram. Keil.  Fr. Ckarishts, Inst. Gram. Keil.  This EI does not represent an earlier diphthong,  but was often written for a long i after the original diphthong  had become identical in sound with the long i. There are  scattered examples of the ending EIS in the accusative, found  in inscriptions and manuscripts.  accusative in EIS, a like genitive montium * mountains,'  accusative monteis ; although V.," he continues,  " tried to refute this rule by examples of the following  sort : to the genitive fold urn ' sickles * the accusative  is folces and not folceis, nor is the proper spelling  merceis 1 wares, nor axeis axles/ lintreis ' skiffs,*  ventreis * bellies/ stirpeis * stocks/ urbeis ' cities/  corbeis * baskets/ vecteis * levers/ menteis * minds.'  And yet he gives up the fight against the aforesaid  rule in a ridiculous fashion, saying that apart from  these nouns the rule holds. In the second and the third books V.  constantly uses the genitive poematorum poems and  the dative poematis, as though the word were poema-  tum in the nominative and not poema. For in the  eleventh book of the treatise addressed to Cicero he  says that genitive poematorum and dative poematis are  the proper forms to be used. Git * fennel ' a : V. in the eleventh  book of the treatise addressed to Cicero states that  this form ought to be used in all the cases ; but  people quite commonly say gitti in the ablative. V. in the thirteenth book of the treatise  addressed to Cicero used palpetrae, with T. But  Fabianus, a in the first book On Animals, wrote palpe-  brae with B. Others say that palpetrae means the  eyelids, and palpebrae the eyelashes. a Xigella sativa.   Fr. Papirius Fabianus, who wrote on philosophy  and on natural history in the time of Augustus. Oxo : " V. ad Ciceronem olivo  et oxo putat fieri/' inquit Plinius Sermonis Dubii  libro VI.  Indiscriminatim, indiflferenter. V. de  Lingua Latina: Quibus nos in hoc libro,  proinde ut nihil intersit, utemur indiscriminatim,  promisee. Fr. Rure Terentius in Eunucho: Ex meo propinquo rure hoc capio commodi.  Itaque et V. ad Ciceronem " rure veni."   Fr. 27. 1 V. ad Ciceronem:  "ingluvies tori," inquit, " sunt circa gulam, qui  propter pinguedinem fiunt atque interiectas habent  rugas." Sed nunc pro gula positum. Charisins, Inst. Gram. i. 139. 15-16 Keil.  Fr. 25. 1 Nonius Marcellus, de Compendiosa Doctrina,  127. 24-26 M.   Fr. Charisius, Inst. Gram. i. 142. 18-20 Keil,  Fr. 27. 1 Serv. Dan, in Georg. iii. 431. Fr. 24. a Antecedent unknown. b Greek 6£os (neuter,  third decl.), denoting sour wine, and vinegar made therefrom.  Fr. 25. Antecedent unknown. These are examples of rure as a pure  ablative. The continuation is our Fragment 19, in which  examples of rure as a locative are discussed.   Fr. 27. « That is, double chins.  Fr. Ojco, ablative : " V., in the thirteenth  book of the treatise addressed to Cicero, expresses  the opinion that it a is composed of olive-oil and oxos b  * vinegar/ " says Pliny in the sixth book of the treatise  entitled Variations in Speech. Indiscriminaiim means ' without differ-  ence.' V. in the eighteenth book of the treatise  On the Latin Language says : " Which a in this book  we shall use indiscriminatim 1 without distinction/  promiscuously, just as if there were no difference  between them." Fr. The ablative rure is used by Terence in  the Eunuchus a :   I get this comfort from my near-by country-seat.   So also V., in the twenty-second book of the  treatise addressed to Cicero, says : I have come rure from the country Fr. V., in the twenty- third book of the  treatise addressed to Cicero, says : " The ingluvies is  the bulging muscles around the throat, which are  produced by fatness and have creases between  them/* a But now the word is used merely for the  throat. Cum in disciplinas dialecticas induci  atque imbui vellemus, necessus fuit adire atque  cognoscere quas vocant dialectici €itrayu>yas. Turn, quia in primo 7repl a^tw/xarwv discendum, quae  M. V. alias profata, alias proloquia appellat, Com-  mentarium de Proloquiis L. Aelii, docti hominis, qui  magister V.nis fuit, studiose quaesivimus eumque  in Pacis Bibliotheca repertum legimus. (3) Sed in  eo nihil edocenter neque ad instituendum explanate  scriptum est, fecisseque videtur eum librum Aelius  sui magis admonendi quam aliorum docendi gratia. Redimus igitur necessario ad Graecos libros.  Ex quibus accepimus a£ta>/jta esse his verbis (defini-  tum) : XtKTuv avroreXh diro^avTov ovov etf> avra>.  (5) Hoc ego supersedi vertere, quia no vis et incon-  ditis vocibus ntendum fuit, quas pati aures per inso-  lentiam vix possent. Sed M. V. in libro de  Lingua Latina ad Ciceronem quarto vicesimo ex-  peditissime ita finit: Proloquium est sententia in  qua nihil desideratur." Erit autem planius quid istud sit, si exemplum  eius dixerimus. 'A^tw/xa igitur, sive id proloquium  dicere placet, huiuscemodi est : Hannibal Poenus  fuit ; Scipio Numantiam delevit ; Milo caedis  damnatus est ; Neque bonum est voluptas neque  malum ; et omnino quicquid ita dicitur plena  atque perfecta verborum sententia, ut id necesse sit  aut verum aut falsum esse, id a dialecticis d£«o/m   Fr. 28. 1 Aulas Gellius, Nodes Atticae, xvi. 8. 1-14 ;  Rolfe's text, in the Loeb Classical Library, Rolfe's translation, in the Loeb Classical Library,  with modifications. b In Vespasian's Temple of Peace, in  the Forum Pacis. c Page 75 Funaioli. When I wished to be introduced to  the science of logic and instructed in it, it was neces-  sary to take up and learn what the logicians call  curaycoyac, or ' introductory exercises.' (2) Then  because at first I had to learn about axioms, which  Marcus V. calls, now prof ata or ' propositions,' and  now proloqitia or ' forthright statements,' I sought  diligently for the Commentary on Proloquia of Lucius  Aelius, a learned man, who was the teacher of V.;  and finding it in the Library of Peace, 5 I read it. But I found in it nothing that was written to  instruct or to make the matter clear ; Aelius c seems to  have made that book rather as suggestions for his own  use than for the purpose of teaching others. I therefore of necessity returned to my Greek books. From these I obtained this definition of an  axiom: a proposition complete in itself, declared with reference to itself only. This I have forborne to turn into Latin, since it would have been  necessary to use new and as yet uncoined words, such as, from their strangeness, the ear could hardly endure. But Marcus V., in his treatise On the Latin Language, dedicated  to Cicerone, thus defines the word very briefly: A proloquium is a statement in which nothing is lacking. But his definition will be clearer if I give an  example. An axiom, then, or a forthright statement, if you prefer, is of this kind: Hannibal was  a Carthaginian; 11 Scipio destroyed Numantia; Milo was found guilty of murder. Pleasure is  neither a good nor an evil; and in general any saying which is a full and perfect thought, so expressed  in words that it is necessarily either true or false, is called by the logicians an axiom; by Marcus V., appellatum est, a M. V., sicuti dixi, proloquium,  a M. autem Cicerone pronuntiatum, quo ille tamen vocabulo tantisper uti se adtestatus est, "quoad melius," inquit, "invenero." Sed quod Graeci crvvrjfxfxevov aftw^ta dicunt, id  alii nostrorum adiunctum, alii conexum dixerunt. Id conexum tale est: Si Plato ambulat, Plato movetur; Si dies est, sol super terras est. Item quod  illi o-vfjLTreTrXeyfiei'ov, nos vel coniunctum vel copulatum dicimus, quod est eiusdemmodi: P. Scipio,  Pauli filius, et bis consul fuit et triumphavit et censura  functus est et collega in censura L. Mummi fuit. In omni autem coniuncto si unum est mendacium,  etiamsi cetera vera sunt, totum esse mendacium  dicitur. Nam si ad ea omnia quae de Scipione illo vera  dixi addidero Et Hannibalem in Africa superavit, quod est falsum, universa quoque ilia quae coniuncte  dicta sunt, propter hoc unum quod falsum accesserit,  quia simul dicentur, vera non erunt.  Est item aliud quod Graeci Siefrvy/itvov a£iw/xa,  nos disiunctum dicimus. Id huiuscemodi est : Aut  malum est voluptas aut bonum, aut neque bonum  neque malum est. Omnia autem quae disiunguntur pugnantia esse inter sese oportet, eorumquc opposita, quae dvriKd^va Graeci dicunt, ea quoque  ipsa inter se adversa esse. Ex omnibus quae dis-   d Tusc. Disp. i. 7. 14. Two connected statements, of  which the second follows as the result of the first. f This  is the younger Africanus, who destroyed Carthage in 146 b.c;  it was the older Africanus who defeated Hannibal at Zama. FRAGMENTS as I have said, a proloquium or 'forthright statement’; but by Marcus Cicero d a pronuntiatum  or  pronouncement/ a word however which he  declared that he used only until I can find a better  one. But what the Greeks call aicharmus. Marco Terenzio Varrone. Varrone. Keywords: centro di studi varroniani, idioma, idiom, lingua latina, lingua anglica, Lazio, Lazini, la lingua del Lazio, Varrone, Prisciano, Donato, Girolamo, Giulio Cesare – Refs.: The H. P. Grice Papers, Bancroft, MS – Luigi Speranza, “Grice e Varrone: semiotica filosofica” – The Swimming-Pool Library, Villa Speranza, Liguria. Varrone.